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Kenyatta University Institutional Repository is a digital archive that collects, preserves and disseminates scholarly outputs of the Institution
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Metabolites and Hormones as Indicators of Postpartum Reproductive Efficiency of Supplemented Pasture- Based Friesian Dairy Cows at Kalro, Lanet, Nakuru County,Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2025-10) Indetie, Annah Hoka
High-yielding dairy cows experience a phase of substantial tissue catabolism in the
early postpartum period due to a negative nutritional balance that is partially brought
on by inadequate fodder quality and quantity. A significant obstacle to increasing cow
production is the requirement for feed ingredients during late pregnancy to sustain the
growth of the fetus and lactation following parturition. Metabolic signals and
regulatory hormones are linked to the mechanism for the restart of ovulation. The
ability of metabolites and hormone levels to predict nutritional condition and
postpartum reproductive efficiency in dairy cows in Kenya is unknown. Programs for
breeding and feed formulation may benefit from this data. The goal of the study was
to determine the role of hormones and feed metabolites as markers of postpartum
reproductive efficiency. Twenty cows were supplemented with total mixed ration feed
blocks (TMR) twice daily while grazing on Elba rhodes grass for eight hours/day.
Ten in-calf cows served as the control; they grazed on Elba rhodes grass for eight
hours without supplementation. Body condition scoring was done every fifteen days.
Gestation period, calf sex, milk production, and days to postpartum heat were
recorded. Analysis of feeds' chemical composition and digestibility were conducted.
Skimmed milk was prepared and kept at 4°C until time for laboratory analysis.
Jugular venipuncture was used to obtain blood samples into ethylene diamine
tetraacetate polystyrene tubes. The blood was spun at 1500 rpm for 15 minutes to
release plasma which was stored at -20°C until time for laboratory analysis.
Radioimmunoassay was used to track postpartum ovarian activity using skimmed
milk. Data was analyzed using statistical analysis system (2010). The results showed
that neutral detergent fibre of feeds used in this study ranged from 39.5±0.04 % to
41.7±6.7%. Nutrient components that highly positively correlated with metabolisable
energy were protein, methionine, and lysine. Supplementation significantly influenced
(p<0.05) metabolite and hormonal levels. Body condition score at calving was higher
among test cows (2.9±0.1) than the control (2.5±0.1). Test cows produced
significantly higher percentage (80%) of female calves than the control (20%). The
test cows took significantly shorter gestation period (278.4±1.0 days) than the control
(284.1±1.1 days). The test cows registered higher mean daily milk yield (9.1 L) than
the control (5.3 L). Test cows cycled earlier (50.4±0.90 days) than the control (62.7
±2.0 days). The test cows had significantly less number of insemination to conception
(1.35) than the control cows (2.7). Insulin like growth factor-1(IGF) and insulin
reduced with advanced pregnancy, with the test cows having significantly higher
values than the control. Glucose decreased with advanced pregnancy reaching
threshold day 15 postpartum with the test cows having higher values. Commencement
of luteal activity concided with low levels of non-esterified fatty acids (NEFA) and β hydroxybutyrate (BHB). Luteal activity progesterone was positively highly correlated
to IGF-1(p < 0.001, r2=0.672), and glucose (p < 0.001, r2=0.634) but highly
negatively correlated to NEFA (P=0.001, r2 = -0.689) and BHB (P=0.001, r2=0.679).
Glucose, NEFA, IGF-1, and BHB are good indicators of postpartum reproductive
efficiency. Data generated from this study is useful in reducing calving interval.
Supplementation of in calf cows with quality feed is recommended to reduce calving
intervals.
Modelling Diabetes and Its Complication in a Resource Constrained Setting
(Kenyatta University, 2025-10) Andima, Robert Nyatundo
Diabetes mellitus is a chronic non-communicable disease resulting from the body’s
inability to metabolise excess glucose due to impaired insulin secretion or function.
It has become a major global burden, with the World Health Organization (WHO)
reporting that non-communicable diseases account for 71% of all annual deaths, 85%
of which occur in low- and middle-income countries. In this study, the dynamics of
diabetes are examined under the influence of strained healthcare resources and
patient response behaviour. Two compartmental mathematical models are formulated
to describe the transitions between susceptible, diabetic, and hospitalized
populations. The first model assumes a constant hospitalization rate, while the
second introduces a variable hospitalisation rate that depends on the system’s
carrying capacity and per capita hospitalization rate. The basic reproduction number
and equilibrium states are derived and analysed to assess disease persistence
conditions. Numerical simulations using the explicit Runge-Kutta (4,5) method in
MATLAB illustrate the system’s behaviour under varying parameters. The results
show that enhancing lifestyle quality among susceptible increases their stability
while reducing diabetes prevalence; a higher treatment rate among diabetics raises
the hospitalized proportion, whereas increasing the carrying capacity diminishes
hospitalization levels.
Spatial Dimension and Implications of Ethnic and Socio-Economic Segregation in Nairobi City County, Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2024-09) Nthiwa, Alex Ngolanye
Cities serve as economic engines and cultural hubs, yet their dynamism can obscure deep-seated inequalities. Ethnic segregation - the physical separation of different ethnicities in distinct neighborhoods, and socio-economic segregation - the widened gap between wealthy and disadvantaged people, are becoming increasingly prominent features of urban landscapes worldwide. These interconnected phenomena present significant challenges for government administrators, urban managers, policymakers and planners who must grapple with their complex implications for social cohesion, economic vibrancy, and overall urban sustainability. In Kenya, segregation manifests in unequal access to employment, education, housing, infrastructure, and opportunities. Nairobi, the capital city of Kenya, exemplifies this trend with a growing wealth gap between affluent and disadvantaged areas, alongside emerging ethnic segregation amongst the Kamba, Luhyia, Kikuyu, Kisii, and Luo communities. With limited research addressing this pressing issue, this study adopts a mixed methods case study research design to analyze the spatial patterns of ethnic and socio-economic segregation. Utilizing the 2019 census and spatial data from the Kenya National Bureau of Statistics, the study triangulates quantitative analysis with qualitative data gleaned from Focus Group Discussions and Key Informant Interviews. The study utilizes various analytical tools, including descriptive statistics in SPSS, Anselin's Local Moran I geostatistic in ArcGIS, and the Index of Dissimilarity in Geo-Segregation Analyzer and STATA. The findings reveal a stark socio-spatial stratification of Nairobi City County based on ethnicity. The Index of Dissimilarity confirms the existence of ethnic segregation among the five largest ethnic groups in Nairobi City County, with spatial analysis further pinpointing specific clustering patterns. Local Moran’s I spatial analysis showed Kamba to cluster in areas such as Embakasi, Tassia, Mukuru, Nyayo and Umoja and Kikuyu in Kahawa West, Zimmerman, Roysambu, Kasarani and Mwiki. The Luo showed significant clustering in areas such as Kariobangi, Lucky Summer, Kayole, Komarock, Kibera, Mathare, and Korogocho while Luhya exhibited concentrations in locations like Kangemi and Kawangware with Kisii dominating Utawala, Savannah, and Viwandani. The study finds clear link between ethnic segregation and socio-economic factors in Nairobi, with residents choosing neighborhoods based on shared similarities like religion, marital status, education, and employment. The study concludes that identifying spatially segregated areas can help policymakers and urban managers strategically allocate resources and interventions to areas in greatest need for effective urban transformation. Further, by acknowledging the complexities and interconnectedness of ethnic and socio-economic segregation, we can move towards creating a city where all residents have the opportunity to thrive. The study recommends that, Nairobi City County government should prioritize robust urban planning frameworks recognizing the crucial complexity involved in implementing diverse laws and policies governing urban planning and development at both national and county levels.
Firm Characteristics, Inflation and Yield of Unit Trusts in Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2025-11) Akama Thaddeus Onyinkwa
investors expect money market unit trusts to deliver above-market returns through professional fund management. However, persistent underperformance compared to benchmarks has eroded investor confidence in Kenya, raising concerns about management efficiency, cost structures, and institutional ownership models, while saddling investors with diminished portfolios and missed investment opportunities. This underperformance can be attributed to various factors, including inappropriate benchmarks, high operational costs, and conflicts of interest. This study examined how firm characteristics—institutional affiliation, benchmarks, and management fees—influence the yield of money market unit trusts in Kenya, with inflation as a moderating variable. The research was guided by a conceptual framework that posited relationships between these variables. The research was guided by Transaction Cost Theory, Deming Benchmark Theory, Cost-Plus Pricing Theory, Keynes’s Liquidity Preference Theory and Inflation Quantity Theory. The empirical review of existing literature informed the study's hypotheses and results interpretation. The study adopted an explanatory research design grounded in positivism philosophy, analyzing panel data from 2013 to 2022. From 19 money market unit trusts licensed by the Capital Markets Authority (CMA), 18 funds with complete data were purposively selected (96.6% coverage), generating 280 firm-year observations. Secondary data were obtained from CMA, Central Bank of Kenya, Kenya National Bureau of Statistics, and unit trust performance reports. Diagnostic tests included normality (Shapiro-Wilk), heteroscedasticity (Breusch-Pagan), multicollinearity (VIF), autocorrelation (Wooldridge), stationarity (Levin-Lin-Chu), and model specification (Hausman) tests. Random Effects panel regression models were employed. Ethical clearance was obtained from Kenyatta University and NACOSTI, ensuring data integrity and confidentiality. Results revealed independent funds yielded 1.6189 percentage points higher than bank-affiliated funds (p<0.001), while insurance-affiliated funds yielded 1.4958 percentage points higher (p=0.019). Bank deposit rates (β=1.29, p=0.009), 182-day Treasury Bills (β=1.00, p=0.001), and 364-day Treasury Bills (β=1.99, p=0.003) significantly positively affected yields. Management fees negatively impacted yields (β=-0.62, p=0.038). Inflation demonstrated direct positive effects (β=0.34, p=0.001) and significant moderating effects: Affiliation*Inflation (β=-0.07, p=0.015), Benchmarks*Inflation (β=0.14, p<0.001), Management Fee*Inflation (β=0.14, p<0.001). The moderation model's R² (8.02%) nearly doubled individual models' explanatory power (4.12%), confirming inflation's meaningful moderating role. The study concludes that institutional affiliation, benchmark choice, management fees, and inflation jointly determine unit trust performance. Recommendations include: CMA should regulate bank-fund conflicts of interest and implement fee transparency requirements; fund managers should optimize institutional structures, select appropriate benchmarks, reduce fees, and develop inflation-responsive strategies; investors should prioritize insurance-affiliated or independent funds, assess inflation-adjusted returns, and evaluate fee-performance relationships. Future research should extend analysis to equity/balanced/bond funds across East African markets, examine additional moderators (interest rate volatility, exchange rates, GDP growth), and employ alternative models (dynamic panel GMM, quantile regression, structural equation modeling) to enhance methodological rigor
The Impact of Production Risk on the Choice of the Optimal Level of Inputs, Adoption, and Welfare of Small Holder Intergrated Agriculture Aquaculture Farmers in Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2025-10) Awuor Fonda Jane
Integrated Agriculture Aquaculture has been promoted in Kenya as a climate-smart approach capable of increasing productivity, stabilizing incomes, and improving the welfare of smallholder farmers. Despite these potential benefits, adoption remains low, largely because farmers operate under significant production risk. This study examined how production risk influences optimal input-use decisions, adoption, and welfare outcomes, measured through productivity and household income, among 427 smallholder farmers across Busia, Kakamega, Siaya and Nyeri counties. Using the Just–Pope stochastic production framework, the Heckman selection model, and the Endogenous Switching Regression model, the study estimated the risk properties of key production inputs used in integrated agriculture aquaculture systems, analyzed how risk shapes adoption choices, and evaluated the effect of production risk on productivity and income variability. Results from the first objective revealed that inputs have distinct risk characteristics which influence how farmers allocate resources. Among adopters, seeds and organic fertilizer increase output variability due to the complexity of managing integrated systems, while non-adopters experience risk-reducing effects from labor, chemical fertilizer, and organic fertilizer. Overall, adopters face lower total variance elasticity, showing that integrated aquaculture stabilizes production by diversifying output streams. Results from the second objective showed that production risk emerges as a major determinant of adoption. Higher expected profits encourage farmers to adopt and intensify integrated agriculture aquaculture use, whereas greater profit variability and downside risk significantly discourage adoption. Adoption is further shaped by a farmer’s education level, labor availability, training, land ownership status, topography, irrigation access, and distance to markets, with awareness consistently appearing as one of the strongest predictors of adoption. Objective three showed that integrated agriculture aquaculture adoption significantly enhances productivity, with adopters achieving higher Interspatial Total Factor Productivity due to more effective use of seed, labor, organic fertilizer, capital, and irrigation. Non-adopters would experience higher productivity if they adopted integrated aquaculture, as evidenced by a negative and significant treatment effect showing that they forgo productivity gains by not adopting. Results from the fourth objective showed that adoption also improves household income and reduces its variability, driven by diversified revenue streams, nutrient recycling efficiencies, and improved labor utilization. Factors such as education, credit access, labor availability, organic fertilizer use, capital investment, irrigation access, and closer market proximity further increase income among adopters. These findings indicate that production risk is a central but often overlooked determinant of farmer behavior, influencing both the decision to adopt integrated agriculture aquaculture and the welfare gains that follow. Although integrated agriculture aquaculture clearly improves productivity and income stability, farmers’ risk perceptions continue to limit widespread adoption. To address these constraints, the study recommends targeted risk-aware interventions. These include training to manage inputs that are risk-increasing within integrated systems, improved extension services that focus specifically on risk mitigation, better market access, and tailored credit products for integrated farming. Promoting enterprise diversification (fish, crop, livestock) and developing financial safety nets such as insurance or guarantee schemes would further enhance the stability and effectiveness of integrated agriculture aquaculture