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Kenyatta University Institutional Repository is a digital archive that collects, preserves and disseminates scholarly outputs of the Institution
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Clinical, Inflammatory, and Serological Markers among Individuals with and without Post-COVID-19 Condition in Kenyatta University Community, Nairobi City County, Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2025-11) Theuri, Martin Wahogo
Post-COVID-19 condition (PCC) is defined by persistent clinical manifestations after acute coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Approximately 10–20% of people across different populations are reported to have the condition. Inflammation is considered a key mechanism that drives the protracted disease. The titers of antibodies produced in response to severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) are also reported to remain high in those with persisting COVID-19 symptoms. As an emerging disease, the clinical, inflammatory, and serological markers of PCC remain to be well-defined. In Kenya, patients’ reports of PCC have been captured in the local media, but scientific studies on this health conundrum are lacking. Biomarkers of inflammation, such as interleukin (IL)-6 and C-reactive protein (CRP), are upregulated in many cases of PCC and could be useful as diagnostic markers. This study aimed to determine the clinical, inflammatory, and serological markers among individuals with and without PCC in Kenyatta University community setting. The study employed an analytical cross-sectional design and was undertaken at the Directorate of Kenyatta University Health Services from April to July 2023. Purposive sampling approach was used to recruit the participants. A questionnaire was utilized to gather demographic and clinical data of the participants. Inflammatory and serological data were obtained from the participants’ serum through enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (IL-6, Quantikine Human IL-6 Immunoassay; CRP, CRP ELISA kit; and anti-SARS-CoV-2 immunoglobulin G [IgG], Human SARS-CoV-2 Spike (Trimer) IgG ELISA). Relevant statistical tests in SPSS Version 18 (IBM Corp, Armonk, NY) were used to undertake data analysis. The t-test compared continuous variables, such as number of symptoms and levels of IL-6, CRP, and anti-SARS-CoV-2 IgG between the groups exhibiting and not exhibiting PCC symptoms. A p-value less than 0.05 was used as an indicator of statistical significance. Overall, 189 participants (female, 50.8%; mean age, 23.46 years) were enrolled. The prevalence of PCC was 30% (n=12), with six participants (50%) reporting persistent COVID-19 symptoms and seven participants (58.3%) reporting new-onset symptoms. The most reported persisting symptoms were cough (n=3, 33.3%), sore throat (n=2, 22.2%), and runny/stuffy nose (n=2, 22.2%), whereas the most common new symptoms included fatigue (n=3, 16.7%), loss of smell/taste (n=3, 16.7%), and joint pain (n=2, 11.1%). No significant differences in IL-6 (p-value = 0.90), CRP (p-value = 0.28), and anti-SARS-CoV-2 IgG (p-value = 0.08) were found between the individuals with and without PCC. The number and duration of COVID-19 manifestations were significantly higher in individuals with PCC than in those without the condition (p-values = 0.01 and 0.02, respectively). Based on these findings, it can be deduced that those who present with more COVID-19 symptoms and prolonged symptoms may be at a higher risk of PCC. It is recommended that public health surveillance for PCC in the general population be done to identify and sensitize those with the condition on how to manage it. Further research using well-designed prospective studies should be conducted to elucidate reliable biomarkers of PCC for better diagnosis and management.
Assessing Citizen Engagement in Enhancing Counter-Terrorism Operations in Lamu County, Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2025-11) Murerwa, Humphrey
Kenyans have been living in perpetual fear of where and when the next terror attack might strike. But citizen engagement has been lauded as an approach that ensures success of programmes and counter-terrorism operations can be one of them. Therefore, the study undertook to assess citizen engagement in enhancing the counter-terrorism operations in Lamu county, Kenya. The objectives utilised were: to examine the role of local leaders and community groups in fostering citizen collaboration in counter-terrorism efforts, to assess community awareness levels regarding counter-terrorism policies and initiatives, to evaluate the communication channels used between citizens and security agencies for counter-terrorism information sharing. The Social Contract and Community Policing Theories, were used. The study utilized a mixed-methods research design, conducted in Lamu County with a target population of adult residents. A multistage sampling approach was employed, starting by clustering the study area into regions. Purposive sampling was then used to select the specific constituencies and wards, after which the population was divided into three homogeneous clusters: village elders and nyumba kumi elders were purposively sampled, the general public of the local community members were systematically random sampled. Using questionnaires and interview guides, the researcher collected data for this study. Thematic analysis was applied to the qualitative data and the descriptive statistics, including means and averages, were used for the quantitative data, which was also visualized in pie charts, tables and graphs. The findings of the study were: local leaders are crucial for counter-terrorism, providing intelligence and building partnerships, the nyumba kumi initiative, a grassroots neighbourhood watch, is the top counter-terrorism program, bridging the intelligence gap, security barazas are key forums that build trust and cooperation between citizens and police, a lack of training for local leaders compromises security and highlights the need for capacity-building and that multiple communication channels like the chiefs, elders, informal networks and religious leaders form a trust-based security network. The study concluded that, the community-based strategies, led by local leaders, are indispensable for counter-terrorism, building security through trust and collaboration, despite the success of Nyumba Kumi and Security Barazas, a lack of training for community leaders limits their full potential and that Lamu's counter-terrorism success depends on a diverse, trust-based network of communication channels where the community co-produces safety. The study recommended that, to sustain security, formally recognize and strengthen the roles of local leaders and community groups, a structured training program for Village Elders and Nyumba Kumi Leaders is recommended to improve intelligence handling skills and that security agencies should integrate diverse communication channels into a "network of networks" to ensure intelligence flow and reinforce the community's partnership.
Gender Implications of COVID-19 Pandemic Containment Measures among Informal Market Traders in Elwak Market, Mandera County, Keny
(Kenyatta University, 2025-11) Ali, Adan Abdullahi
This study examined the gendered implications of COVID-19 containment measures among informal market traders at Elwak Market in Mandera County, Kenya. The study was guided by four objectives: (1) to establish the COVID-19 containment measures adopted among women and men’s informal businesses; (2) to evaluate the effects of these measures on their businesses; (3) to examine the coping strategies employed by traders to address pandemic-related challenges; and (4) to propose gender-responsive programs and policies to support post-pandemic recovery. Guided by Feminist Economic and Structural Inertia theories, the research employed a descriptive design involving 85 randomly selected traders and 12 purposively sampled key informants. Data collection tools included questionnaires, interview guides, and focus group discussion guides. Quantitative data was analyzed using SPSS v25, while qualitative data underwent thematic content analysis. Findings reveal significant gender disparities: 77% of female traders lacked formal education compared to 33% of males, and women were more likely to close their businesses during the pandemic. Despite this, women demonstrated stronger saving cultures through chamas. Both genders showed low preparedness for the pandemic, but women faced heightened burdens due to increased care responsibilities at home. The pandemic disrupted both domestic (private) and economic (public) spheres, disproportionately affecting women and underscoring the need for gender-sensitive recovery strategies. Key conclusions suggest that informal women traders were more vulnerable to economic shocks due to their limited access to resources and support systems. The study recommends targeted interventions, including capacity building in financial literacy and business management, provision of interest-free loans, support for savings groups, and gender-responsive policy frameworks to enhance resilience and accelerate recovery.
Financial Inclusion and Access to Credit among Women-Owned Small and Medium Enterprises in Nakuru County, Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2025-12) Bett, Obadiah
County governments in Kenya are mandated to promote entrepreneurship, strengthen financial systems, and support inclusive economic growth through devolved functions. Central to this mandate is improving access to credit for small and medium enterprises (SMEs), which constitute a backbone of local economies. In Kenya, women-owned SMEs continue to face difficulties in obtaining affordable and sustainable credit, with Nakuru County being no exception. This study examined the effect of financial inclusion on access to credit among women-owned SMEs in Nakuru County, focusing on four key dimensions: availability of financial services, financial literacy, proximity to financial institutions, and digital financial platforms. The study covered the period 2020–2024 and was anchored on the Financial Intermediation Theory, Resource-Based View Theory, Credit Rationing Theory, Technology Acceptance Model, and Pecking Order Theory of Finance. A descriptive research design was adopted, targeting 1,214 registered women-owned SMEs in Nakuru County, from which a sample of 301 firms was selected using simple random sampling. The units of observation were women entrepreneurs actively managing these enterprises. Both primary and secondary data were utilized. Primary data were collected using structured questionnaires, while secondary data were obtained from county government reports, institutional publications, and financial surveys. A pilot study was conducted among 10 SMEs in Nakuru Town to pretest the research instruments. Reliability was assessed through Cronbach’s Alpha Coefficient, while validity was established through content and criterion evaluation. Diagnostic tests including normality, multicollinearity, heteroscedasticity, linearity, and stationarity were carried out to ensure robustness of the regression model. Data were analyzed using SPSS, applying both descriptive statistics (means, standard deviations, and frequencies) and inferential techniques (Pearson’s correlation and multiple regression analysis). The regression analysis revealed that availability of financial services (p < 0.05) and financial literacy (p < 0.05) had statistically significant positive effects on access to credit, showing that reliable and affordable financial services, combined with entrepreneurial knowledge, improve borrowing outcomes. Proximity to financial institutions was negatively related but significant (p < 0.05), indicating that physical distance and high transaction costs constrained women’s ability to secure loans. Digital financial platforms exhibited a positive and significant effect (p < 0.05), demonstrating that mobile banking, digital credit, and online transactions reduced barriers to credit access. The study concludes that while improvements in service availability, financial literacy, and digital adoption enhance women entrepreneurs’ borrowing capacity, challenges related to geographical proximity continue to limit inclusivity. It is recommended that financial institutions and policymakers expand outreach programs, embed literacy training within SME support schemes, leverage digital platforms for inclusive credit scoring, and reduce spatial and cost-related barriers through agency banking and fintech partnerships. The study also calls on county governments, regulators, and development partners to implement gender-responsive financial frameworks tailored to women-owned SMEs. Ethical principles including informed consent, confidentiality, and voluntary participation were fully observed throughout the study.
Health and Safety Risks Associated with Construction of Skyscrapers in Nairobi City County, Kenya
(Kenyatta University, 2025-11) Ogaso, Peter O.
Skyscrapers are key components of development in a city or town. Since land in Nairobi's central business district and its environs is a very valuable commodity, skyscrapers respond to the need to maximize income that can be derived from a given piece of land in prime locations, leading to an increase in skyscrapers. Health1 and risks in construction1 of skyscrapers in1 Kenya is1 an issue1 of interest to the The1 practitioners, 1 industrialists, consumers, and1 the1 government. A literature review on health and safety in construction reveals that limited information is documented on health and safety risks associated with skyscraper construction in Nairobi. determine health and safety risks associated with objectives of1 and1 this study1 were to1 the construction of skyscrapers, determine the factors influencing the implementation1of health1and safety measures, and lastly to assess the health management and11 control strategies employed in the construction of safety risk1 skyscrapers1 used1 in Nairobi1 City1 County. A descriptive cross-sectional study design was utilized, in which five skyscrapers under construction at various stages in Nairobi City County were purposively selected. A total sample size of 265 respondents from a sampling frame of 790 skyscraper construction workers. Proportionate1 sampling1 was to sample a specific number of respondents11in the five skyscrapers under construction. Semi—structured questionnaires administered through the Open Data Kit platform were used for data collection. The data were analyzed using Stata version 17, and frequencies and percentages were used to describe the data. Ordinal logistic regression was used to identify the predictors. Results show that Unsafe handling of machinery and equipment, and of electricity, were the likely health and safety risk factors during the construction of skyscrapers. A significant proportion of respondents in the survey reported unlikely occurrences of multiple types of risk factors, such as falling objects, failure to use PPE, working at height, falling from a height, and unprotected edges. Health and safety risk occurrence was statistically associated with gender (Fisher's exact p=0.008) and age (Fisher's exact p=0.004). The study established that pressure from clients was the primary reason for implementing health and safety measures in the construction of skyscrapers, while reducing accidents was the least important. Reducing accident occurrence was the least likely factor workers considered when accounting for factors determining health and safety measures. The study concluded that 77.7% of risk management strategies were appropriately implemented, while 22.3% were not in the skyscrapers under construction. Finally, to ensure risk management and control strategies are fully employed, the study recommended that regular safety inspections and audits be conducted on skyscraper construction sites to reduce the health and safety burden.