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Persistent and Circulating Plasmodium falciparum dhfr and dhps Mutations in Busia County, Western Kenya
(Pathogens, 2026-02) Ndung’u, Loise; Thiong’o, Kelvin; Karani, Lewis; Gitahi, Stephen; Kimani, Francis; Ngugi, Mathew Piero; Kiboi, Daniel
Malaria in pregnancy remains a major driver of poor maternal and neonatal health outcomes in sub-Saharan Africa. For decades, intermittent preventive treatment in pregnancy (IPTp), with sulphadoxine-pyrimethamine (SP), has mitigated malaria-associated health risks, but concerns have been raised regarding accumulated Plasmodium falciparum dihydrofolate reductase (dhfr) and dihydropteroate synthase (dhps) mutations on the efficacy of SP. Western Kenya, including Busia County, is a high malaria transmission setting where molecular surveillance of dhfr and dhps mutations remains limited. This study assessed the prevalence and haplotype structure of dhfr and dhps mutations in P. falciparum isolates from Busia County, Kenya. A total of 66 samples of P. falciparum isolates collected from patients attending Matayos Sub-County Hospital between November 2024 and January 2025 were analysed. PCR amplification and Sanger sequencing targeted dhfr codons C50R, N51I, C59R, S108N/T, I164L, and dhps codons I431V, S436A/F, A437G, K540E, A581G, and A613S/T to determine mutation frequencies, haplotypes, and combined dhps and dhfr haplotype profiles. High frequencies of dhfr and dhps mutations were observed across the parasite isolates. The most common dhfr substitutions included N51I (85.2%) and C59R (75.4%), while S108N (32.8%) and S108T (19.7%) were detected at lower frequencies. Dhfr haplotypes identified included N51I + C59R, N51I + C59R + S108N, and a N51I + C59R + S108T + I164L variant. The I164L mutation was detected at a frequency of 18.0% and was observed exclusively on a non-canonical S108T background (19.7%). Dhps haplotypes were dominated by A437G (92.3%), K540E (40%) alone, and the A437G + K540E double mutant. Combined dhfr and dhps haplotype analyses revealed circulation of classical dhfr triple-mutant (N51I + C59R + S108N) backgrounds with dhps A437G. Quintuple haplotypes (dhfr N51I + C59R + S108T + I164L with dhps A437G) and rare complex haplotypes incorporating both I164L and K540E or I164L and S436F were also detected. These findings indicate the persistence and circulation of both canonical and non-canonical dhfr and dhps haplotypes in P. falciparum isolates from Busia County. This study highlights the need for continuous molecular and phenotypic surveillance to clarify the functional and epidemiological significance of parasites carrying S108T and I164L mutations, and to inform IPT policy.
Multimodal Pedagogical Skills of Kenyan English Secondary School Teachers
(African Journal of Advanced Arts and Humanities, 2026-03) Midigo, Jackton Otieno; Cherop, Kapkwomu Charles
This study investigated morphophonological adaptation of Luganda nouns into Kupsabiny, a Nilotic language spoken in Kapchorwa District, Eastern Uganda. Although lexical borrowing is widespread in multilingual contexts, little research has examined the interaction between Luganda and Kupsabiny despite Luganda’s growing linguistic influence. The study aimed to identify the morphophonological processes involved in adapting Luganda nouns into Kupsabiny, focusing on how morphological affixation interacts with phonological adjustments to align borrowed nouns with Kupsabiny’s linguistic structure. A qualitative descriptive research design was employed, using semi-structured interviews and focus group discussions to collect natural speech data from twenty-one purposively selected native Kupsabiny speakers aged between 18 and 50 years. Data were analyzed within the framework of Optimality Theory. The findings revealed that Kupsabiny assimilates Luganda nouns through affixation and phonological modifications such as vowel harmony, tone adjustment, epenthesis, and consonant substitution. These processes are governed by markedness constraints that favor open syllable structures (CV) and restrict consonant clusters. The study concludes that morphological and phonological mechanisms in Kupsabiny operate interdependently in integrating borrowed forms. Overall, the findings highlight a systematic adaptation process that enables Kupsabiny to maintain structural integrity while accommodating lexical influence from a dominant language like Luganda.
The Role of GIZS Community Engagement For Enhancement of Peace Building in Informal Settlement
(Journal of African Interdisciplinary Studies (JAIS), 2026-02) Murithi, Eve Mwende; Onyango, Evans Odhiambo
This study investigates the critical role of the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit's (GIZ) community engagement strategies in enhancing peacebuilding within Nairobi's volatile informal settlements, such as Kibera and Mathare. These settlements are characterized by endemic conflict driven by resource scarcity, ethnic tensions, and weak state presence. The study argues that GIZ's participatory, bottom-up approach is instrumental in mitigating these drivers of violence by establishing local peace committees, facilitating inter-communal dialogue, and supporting joint livelihood projects. By empowering residents to become active agents in conflict resolution and fostering collaborative problem-solving, GIZ's interventions help to rebuild trust, transform competitive relationships into cooperative partnerships, and strengthen social cohesion. The findings conclude that this model of deep, locally-led engagement not only addresses immediate security concerns but also creates a sustainable and resilient framework for peace, underscoring the imperative for development interventions to be anchored in grassroots empowerment for effective and durable peacebuilding in Nairobi's most vulnerable urban communities.
From Arrears to Earnings: Examining the Impact of Credit Risk on Kenyan Insurers
(IJARKE, 2026-01) Gitau, Kimacia; Wamugo, Lucy; Omagwa, Job
The insurance industry is one of the non-bank financial industry with important roles in the economic sector of a country and contributes critically and uniquely both in developing and developed countries. However, in Kenya, poor profitability was a primary factor in the deterioration and eventual closing down of at least 9 insurance companies over the past decade. This investigation aimed to ascertain the effect of credit risk on profitability of Insurance firms in Kenya. The theoretical framework incorporated modern portfolio theory, extreme value theory and institutional theory. The study employed positivist philosophical approach and explanatory research methodology. The research encompassed a comprehensive examination of all 55 insurance entities registered with the Insurance Regulatory Authority in Kenya through 31st December 2022. Audited financial reports accessible through the Insurance Regulatory Authority and Association of Kenya Insurers digital platforms provided secondary data spanning 2014 through 2022. The Central Bank of Kenya and Kenya National Bureau of Standards supplied supplementary information. Analytical procedures encompassed descriptive statistics, panel regression methodology and Pearson's Product-Moment Correlation technique. Credit risk was found to have a negative and statistically significant effect on ROE, and a negative but insignificant effect on ROA. This suggests that an increase in unpaid or delayed premiums erodes firm profitability, especially from a shareholder value perspective. As a result, the study recommends that Insurance firms in Kenya should enhance their credit risk evaluation processes and underwriting standards, particularly for policyholders, corporate clients, and investment portfolios, to minimize defaults and claim-related financial losses.
From Solvency to Success: How Liquidity Risk Shapes Profitability in Kenyan Insurers
(IJARKE, 2026-01) Gitau, Kimacia; Wamugo, Lucy; Omagwa, Job
Despite the Kenya insurance industry recording consistent growth in premium income, over the period 2014 to 2022, performance data documented by the Insurance Regulatory Authority and the Association of Kenya Insurers indicates that profitability, quantified by Return on Assets and Return on Equity, has been on the decline over the period, though experiencing a spike in 2019. In June 2013 the Insurance Regulatory Authority established a comprehensive set of prudential risk management guidelines for the insurance industry in response to the failure and eventual liquidation of at least 9 insurance firms prior to 2013, primarily due to poor profitability. Nevertheless, despite insurance organizations adopting these regulatory measures, profitability continues demonstrating a downward trajectory throughout the specified period. Consequently, the empirical relationship between Liquidity risk exposure and insurance firm profitability remains theoretically un-established. This investigation aimed to ascertain the effect of liquidity risk on the profitability of insurance companies operating in Kenya. The theoretical framework incorporated modern portfolio theory, extreme value theory, agency theory, institutional theory and stakeholder theory. The study employed positivist philosophical approach and explanatory research methodology. The research encompassed a comprehensive examination of all 55 insurance entities registered with the Insurance Regulatory Authority in Kenya through 31st December 2022. Audited financial reports accessible through the Insurance Regulatory Authority and Association of Kenya Insurers digital platforms provided secondary data spanning 2014 through 2022. The Central Bank of Kenya and Kenya National Bureau of Standards supplied supplementary information. Analytical procedures encompassed descriptive statistics, panel regression methodology and Pearson's Product-Moment Correlation technique. The study found that liquidity risk exhibits positive and statistically significant effect on profitability. Consequently, the study recommends that since higher liquidity risk is associated with higher profitability, insurance firms can explore more aggressive investment strategies, such as investing in long-term, higher-return assets so as to leverage liquidity risk enhancing returns, while ensuring adequate risk buffers. Insurance Regulatory bodies in Kenya should also create policies that allow insurance firms to optimize their liquidity management strategies while ensuring financial stability.