LEARNER COMPETENCIES AND PROFICIENCY IN
ENGLISH LISTENING COMPREHENSION IN
SELECTED SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN KENYA
BY
ADELHEID MARIE BWIRE
A THESIS SUBMITTED IN FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS
FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY OF KENYATTA
UNIVERSITY
FEBRUARY 2007
11
Declaration
This thesis is my original work and has not been presented for a degree in any other
University or any other award.
ADELHEID M. BWiRE
We confirm that the work reported in this thesis was carried out by the candidate under our
supervision
-:
Dr. Edwin Ndichu Gitau
Senior Lecturer
Department of Educational Communication & Technology
Kenyatta University
Dr. Henry E. Embeywa
Senior Lecturer
Department of Educational Communication & Technology
Kenyatta University
Dr. Agnes W. Gathumbi
Senior Lecturer
Department of Educational Communication & Technology
Kenyatta University
iii
DEDICATION
To my children, Achola, Tinda and Vero
My husband, Carroll, who tirelessly worked with me.
My late brother, Uncle Ben: Know that I listened to your advice.
iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to thank the students, teachers, heads of the English departments and KIE head of
Secondary English panel who allowed me to test and interview them and responded promptly
and faithfully to the questionnaires and spent time sharing their views about the teaching of
listening skills with me. Thanks also to head teachers who made it possible for me to work
smoothly in their institutions.
Special tribute goes to my supervisors, Dr. Ndichu Gitau, Dr. Henry Embeywa and Dr. Agnes
Gathumbi who provided guidance and constructive advice at various stages of this study. I
acknowledge the unique support provided by my husband whose counsel helped me through
difficult periods when work and family seemed overwhelming. To my children Achola, Tinda and
Vera Mutts, who reminded me to the point of nagging, about 'Mummy's PhD'. Thanks also to my
departmental colleagues; Dr. Twoli, Mr. Nzioka and Mr. Lava who offered support in many ways.
To all, I say, 'Thank You'.
vAbstract
This study aimed at measuring leamers' listening comprehension proficiency in order to establish
their weaknesses and strengths in this area. It also sought to analyse the listening materials
leamers were exposed to and the extent to which listening skills were taught Factors affecting
listening comprehension proficiency were also explored.
A stratified sample of 520 students, 56 teachers and 8 heads of department English section from
15 schools in two districts were involved. An audio- based test was used to measure students'
listening comprehension proficiency. Content analysis of the Integrated English Book 3 (1992)
was done to assess the quantity and quality of listening materials and tasks. A questionnaire for
teachers of English was used to get information about the teaching of listening comprehension.
This was complemented by interviews with heads of department and Kenya Institute of
Education English curriculum head. Instruments were refined through a pilot study. Data were
analysed qualitatively and quantitatively. Procedures used for data analysis were frequencies,
means, analysis of variance (ANOVA) and correlations. Inferential statistics (the t- test) were
used to explain observed differences and address the factors determining listening
competencies.
Results indicated that English language course books had negligible provision for materials and
tasks that promote listening and that teachers were not guided on teaching listening skills yet
they wholly depended on the same course books for teaching the same. The majority of students
(89.6%) performed poorly on listening comprehension skills. Further, students scored better on
explicit items than on inferential items. Performance was poorest on skills that tested
competence in listening to dialogue, drawing inferences, inferring meanings of unfamiliar words,
paraphrasing and predicting outcomes. These were also the students' areas of weakness among
the micro-skills tested. Areas of relative strength were found to be those that demanded
competence in listening for specifics and details.
Urban school students performed better on listening comprehension skills than those in rural
schools and students in boarding schools performed better than those in day schools on the
same. Mixed day schools recorded the poorest performance. There was no consistent
relationship between girls' and boys' performance on the listening comprehension test: girls'
scores in mixed schools were significantly (at 0.05 level) lower than those of boys in the same
schools. Boys in rural schools performed significantly better than the girls in the rural schools.
Although, the boys in urban schools performed better than the girls, there was generally no
significant difference between their performance on the listening comprehension test.
Among the main conclusions made were: teaching of listening skills was not given its due
emphasis; type of school affected leamers' listening comprehension abilities; boarding
environment gave students better cognitive disposition; gender did not make a difference in
performance in listening comprehension, test material type and task were significant in ESL
listening and students were more inclined to listen with understanding to continuous prose than
to dialogue.
,.
vi
TABLEOF CONTENTS Page
Declaration :........ ii
Dedication... iii
Acknowledgement............ iv
Abstract.................................................................................................. v
Table of Contents .;.: vi
List of Tables xi
List of Figures... ... xiv
Abbreviations and Acronyms... xv
CHAPTER ONE
1.0:
1.1:
1.2:
1.3:
1.3.1:
1.3.2:
1.3.3:
1.3.4:
1.3.5:
1.4:
1.5:
1.6:
1.7:
1.8:
1.9:
1.10:
1.11 :
Introduction .
The Meaning of Listening .
Background to Listening, and Listening Comprehension .
Listening and Education .
The Place of Listening Skills in Education .
The Teaching of English in Secondary School in Kenya .
An Approach to the Development of L2 Listening Comprehension .
Materials for L2 Listening Comprehension .
Pedagogic Problems and Examination Performance in English in Kenya .
Statement of the Problem .
Research Questions .
Objectives of the study .
Significance of the Study .
Assumptions .
Limitations .
De-limitations .
Definition of Related Terms .
CHAPTER TWO:
REVIEW OF RELATED L1TERATURE. .
2.0: Introduction .
2.1: Background to the Skill of Listening .
2.1.1: Pre-concepts .
2.1.2: Components and Types of Listening .
2.2: The Theoretical Model/Framework .
2.2.1: The General Communication ModeL .
2.2.2: Frederiksen's Model of Processes in Listening .
2.2.3: Barker's Model of the Listening Process .
~.2.4: Factors that Influence Listening Behaviour .
2.2.5: Obstacles in Second Language Listening .
2.3: The Meaning and Nature of Listening Comprehension .
2.3.1: The Meaning of Listening Comprehension .
2.3.2: Second Language Listening Comprehension and Spoken Language .
, I",. ~r: '" ~ I r, .. I n r- r r" I I
1
1
4
8
8
9
14
15
17
25
26
27
27
29
30
30
30
33
33
33
33
36
40
41
42
43
53
56
58
58
59
vii
2.3.3:
2.4:
2.5:
2.5.1:
2.5.2:
2.5.3:
The Sub skills/Competenciesof ListeningComprehension ,' .
Related Local Researches .
Other Researches '" .
Researcheson Tests of ListeningComprehension .
ExperimentalStudieson ListeningComprehension .
ExploratoryStudieson ListeningComprehension .
61
63
70
70
75
80
CHAPTER THREE:
RESEARCH METHODOLOGy...................................................... 93
3.0: Introduction... 93
3.1: The Sample and Sampling Procedures.................................. 93
3.1.1: The School Sample.................. 94
3.1.2: Respondents'Sample....................................................................... 96
3.2: Developmentof the ResearchInstruments- Construction
and Description 98
3.2.1: The ContentAnalysis Guide.............................................................. 99
3.2.2: The ListeningComprehensionTest.................. 103
3.2.3: The Questionnaire........................................................................... 118
3.2.4: The InterviewSchedules........................ 119
3.3: Data collection and administrationof Instruments..................... 121
3.3.1: ContentAnalysis
3.3.2: The Test and the Questionnaire.................. 121
3.3.3: The Interviews................................................................................. 125
3.4: Methodsof Data Presentationand Analysis...... 125
3.4.1: Presentation......................................................... 125
3.4.2: StatisticalMethodsused for Analysis.................................................. 126
3.4.3: Challenges in the field..................................................................... 128
CHAPTER FOUR:
PRESENTATIONAND ANALYSIS OF DATA..................................... 130
4.0: Introduction..... . 131
4.1: Content Analysis........................................................................ 132
4.1.2: Findingsfrom the Contentanalysis.................................................... 132
4.1.3: General Summaryof the ListeningSkills' Coverage in the other Integrated
English Books 1, 2 and 4................................................................. 142
4.1.4: Commentson the Findingsof ContentAnalysis...... 143
4.2: Findings from the Analysis of the Test... 145
4.2.1: The Difficulty Indicesof the Test......... 146
4.2.2: Students' PerformanceLevelson the LCT in general and by locale........... 149
4.2.3: Mean Performanceon Test total and Subtestsby Gender by District 167
4.2.4: Mean Performanceon subtestsby SchoolType 177
4.3: Findings from the Questionnaire.... 194
4.3.1: Teachers' backgroundinformation...... 195
4.3.2: Informationon the Teachingof ListeningComprehensionin English....... 196
4.4: Insights from Interviewswith School Heads of English and Head
viii
of English (Secondary division) at the Kenya Institute of
Education.......................................... 215
4.4.1: In-serviceTeacher Development.................................... 215
4.4.2: Areas that best promoteListeningComprehensionin English............ 216
4.4.3: Major FactorsAffectingthe ListeningAbilityof Studentsin English......... 219
4.4.4: Opinionson how often TeachersengagedStudentsin Communicative
Listening Exercises... 221
4.4.5: The PracticalRole of ListeningComprehensionSkills in Students' English
LanguageProficiency..................................................................... 222
4.4.6: How to Cope with Problemsof ListeningComprehensionamong Students 222
4.4.7: The types of ExercisesStudentsappear to enjoy mostduring English
Lessons............... 223
4.4.8: The Qualityof Preparationof Studentsin Englishby the end of Secondary
SchooL.......................................................................................... 225
4.4.9: AdequacyofTime allocationfor English........................... 226
4.4.10: What languageSkills need be emphasizedin Teaching English................ 227
4.4.11: Constraints in the Teachingof Englishin SecondarySchools.................. 227
4.4.12: Issues/Problemsin Teaching/Learningof Englishto be addressed........... 230
4.4.13: Reasonsfor the decline in Englishperformancein nationalexaminationsin
English in the sampleschools.............................................................. 233
4.4.14: ImprovementStrategiesRecommendedby HODsfor the next five year....... 234
4.5: Further Insights from the Interview with the Head of the English
Panel at Kenya Institute of Education (K.I.E)... 236
CHAPTER FIVE:
DISCUSSION OF THE MAJOR FINDINGS....................................... 240
5.0: Introduction....................................................................... 240
5.1: Objective 1 and 2: Analysis of the Listening Materials and Tasks
in the Integrated English Course Book used in form three and
determining the provision and quality of the materials and exposure
by form three learners to the listening skill... 240
5.1.1: Coverageof the Listeningskill.......................................... 240
5.1.2: Adequacyof ListeningMaterials.......................................................... 241
5.1.3: Language Use and Register................................................................ 242
5.1.4: Tasks and activities.............................. 243
5.1.5: Instructionsfor the teacher fUse of other materials in text to develop listening.. 243
5.2: Objective 3: Students' Listening Comprehension Proficiency
Levels........................................................................................... 245
5.2.1: The Difficulty Indicesof the LCT 245
5.2.2: Students' Proficiencyin the Subtestsand Test total...... 247
5.2.3: Comparisonof Performanceon the Subtestsand Test total by Studentsin
Rural and Urban Locales................................................................... 248
5.2.4: Performanceof IndividualSchools(In Meansand Standard Deviations)on the
LCT.............................................................................................. 248
5.2.5: On the RelationshipbetweenStudents'Performancein the DifferentLCT
Materials.................. 249
ix
5.2.6: Mean Perfonnance on the Subtestsand test total by Gender by District....... 250
5.2.7: Mean Perfonnance on the Subtestsby SchoolType................................. 252
5.3: Objective 4: To Identify Factors that Influence the Listening
Comprehension Proficiency Levels of Learners in Secondary
Schools... ............ ......... ............... ......... ...... ...... ... ......... ... ... 254
5.3.1: Background Infonnationon the Teachers as Implementersof the Syllabus... 255
5.3.2: Listening Materials in the Course Book..................................................... 257
5.3.3: Factors identified from the Test... ~......... 257
5.3.4: Insights from Teachers and HODs about Teaching Methods,Materials
Students' Preferencesand Assessment.. " 258
5.4: Further Insights on what can be done to improve the Teaching and
Assessment of the Listening Skills............... 263
5.4.1: Materials for teaching listeningskills......................................................... 264
5.4.2: Ways of Sustaining Listening.................................................................. 264
5.4.3: Ways of improving Students' ListeningProficiency...................................... 265
5.4.4: Measures Taken by Teachers to address Listening Difficulties....................... 266
5.4.5: Activities that best promote Students'ListeningComprehension in Englishas
Perceived by Heads of Department............................................. 267
5.4.6: Assessment......... 267
5.4.7: Performanceof Students in National Examinations... 269
5.4.8: Allocation of More Time......................................................................... 269
5.4.9: The future of the Teaching of the ListeningSkills / Revising and improvingof
Syllabusof English... . 269
5.5: Other Issues on English Languageand Listening Comprehension
Proficiency 271
5.5.1: The Role of Listening ComprehensionProficiency in English Language
Learning............................................................................................... 271
5.5.2: Emphasisof English Language Skills.......................................... 272
5.5.3: Qualityof Secondary School Graduates in English........................................ 272
CHAPTER SIX:
CONCLUSIONSAND RECOMMENDATIONS........................................ 274
6.0: Introduction............................................................................ 274
6.1: Conclusions from the Main Findings of the Study 274
6.1.1: The Nature of the Listening Materialsand Tasks 274
6.1.2: Teacher Quality and Methods 275
6.1.3: Student Listening Comprehension'Proficiency 276
6.1.4: The Main Factors affecting Students'Performancein Listening 278
6.2: The Scope of Generalizations 279
6.3: Recommendations 280
6.3.1: General Recommendationsfor English LanguageTeaching /Leaming and
Listening Skills in General.. 280
6.3.2: Specific Recommendationsfor the Teaching and Assessmentof the listening
Comprehension Skills...................................................... 283
6.4: Suggestions for further research..................................................... 295
xBIBLIOGRAPHy .
APPENDiCES .
Appendix 1: Content Analysis Grid for Listening Materials and tasks in Integrated
English Language Book 3 .
Listening Comprehension test for Form Three Students: Sub-test 1 .
Listening Comprehension testfor Form Three: Subtest 1.. .
Listening Comprehension testfor Form Three: Subtest 2 .
Listening Comprehension Test for Form Three: Sub test 2 ' .
Listening Comprehension testfor Form Three: Sub- TestThree .
Listening Comprehension test for Form Three: Sub-Test Three l .
Difficulty, Discrimination and Elicitation Indices and Point '
Bi-Serial Correlation for Subtest One- For test refinement. .
Appendix 5b: Elicitation, Difficulty, Discrimination and Elicitation Indices and Point
Bi-Serial Correlation for Subtest Two- For Test Refinement. .
Appendix 5c: Elicitation, Difficulty, Discrimination and Elicitation Indices and Point
Bi-Serial Correlation for Subtest Three- For test refinement. .
Appendix 6a: Subtest 1: Calculation of coefficient of reliability - split - half method- \
For test refinement. : .
Appendix 6b: Calculation of coefficient of reliability - split method -
For test Refinement .
Appendix 6c: Subtest 3: Calculation of coefficient of reliability - split - half method -
For the test refinement .
Appendix 7a: Calculation of Point-Biserial Correlation Reliability Indices for Items
on Subtest One- From test Refinement.. .
Appendix 7b: Calculation of Point - Biserial Correlation Reliability Indices for Items
on Subtest Two- For test refinement.. .
Appendix 7c: Calculation of Point- Biserial Correlation Reliability Indices for Items
on Subtest Three - For test Refinement. .
Appendix 8: Measures of central tendency on whole test package for test
Refinement. .
Appendix 9: Questionnaire for Teachers of English .
Appendix 10a: The interview schedule for the Heads of Languages: English Section
Appendix 10b: Interview Schedule for Heads of English Panel at Kenya Institute
of Education (KIE) .
Appendix 11: Correlation coefficients showing Interrelations between Subtests 1, 2
and 3 and test total- In actual study .
Appendix 12: School Description by Codes: Vihiga (Rural) and Nairobi (Urban) - in
Actual study .
Appendix 13: Insignificant co-relationship Comparison of school type performance
on subtest 1- in actual study , .
Research Authorization
Research Permit
Location Map of Nairobi
Location Map of Vihiga District
Appendix 2a:
Appendix 2b:
Appendix 3a:
Appendix 3b:
Appendix 4a:
Appendix 4b:
Appendix 5a:
Appendix A:
Appendix B:
Appendix C:
Appendix D:
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321
322
323
324
326
327
327
328
\~29\.
330
3~~
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331 \
332 \
333
334
336
338
340
341
342
xi
LIST OF TABLES Page
Table 1.1: Comparison of Communication Activities 6
Table 1.2: 1994 KCPE Performance by Subject and by Gender...... 18
Table 1.3: The Performance in the three papers 1993, '94, '95, and '96 20
Table 1.4: Performance by Subject & Gender, KCSE 1999 21
Table 1.5: Candidates' Overall Performance in English for the Last Four Years 21
Table 1.6: The Candidature and Performance for the Languages in the Last Three
(2003- 2005) 23
Table 2.1: Types of Listening According to Barker (1971) 38
Table 3.1: Number of Public Secondary Schools per Sex per Division in Vihiga 95
Table 3.2: Number of Public Secondary Schools per Sex per Division in Nairobi... 96
Table 3.3: Weighting of LCT Sub skills/Abilities by Experts.................................... 106
Table 3.4: Rating of the Listening Comprehension Skills in order of Importance
Listening Skill................................................................................. 107
Table 3.5: Rating of Students on Listening Comprehension Proficiency for
Su b-tests 1, 2, and 3 and on the whole Test........................... 116
Table 4.1: Structure Categories of the Listening Material... 132
Table 4.2: Percentage distribution of the basic English Language Skills in Integrated
English Book 3 134
Table 4.3: A Summary of all the 4 Integrated English textbooks in terms of Listening
Comprehension Skill coverage 143
Table 4.4: The Test Difficulty Indices of Subtest 1 by Schools in Nairobi and Vihiga
Districts... . .. 146
Table 4.5: The Test Difficulty Indices of Subtest 2 by schools in Nairobi and Vihiga
Districts 147
Table 4.6: The Test Difficulty Indices of Subtest 3 by the schools in Nairobi and Vihiga..... 148
Table 4.7: Summary ofTables 4.4,4.5, & 4.6 above 148
Table 4.8: Students' Performance on subtest 1 in Frequencies of scores and
Percentages in both districts............................................................. ... .. 150
Table 4.9: Students' Performance on Subtest 2 in Frequencies of scores and
Percentages in both districts 152
Table 4.10: Performance on subtest 3 in Frequencies of scores and Percentages
in both Districts.................................................................................... 153
Table 4.11: Students' Performance on Test Total in frequencies of scores and
percentages in both districts 155
xii
Table 4.12: Mean Performance on LeT in both districts 157
Table 4.13: Mean and Standard Deviations of Individual schools in Nairobi district
on the LeT : 158
Table 4.14: Mean and Standard Deviations of Individual schools in Vihiga district
on the LeT 159
Table 4.15: Difference in Performance in Nairobi and Vihiga Schools on
Subtest One...... 160
Table 4.16: Difference in Performance between Nairobi and Vihiga Schools on
Subtest Two 160
- Table 4.17: Difference in Performance between Nairobi and Vihiga Schools on
Subtest Three 161
Table 4.18: Difference in performance between Nairobi and Vihiga Schools on
Test Total 161
Table 4.19: Measures of Central tendency and Variability for the Subtest Materials
in both Districts............................................................................... 162
Table 4.20: Relationship between Sub Test 1 and others 163
Table 4.21: Relationship between Subtest 2 and 3 164
Table 4.22: Relationship between sub test 3 and test total........................................ 165
Table 4.23: Students' Performance Test Materials in Nairobi and Vihiga districts 166
Table 4.24: Mean Performance and Standard Deviations on Test total by
Gender in Vihiga 167
Table 4.25: Performance by Girls in Vihiga on different Listening Comprehension
Subtests 169
Table 4.26: Performance by Boys in Vihiga on different Listening Comprehension
Subtests............ 170
Table 4.27: Measures of Central Tendency and variability on the LCT total by both
Girls and Boys in Nairobi...... 171
Table 4.28: Performance by Girls in Nairobi on different Listening Comprehension
Subtests......... 172
Table 4.29: Performance by Boys in Nairobi on different Listening Comprehension
Subtests...... 173
Table 4.30: Comparison between the Mean Performance of Boys and Girls on the
LCT in Nairobi and Vihiga District 174
Table 4.31: One Way Analysis of Variance for Mean Performance on subtests and
test total by both Gender in Vihiga and Nairobi Districts.............................. 175
Table 4.32: Performance on subtests and test total in Girls Boarding schools 177
Table 4.33: Performance on subtests and test total in Boys Boarding schools............... 178
Table 4.34: Performance on subtests and test total in Girls' Day Schools 179
xiii
Table 4.35: Performance on test in Boys' Day schools (BD) 179
Table 4.36: Performance on test in Mixed Day and Boarding schools (rural) 180
Table 4.37: Performance on test in Mixed Day schools 181
Table 4.38: Mean Performance on the subtests and test total by Girls' and Boys in
Mixed schools in Vihiga and Nairobi..................................................... 182
Table 4.39: Mean Performance on Subtests by School type and in Urban
District (Nairobi) 186
Table 4.40: Mean Performance on Subtests by School Type and in Rural DistricL....... 187
Table 4.41: Comparison of Performance in means by School Types on Subtests and
Test total in both districts combined 188
Table 4.42: One Way Analysis in Variance on Mean Performance on sub tests and test
Total by all School Types in Vihiga and Nairobi........................................ 190
Table 4.43: Comparison of Performance on the Different Sub tests by Different School
Types 192
Table 4.44: Things that teachers perceive to affect Students' Listening Ability 198
Table 4.45: Teachers' Rating of topics that involved students' Listening Ability most... 200
Table 4.46: Things Teachers do to Sustain Listening in the Classroom 201
Table 4.47: Ways Suggested by Teachers on Improving Listening Comprehension 204
Table 4.48: Sources of Listening Tasks used by Teachers in the Two Districts............ 207
Table 4.49: Types of Materials Used to Assess the Listening Comprehension
Ability of Students...... . 208
Table 4.50: Rating of the Skill considered Most Important for Students' Academic
Communicative Ability................................. 209
Table 4.51: Evidence of students' Listening difficulty 210
Table 4.52: Measures taken by teachers against the difficulties in Listening by
Students in Vihiga and Nairobi.......................................... 211
Table 4.53: Rating of actions to be taken about the future of the Listening
Comprehension Skill 214
Table 4.54: Areas HODs thought best promote Listening comprehension in English 217
Table 4.55: Types of exercises students enjoy during English lessons 224
Table 4.56: Constraints that Heads of English departments felt were experienced
in the teaching of English................................................................. 228
xiv
LIST OF FIGURES Page
Fig. 2.1: A Listening Model............................................................................... 44
Fig. 2.2: A "Close up' view of the listener........................ 47
Fig. 4.1: Students' Performance on Subtest 1 in frequency distribution of scores in
both Districts....................................................................................... 151
Fig. 4.2: Students' Performance on Subtest 2 in frequency distribution of scores in both
Districts............ 152
Fig.4.3: Students' Performance on Subtest 3 in frequency distribution of scores in both
Districts... 154
Fig.4.4: Students' Performance on Test total in frequency distribution of scores in both
Districts............... 156
Fig. 4.5: Mean performance on Subtests and Test Total in Nairobi and
Vihiga districts...... 157
Fig. 4.6: Students' performance test materials in Nairobi and Vihiga districts.................. 166
Fig. 4.7: Comparison between Girls' and Boys' Performance on LCT in both Districts...... 174
Fig. 4.8: Comparison of Boys and Girls' Mean on Subtest 1 in Nairobi and Vihiga
Mixed schools 182
Fig. 4.9: Comparison of Boys and Girls' Mean on Subtest 2 in Nairobi and Vihiga
Mixed schools...... ... .. . 183
Fig. 4.10: Comparison of Boys and Girls' Mean on Subtest 3 in Nairobi and Vihiga 184
Fig. 4.11: Comparison of Boys and Girls' Mean performance on Test total in Nairobi
and Vihiga Mixed Schools................................................ 185
Fig. 4.12: Mean performance on Sub tests by School Type in Urban district
(Nairobi) 186
Fig. 4.13: Mean performance in Sub tests by School Type in Vihiga 188
Fig. 4.14: Comparison of Performance in mean by School Type on Subtests and
Test total in both districts combined 189
xv
ABBREVIA liONS AND ACRONYMS:
ANOVA - Analysis of Variance
BACT - Basic Aural Comprehension Test
BCC - The Brown Carlsen Carsten (Listening Test)
CET - College English Tests
CLEA - Concentrated Language Encounters Approach
CNS -Central Nervous System
CPE - Certificate of Primary Education
CRE - Christian Religious Education
DEO - District Education Officer
EFL - English as a Foreign Language
ELN -English Literacy Norms
ELT - English Language Teaching
ESL - English as a Second Language
ETS - Educational Testing Service
FPE - Free Primary Education
HOD - Head of Department
IGCSE - International General Certificate of Secondary Education
KCLT - Kentucky Comprehension Listening Test
KCPE - Kenya Certificate of Primary Education
KCSE - Kenya Certificate of Secondary Education
KIE - Kenya Institute of Education
KNEC - Kenya National Examinations Council
L1 - Native or First language
L~-Second Language or Language Two
LAD - Language Acquisition Device
LCT - Listening Comprehension Test
LOI - Language of Instruction
LTM - Long-term memory
MoE - Ministry of Education
PDE - Provincial Director of·Education
PR - Public Relations
xvi
PTTC - Primary Teacher Training College
SBA - School Based Assessment
SLEPT - Secondary Level English Proficiency Test
SLiAS - Second Language Interaction Analysis Schedule
STEP - Sequential Tests of Educational Progress
STM - Short-term memory
TEFL - Teaching English as a Foreign Language
TESL - Teaching English as a Second Language
TOEFL - Test of English as a Foreign Language
TTC - Teacher Training College
WPM - Words per minute
lEN'f~nA utU\lERS\1'fUBRA v
CHAPTER ONE
1.0: Introduction
This study aimed at exploring the teaching and assessment of listening comprehension in
English in selected Kenyan secooday schools in Nairobi and Vihiga districts. It further aimed at
analysing students' levels of listening comprehension, the factors that affect the same and make
recommendations towards the improvement of the development of this language skill in English.
In this chapter, a background to the study is laid out and the problem, purpose as well as its
significance is stated. The assumptions on which the study was based are presented. The
limitations are pointed out and the scope defined. Finally terms pertaining to this study have been
defined.
1.1: The Meaning of Listening
An attempt is made here to examine the meanings attributed to listening. One explanatiOl) of this
term comes from Husen and Postlethwaite, 1994 who state, "The results of listening research
have not produced a single, empirically based definition of listening. Instead, a series of
descriptions have been used as a basis of listening instruction and measurement. Many follow
established descriptions of listening comprehensionn (Husen and Postlethwaite, 1994: 3100).
Going by Webster's' Dictionary, to listen is "to hear with attentiOl1"; to hear means to have a
sense or faculty of perceiving sound. Thus, listening depends on hearing, but the two terms are
not synonymous, they cannot be used interchangeably. Hearing is a physiological phenomenon
and may not guarantee understanding, while listening is both physiologica and psychological.
Feyten (1991) adds that while hearing is a passive process, listening is an active process; it
2requires the conscious desire to determine the meaning of what we hea. We can have excellent
hearing but be poor listeners. Good hearing is the foundation of good listening.
Listening occurs when the brain reconstructs the electrochemical impulses into a representation
of the original sound and then gives them meaning (Adler and Brown, 2003). Listening, however,
is not automatic. Many times, we hear but do not listen. Below are some representative
definitions of listening.
Barker (1971: 17) defines listening as a 'selective process by which sounds communicated by
some source are received critically, interpreted and acted upon by a purposeful listener". He
adds that it is "the selective process of attending, hearing, understanding and remembering aural
symbols". This definition emphasizes aural stimulation.
Listening can further be seen as "the process by which spoken language is converted to meaning
in the mind' (Lundsteen, 1971)., Floyd (1985) on his part asserts that listening is hearing,
attending to, understanding, evaluating and responding to spoken messages. These definitions
emphasise oral verbal symbols.
Listening may also be defined as 'a unitary receptive communication process of hearing and
selecting, assimilating and organizing and retaining and covertly responding to aural and non-
verbal stimuli" (Wolf et aI., 1983: 73). This definition emphasizes not only the verbal but also
other environmental cues.
Cohen (1983) defines listening as • absorbing ideas in the mind, where they can be stored,
interpreted, recalled and acted upon". His emphasis was on ideas or concepts ~tored and acted
3upon. Brown (1983) suggested the term "auding- fa' "listening" because auding is a much wider
term thai listening. He emphasized that listening is more thCll a perceptioo of sounds and
therefore, auding should be used instead of "listening'. He defines "auding' as a gross process of
hearing, listening to, recognizing and interpreting spoken language. The term auding, however,
has not been widely accepted or adopted by linguists.
Ronal aid Roskelly (1985: 29) define listening as "an active process requiring the same skills of
prediction, hypothesizing, checking, revising and generalization that writing and reading
demand".
Hirsch (1986: 36) on his part sees listening as "neurological responses and interpretations of
sounds" a 'understanding and assigning meaning by reacting, selecting meaning, remembering,
attending, analysing and incorporating previous experience".
It is not easy to find a single definitioo of "listening" that most authorities will agree on, hence the
array of definitions above. The variations lie in the areas of emphasis concerning the elements
and processes encompassed by the term. Even then, listening is seen to involve a Combination
of several mental processes including attending, hearing, understanding, interpreting and
remembering both the verbal and non-verbal language. The definitions show a marked difference
between hearing and listening. For purposes of this research, primary interest was given to
listening and Floyd's (1985) definition, which emphasises oral verbal symbols: Ustening is
hearing, attending to, understanding, evaluating and responding to spoken messages' is
adopted.
41.2: Background to Listening and Listening Comprehension.
Ustening is the first language skill that a child acquires. • It provides a foundation for all aspects
of language and cognitive development and it plays a lifelong role in the processes of learning
and canmunication essential to productive participation in life,' (Hyslop and Bruce, 1988: 1).
Studies by Noam Chomsky indicate that a child is born with an innate ability to interpret his
native language (he calls this, the Language Acquisition Device - LAD) (Ellis, 1995:24). During
the period of rapid language growth, listening contributes enormously to the child's acquisition of
speech.
Studies have revealed that we spend a large proportion of time listening. Taylor (1966), for
instance reports that as early as 1926, research had established "that 70% of the average adults'
working day was spent in verbal communication with 45% of that time spent in listening acts,
30% in speaking, 16% in reading, and 9% in writing" (Taylor, 1966: 3). This study is attributed to
Rankin (1929), who studied 68 adults. Taylor further reports, Wilt's (1949) explorations of
listening in the upper primary classroom, which revealed that 54% of class time, was spent on
listening to the teacher. He also states that researchers have estimated that close to 90% of the
class time in high schools and colleges is spent on listening to discussions and lectures. Taylor
further cites Markgrafs (1951) findings that high school students listened approximately 46% of
the time during an average school day: 66% of this time was spent listening to the teacher (in
English classes, 97% of the time was spent listening to the teacher). Briefly, studies have found
that listening to and understanding speech make up more than 40 % of human communication.
The above findings are supported by Bird's (1961) study among female college students, which
revealed that 42% of their canmunication time was spent on listening, 25% on speaking, 15% on
reading and 18% on writing. The current syllabus of English also attests to the significance of the
5listening skills: the speci<ing and listening skills also "contribute significantly to the development
of reading and writing skills. One who listens and speaks effectively is able to receive and
respond to information appropriately."(K.I.E, 2002: 4)
Even from daily experiences, it can be said without hesitation that listening is a significant skill
employed at all levels of education and even after school. Byrne (1986) suggests that learners'
ability to understand (comprehend) needs to be considerably more than their ability to speak, if
they are to be "comfortable" in a foreign or second language and therefore, be able to
communicate effectively in the same.
The importance of listening can be demonstrated by a simple observation of the classroom
teaching process, where the teacher speaks and the students listen. The teacher's words have
significant meaning attached to them; the student listens and tries to register the information in
his mind. How many of the students are in a position to take notes from the teacher's speech?
How many of them really understand or comprehend what the teacher says? The teacher may
write a feN points of what he says on the chalkboard but sometimes he does not even care to
ascertain whether the students listen to hirnlher effectively. Some teachers may even sometimes
overestimate their learner's abilities in listening comprehension by assuming that listening is
automatically taking place.
It cannot, therefore, be concluded that the time spent listening is always spent efficient/y- the
question may be; to what extent do we listen? We may listen but be unable to discriminate well
among the sounds of the language (phonetic analysis), follow directions, listen critically or
analytically and so on. lMlile most students attempt to pay attention to the teacher, they may be
ill equipped to manipulate the information they receive in order to retain and use it, or to
6appreciate the speaker or the rnamer of delivery. Research has shown that students retain very
little (21 - 33%) on retentioo or canprehensive checks (Taylor, 1966: 4). Taylor attributes this to
the negligible amount of deliberate teaching provided in listening; the lack of sequential
developmental listening programmes in most schools and inherent complexity of the listening act.
Evidence shows that the respoose to classroom instruction is not always an indicator of
comprehension of what the teacher says. The process of comprehension is invisible -al we can
observe is evidence that it has or has not taken place. Many times such evidence is un-
measurable (it is easy for one to copy from others who have understood!).
One might assume that the development of listening skills gets considerable attentioo in our
schools but this does not appear to be the case. In language teaching, we then expect that
second language learners in secondary school should have adequate mastery of the English
language in the light of the language demands made 00 them later by the future course of study.
According to Adler and Brown (2003), in listening, one requires to make an effort. For them,
listening is not a natural process like breathing. It is a skill like speaking, where everybody has it,
though few people do use it well (Adler and Brown, 2003: 115). They cootinue to state that the
good news is that listening can be improved through instructioo and training. Despite this fact,
the amount of time devoted to teaching listening is far less than that devoted to other language
skills, which they see as an upside down arrangement. The table below can be used to illustrate
this point.
Table 1.1: Comparison of Communication Activities
Listenina Speakina Readina Writina
learned/Acquired First Second Third Fourth
Used Most Next to most Next to least least
Taught Least Next to least Next to most Most
Adapted from Adler and Brown, 2003: 115
7Adler and Brown's observatioos corcoorate earlier findings by Burley- Allen (1982), who found
the classroom emphasis 00 ICilguage modes to be inversely related to the time people use them.
He asserted that students get 12 years of forma training in writing, 6-8 years in reading, 1-2
yecrs in speaking and from 0-1/2 year in listening. SWCllson (1984b) calls this the 'inverted
curriculum' (Swanson: 1984b: 53).
In their forward, Wilkinson et al. (1974: 32) observe, "listening has been ignored especially at a
time when technical advances in radio, television, telephone, recording equipment and
computers have tended to throw a greater emphasis on these essential aspects of
communication'. They ascertain that the ability to listen and to listen with understanding might
well have been taken too much for granted. They add that listening appears to be so
commonplace an activity that it might also be taken for granted, unless the skills and
competencies, which it demands, are isolated and subjected to scrutiny.
The current secoodary school syllabus for English in Kenya recommends that the language
teacher should make every effort to help the learner acquire and confidently display
communicative competence, which has been assumed to subsume listening Competence.
However, it cannot be taken for granted that communicative competence will obviously
guarantee the latter; it is such obscurity that brings about the laxity in teaching the listening skill.
Swanson (1986) observed that another reason that listening is not emphasised may be that not
having experienced much instruction 00 effective listening themselves, teachers are not certain
hem best to teach it. Abelleira (1987) adds that there is a tendency for teachers not to emphasise
the listening objectives.
8Having seen that listening is Cf1 importsnt skill with no prq:>er atlentioo paid to it in the
instructiooal process, the resea-cher swght to establish the actual practice of the teaching and
assessment of listening comprehension skills in selected Kenyan secondary schods. A
discussion of listening and education follows in the sectioo below.
1.3: Listening and Education
1.3.1: The Place of Listening Skills in Education
Learners therefore need the ability to listen attentively and the ability to respond in English in the
classroom and during the day- to- day interaction. When learners lack listening and speaking
skills in English, they shy away from the needful participation in class and out of class activities,
further limiting their language acquisition. Hence, the main emphasis! objective for teaching
English should be the 'acquisition of communicative competence and not simply on the passing
of examinations ... becoming proficient in the language is a lifelong goal.' (K.l.E 2002, English
syllabus: 2).
Listening is an important communication skill. Communication is on one hand, the key condition
for both teaching and learning to take place and on the other, the medium and means through
which teachers and learners make sense of their everyday endeavours in the classroom
(Muthwii, 2002). This point could be strengthened even further by the views of stakehdders in
education in Kenya on the importance of English. Under the English Uteracy Norms (ELN)
Prqect carried out by a team of researchers in Kenyatta university, stakeholders who were
interviewed on the significCllce of English averred that they expected pupils, inter alia, "to be able
to listen with understanding, ccmmunicate fluently in English and give and follow instructions in
English" (ELN Report 1: 18). Uke all other language skills, listening is not something people do
for its own sake. People use the skill to do things they consider necessary cr wcrthwhile, for
example, for either getting information or deriving pleasure. Eventually, " we are changed in
9some way, we knON something we did not know before. We can do somethinq we could not do
bekre. We have experienced SOOlethingnfNI (Scarba'oogh, 1988:142).
Wny then do we lean to listen? Apart from the aforementiooed reasons, 'listening ability is
important for the development of other language skills. It can help build vocabulary, develop
language facility and improve language use' (Barker, 1971: 5). Listening and speaking skills are
the basic skills required in language development. The ability to read and write well stems fron
the ability to listen and speak well. Fa learners to acquire mastery of the English language, they
need to master the basic skills of listening and speaking. One will leam to speak and later to read
and write if the ?bility to listen has been developed. However, students often listen withoot
direction or understanding. It is important to recognize that there is a growing need to include the
skill of listening as one of the fundamental compooents of any language course. In this regard,
evidence exists that shows that listening habits may be greatly improved through training
(Fawcet, 1964; Swanson: 1986; Mubenga, 1988; Robert: 1990; Pitak, 2000). A mastery of the
language of instructioo, in this case, English is crucial because it enables the learner to access
informatioo across the curriculum. In addition, to become a good learner, one has to become a
good listener (Feyten, 1991).
1.3.2:The Teaching of English in Secondary School in Kenya.
This section gives an overvieN of the Integrated English syllabus, 1992 and the improvements
made on it in 2002. Sane issues in the teaching of English, and particulCf'ly, the significance of
the listening skills in learning, are discussed. The objectives, the strategies, materials and the
assessment of the listening skills are also addressed.
10
1.3.2.1: The Syllabus of English- an overview
Education systems allover the wodd recognise the important role that language plays in learning
and teaching. Everywhere in the world, the education system lays emphasis on communication
and language. Camtries have spelt cut Icnguage policies that guide the Icnguage of instruction
(LOI) in schools. The current language policy in Kenya states that English be taught as a
compulsory subject fron standard one to fom foor and be used as a medium of instruction fron
standard four upwards. The language of instruction from standard one to three is the mother
tongue a the language of the catchment area if school is in a multilingual community (Report of
the waking committee on the second University, 1985). English and Kiswahili are taught as
subjects, 'but from class 4-8, English is adopted as the LOI (Republic of Kenya, 1976). In Kenya
however, in multilingual populations, it has been found that many primary schools do not adhere
to the stipulated language policy. Some schools opt for use of English from class one as a LOI,
while in others; teachers do a lot of code switching so as not to disadvantage any child (Muthwii
2(02). This situation may result in many children finishing class 8 without the necessary
proficiency in listening in either the mother tongue or in English.
According to the previous K.C.S.E. Syllabus fa English (1992):
The most obvious reason for teaching English is that by virtue of its being the medium of instruction
from standard four onwards, English is a service subject Consequently, fluency in aI aspects of the
English language wi. undoubtedy enable the students to perform better in all other subjects. The
onus is therefore on the secondary school teacher to ncrease total ffuency in listening to, speamg,
reading, and writing the language by building on the foundation laid by the Primary school. (Report of
Workilg Committee on the Second University, 1985)
The syllabus obviously then, underscored the significCJlC9 of English language as the medium
through which most knowledge is acquired, processed and presented across the Kenycn school
curriculum.
11
It is further stated in the syllabus that since the basic oejective, which underlies a language
course, is the accuisiticn of communication skills; the syllabus is based on the need to develop
the four language skills of listening, speaking, reading and writing. However, as much as the aim
of the syllabus is to develop communication skills, both the ad and current syllabus focus more
on language structure than language use. Moreover, it is short on exposing the learner to many
different types of materials in English and giving them many opportunities for practising what they
have acquired, yet this is useful in achieving fluency in English.
The new secondary schod syllabus (2002) that replaced the original 8-4-4-education syllabus did
not abolish the integrated approach to teaching English but gave "better guidance to the users'
(K.l.E 2002: v). For example, it recommends the use of cral literature where narratives, oral
poetry, songs, riddles and proverbs are resourceful in the teaching of the listening and speaking
skills "to give the learner a wider field within which to express him cr herselr. One of the aims of
the integrated approach to teaching English Language and Uterature in English is to make the
teaching and assessment of the language more effective. The syllabus recommends a practical,
student - centred approach to learning English through simultaneous practice, both in English
language and in Literature in English. Therefore, the teacher may integrate the teaching of both
language and literature skills simultaneously in a classroom situation in order to strengthen and
enrich both.
The revised syllabus re-emphasizes the importance of English as the official language of
communication in Kenya as well as the medium of instruction in schools, cdleges and
universities. It is also the pre-eminent language of international communication. It states: "Those
who master English reap many academic, social and professional benefits." (Revised Integrated
English Syllabus, 2002: v). Basing on one of the national goals of education like "promoting
12
individuci development and self fulfilment', the revised syllabus of English should enable yooth to
live and interact as Kenyans; build character; and be part of the independent network of peeole
and nations - these objectives can be fulfilled through the teaching of lalguage skills, especially,
listening.
L In the light of situation described above, the training of teachers of English should also aim at
helping them to acquire the skills to teach English, using the integrated approach. In a country
like Kenya where the school curriculum is still by and large theoretical, with few technical and
practical lessons, teaching and learning is largely dominated by listening. The samples of spoken
language in the course books, which have been contrived as models for oral productioo, do not
usually contain a sufficient proportion of features of authentic speech, which allows for
spootaneous listening. A look at the content of English language course books (Integrated
English Book 1-4 1992), for secondary school recanmended by the syllabus (1992), reveals that
more emphasis was placed on reading and writing exercises with only very short exercises in the
form of practice pattem drills demanding very little 'real" listening to introduce each unit. Yet
learners need more than these mechanical drills if they are going to cope with learning situations
that call upon listening to more authentic! natural tasks. They need a broader and deliberate
listening comprehension programme, which will expose them to suitable varied modes of natural
speech. It is in recognitioo of this that the revised syllabus of English for example, has activities
to promote listening comprehension and suggests the use of oral literature, class readers, set
books, group discussions, note taking, etiquette and so on. There is emerging evidence however,
for positive action whereby content is beginning to be incorporated in the revised syllabus (2002).
But some of these materials are still new to the teachers and some schools still use the old
course books despite their weaknesses, for financial reasons. Therefore, as teaching techniques
change, so should the current teachers implementing the programme be trained and sensitised
13
in the teaching of the listening skills. In the follONing sections. a discussion of the objectives of
teaching oral skills. amoog them. listening ccrnprehension. is done. Highlights into the pedagogy
and performance of English in Kenya are also given.
1.3.2.2: The Objectives of Teaching Oral Skills
Some of the specific objectives of teaching listening and speaking skills according to the revised
Integrated English Language syllabus (2002) are that. by the end of the course students should
be able to:
i. Pronounce correctly sounds they found problematic.
ii. Respond correctly to oral information on a variety of subjects.
iii. Communicate correctly. confidently and appropriately in different contexts.
iv. Demoostrate and maintain acceptable communication skills.
v. Use correct stress and intonation.
vi. Respond to oral information 00 a variety of subjects confidently and appropriately
in different contexts.
vii. Identify the features of ogre and trickster stories. riddles. myths. legends. songs.
oral poetry and proverbs.
viii. Use non- verbal devices effectively in speech.
ix. Demoostrate the ability to use correct register in different contexts.
x. Use tone to express and interpret attitude.
xi. Use stress to distinguish grammatical meaning in words.
xii. Present oral reports 00 literary topics.
(KCSE Syllabus for English. 2002: 7)
It is important to point out here that in the revised syllabus. oral skills are treated together. while
on the other hand. reading and writing are treated separately. Even in the oral skills. the
14
objectives are biased towards the speaking skills only, showing that the improvements in the
syllabus are still, by Clld large superficial and not fully explored especially in interpretation and
practice.
1.3.3: An Approach to the Development of L2 Listening Comprehension
The teaching of listening comprehension is very significant as seen in the discussion above.
Sometimes, it is arqued that there is a lot to borrow from the teaching of reading comprehension
although the two processes differ. Field (1997), for example, argues that in aiming to
systematically develop the sub skills of L2 listening, recent pedagogic approaches to listening
comp~ehension have not followed the lead of reading comprehension. In advocating that the
listening skill be broken down into sub skills, and that these be addressed individually in the
classroom, he says, •... in current practice we focus too much on the product of listening
comprehension and too little on the process" (Field, 1997: 117).
The basic building block in the L2 communicative language curriculum has become the 'task'.
Nunan (1990), defines a task as: work which involves learners in comprehending, manipulating,
producing or interacting in the target language while their attention is principally focused on
meaning rather than form (Nunan, 1990: 10). In describing listening tasks in communicative
language learning, six elements of any classroom task should be borne in mind. These are:
input, setting, procedures, outcomes, monitoring and feedback. The quantitative development of
listening comprehension should also enable listeners to notice new linguistic items as a prelude
to incidental learning and the accumulation of implicit knowlooge. Rest (1990) sums up the
criteria for task validity within this approach:
Good listeni1g instruction is fi'st and foremost good instndion, that is, it creates the conditions
for meani1gfIJ leamer involvement, outcomes and evaluation. Good task design for listening
developmel7f willikewise be first good task design: it wi. eccoum in advance for variables that
are likely to affect studel7f leaming. (1990:170-171)
15
1.3.4: Materials for L2 Listening Comprehension
In consideration of what materials or input are thought to be most useful for listening
development, emphasis is given to linguistic content, text types and delivery method. Listening
texts and accompawing tasks are used not only to develop listening comprehension, but also as
input for possible acquisition of new language. Traditionally, aural texts used for developing
listening comprehension tended to be written specifically for such a purpose. Authors wrote such
texts to be rich in the linguistic features, usually grammar or lexis, which they aimed to teach e.g.
Streamline (1990).
There are, however, powerful linguistic and pedagogic arguments against the use of such
invented and simplified texts and the trend is now ~ay from the use of contrived listening texts.
Porter and Roberts (1981) analysed listening texts from EFL textbooks and found them to differ
from real-life speech in thirteen ways, for example, too much information, clear enunciation,
distinct turn-taking and structural repetition were all features of such texts.
Underwood (1989: 100) asserts that it is authentic listening materials which provide' ... a true
representation of real, spontaneous speech ... which will make them (listeners) more able to cope
with 'real life' speech when they meet it outside the learning situation' and she advocates its use
from early stages. The classroom is an authentic setting with simplified and/or refined language
that contains specialised register and forms.
Rost (1990) also sees pedagogic arguments against using simplified materials. He believes it
deprives listeners of the challenge of making sense of difficult language, and that by removing
culturally rich features of the language, we undermine the process of student enquiry .•... if
learners are being shielded systematically from those very cultural features that they are seeking
16
to explore, we cr-e indeed short-circuiting the entire education process' (Rost, 1990:162). The
consensus is in favour of using listening texts thci are authentic and not erecied especially for
the purpose of the classroom.
Ustening occurs as a part of either a collaborative discourse (X' a transactional discourse, such
as listening to the radio or announcements in airports, where the listener is unable to affect the
input. Classroom tasks to develop listening comprehension have traditionally focused on
transactional discourse, with collaborative discourse developed in conjunction with spoken
practice. Anderson and Lynch (1988) see listening to transactional discourse as being more
demanding and therefore needing more development. The discussion on the transactional model
of the listening process is further developed in the theoretical framewcrk in chapter two.
The use of Video for L2 Listening Comprehension
Traditionally, listening texts have been delivered by audiocassette, although the arguments for
the use of video, which began in classrooms in the early eighties, are based on the replication of
real-life circumstances. The pedagogic rationale for the introduction of video materials into the
communicative second language classroom focuses on its advantages over audiocassettes.
Firstly, it centres on the need to, and the desirability of, replicating real wodd experience by using
authentic materials. Video technology introduces the dynamics of communicative interaction, the
ability to experience all paralinguistic gestures, the speakers' sex, age, appearance,
relationships, dress, mood, cultural behaviour and setting fa the interaction. Video images
readily put interaction in context and viewers can see if, for example, a situation is fcrmal cr
informal. The video context then may help in supplying much of the schematic kncmledge that is
held to be essential to the inference of meaning (Long, 1989b). Additionally, there may be added
help to C<X'nprehension provided by the ability to see the lip synch of speakers, and thus for
17
I~ to use the types of roes expiated by the deaf (Kellermal, 1990). It has also been
assumedthat video aci1s interest aD motivatioo to listening canprSlensioo a1d therefae it may
hdd learners' attention Iooger that ado ally. AnatB a-gurnall in faval' ci video ~ ado
<XJ1CeI11S the impatalce of the prooodic elEments of -stress- a1d -praninence' in conveying
mealing (CuUB",1997b). Being able to see ~ is likely to ad stress reoognitim. It shWd
fdla.v that fa listening ~vities, the use of video, with its extra sources of infoomiion, is fikely to
add sane of the essootial canprehension enhancing dimensions to the listening cootext wtlch
audioonly camot provide.
1.3.5: Pedagogic Problems and Examination Performance In English in Kenya
An analysis of the Jistering practice exercises at the start of each new ch~ter of the Integrcied
English Coursebooks (KIE, 1992) revealed that they were too brief to help le:m3rs develq>
mealingfullistering skills. Arty coosideration of speaking CIld listening as pat of serioos Slbject
matter of language teaching has usuailly been i{JlOred. Conscious teaching and assessment of
the ability to listen effectively in the classroom, seems to have been igoored 00 the false nOOoo
that it is al iooate ability. Ha.vever, speaking has been accaded some oonsidS"atiooas a skill
wathy of instructiooa effat in the new syllci>us. Few t~s have paid heed to instructiooa
techni~ fa listening. In fact, tecd1ers have been found to skip tearoing a whole lot of skills
that are mooted willin the syflcbJs becaJSe they do not have the time, the inclinatioo a1d oftm,
the capcrity to sea-ch fa examples that wwld enable than to tra1CSeOdthe opaque syilabus
and la1gUage (ELN, 2003). Within the last 15-20 yeas, researchS"s, schofars a1d educators in
America and E•.•.ope have begl.I1to take a new look at listming. Most of the previous studes in
Kenya were dale mainly in primary schools with very few 00 listering. These studes have bem
reviewed in sectioo 24 and 25 of this wak.
18
Thesoocessof my teaming pr~anme is measured by its gra1lates' psfama1C8 in life CIld in
!heE!)(CIJlinatioos.It is net UOOOO1fTl(J1 to ~I rEm abaJt the pea English spdren by stude1tsa
the pea perfoonCllOOin K.C.S.E ErQish. Ttis prOOlem has been attriOOted to leading
tecmiques a1d lack of maalals that would pranote studootl teoohEr"interaction. On the natiooal
salle, tha'e has been pttJIic outcry 00 the pea perfamcme by studalts in the I~,
which are ErQish a1d Kiswahili. An CIlalysiSof the past Kenya CErlificae of Primay Educalioo
(KCPE) and Kenya Certificate of Secoodary Educatioo (KCSE) English exaninatials attests to
this COOO3m.
An analysis of the KCPE results show that English is one of the poa1y perfamed SLt>jects in the
curriculum (East African Standard Newspaper, 3)11I Decanber 1995: 2). The results of the 1994
KCPE examinatioo for instalce, showed that general perfamanoo was pea CI1dthat girts
performed sli~tly better than boys in lalQuages. Boys however, psfamed bettEJ'than girts in
the dher Stbjects especially in Science and AgricuJbJ'e, Mathematics a1d Geography, History
ald Civics as sflOINnin Table 1.2: below.
Table 1.2: 1994 KCPE Performance by Subject and Gender.
Subject
Engish
Kiswahi
Mathematics 46.90
so
14.00 51.81
14.80
15.30
15.40
15.00
Science &~ 44.98 14.20 53.47 14.40
G.H.C 46.30 14.~ 52.36
Craft& J.bic 47,(17 15.0014.50 51.71
HScIBEd. 47.90 14.70 50.88 14.90
SofIce: - East A/ri;;m Standard, 3U' December 1995: 2.
Also commmtiBJ 00 the psfOO11a1Cein the 2001 KCPE exanination, the then Minister fa
Educcmoo 00served that Ic:I1QU3Q8Swere still a ~a proolem fa students (East Africa1
19
Staidad 261hFebruary 2002). In this examination, there was improved pefomaice in the two
languages and Mathematics- but the improvement was observed to be mcrginal.
Adding his voice to the respective minister's statement, the East Africa1 Standard editor,
Wachira Kigotho commented, 'On average low scores were recorded in English ccmposifkn,
Kiswahili and Mathematics and all areas studied with high order types of questions'. He attributed
this to poor teaching; lack of textbooks, leaking roofs and overcrowded dassrooms. This situation
is said to be worse in public primary schools in rural areas where students get little opportunity to
learn or to develop skills to enable them pass K.C.P.E well enoogh to gain admission to natiooal
or good provincial schools. Public schools lack basic learning resources. In an effort to stop this
poor performance in these key subjects, the minister directed that the ministry woold increase the
minimum grade fa- teacher training colleges from 0+ to C Plain. This directive was implemented
in 2004, but with no mention of what should be done aboot pre- service teachers' grades in
English. This, kind of move, if well articulated in policy would also benefit universities where
secondary school teachers are also trained.
Having looked at the scenario in primary school, it is important to also into the' problem at
secondary school level. The KNEC examinations report on the 1993-1996 results showed a
declining trend in English and the grades were generally poor with means of C+, C, C - & 0+
respectively over the years, with paper 101/2 (Uterature in English) being performed poorest. It is
important to note that this is the area that seems to call mostly on listening and interpretative
powers of the student. It is further reported that English language papers in Kenya examinations
set out to test the candidates' knowledge and mastery of grammatical, COOlmunicative and
literary skills of the language-these skills include the productive and interpretciive aspects. They
test candidates' capacity to handle the language both at the receptive aid productive levels, and
20
their ability to comprehend the input, mainly evidenced in their written work as well as their ability
to respond to IiterCl"y cues aid to express their response in Cll intelligible and effective way. This
was elicited through use of three separate but related papers, that is:
101/1A- testing creative aid functional writing
101/18- testing grammar, usage, summary and comprehension
101/2 - testing the literary skills and their manifestatioo and presentation
Table 1.3 below is a summary of performance in the three papers in English, between the years
1993-1996. Figures for 1993, '94, '95, are provided for comparison (below). The poor
performance was attributed to teacher's tendency to ignore the teaching of examination
techniques for example, choice of questioos or selectively teaching omitting certain genres. This
resulted in candidates having a choice only from those texts they learnt, even if the test question
was harder (KNEC, KCSE Examinations Report, 1998). Generally however, an overall
improvement was realized between 1994-96.
Table 1.3: The Perfonnance in the three papers 1993, '94, '95, and '96
~EAR PAPER No. Who Sat MAX.MARKS MEAN Iso
101/1A 40 15.09 ~.99
1993 101/18 140,825 80 ~5.66 10.29
10112 80 15.25 8.29
pverall ~oo ~.95 18.89
H0111A ~O h5.73 b.19
H994 H01l18 142,211 ~ ~6.58 b.79
10112 ~O 14.39 ~.09
Overall t200 156.48 17.59
H01/1A ~ 15.37 ~.19
995 101118 M39)80 ~O pO.69 S.09
H0112 ~O ~.86 ~.39
pverall ~ l55.n 15.49
101/1A ~O 13.69 P.79
1996 101/18 H55,148 ~O P1.29 HO.99
H0112 so 19.23 9.69
Pverall 200 63.79 22.49
souce: KNEe, KC.S.E ExamrIation Report. 1998: 1
21
Commenting on the 1998 KCSE results, the then Minister for Education, observed that CJT10ng
the subjects that had registered marked improvement were Kiswci1i1i, Mathematics, Physics,
Agriculture and French. HONever, English, Biology, Chemistry, Geography, Home science and
Accounting woce poorly performed (Daily Nation Newspaper, Thursday 25th February 1999: 4).
The year 2000 report on the 1999 KCSE examination results shONedpefomaice by girls to be
better than that of boys in overall performance but boys did better than girls in the Sciences.The
girls recorded a dismal performance in Mathematics and Science, but pafomed better in English
and Kiswahili. The results showed nine girls-only schools in the top 20. From Table 1.3 below, it
can be noted that girls had a mean score of 62.97 and 82.04, in English and Kiswahili
respectivelycompared to boys who had 62.45 and 80.47 in English and Kiswahili respectively.
Table 1.4: Performance by Subject & Gender in KCSE 1999
Female Male
Subject Mean Mean
Enqlish 62.97 62.45
Kiswahili 82.04 80.47
Mathematics 19.96 28.28
Biology 47.22 51.85
Physics 39.29 44.47
Chemistry 37.55 42.64
Physical Science 28.42 32.53
BioloQicaIScience 25.31 30.22
Source: East African standard Newspaper, 25" Febru8l'f 2000: 4.
On the above results, the then Minister of Education averred that the ministry was addressing
factors that had a negative impact on girls' performance which included gender biased teaching
and lack of leaming resources. It was also noted that there were more girls than boys doing
Foreign Languages. One of the issues this research sought to explore was the possible
variability between girls' and boys' performance on listening canprehension. Table 1.5 below
shONSthe perfamance in the three papers in the year 2004. Data for the year 2001, 2002 and
2003 and 2005 are also provided for comparison.
22
Table 1.5: Candidates' Overall Performance in English for the Four Consecutiw Vears
~~:j.~~{~f~. ~3'\~~i;:S;~~~~~A~·.::··~~~:~~c:i~:'~~~'.o,~(!:;,': ~ Jd.' : ~~·~~~.~f{.~~;.»:...~~ gf,
2001 1 40 16.79 3.'SI
2 80 33.87 10.34
3 80 1826 8.84
av.-1I1 193,826 200 68.84 ~.OO
2002 1 40 14.46 4Jl1
2 80 2921 10.77
3 80 15]5 8.10
Overall 197,090 200 58.16 21.23
2003 1 40 15.00 3.53
2 80 2922 10.12
3 80 21.05 9.25
av.-all 1J.1T,9'J!J 200 65.26 ~.89
2004 1 40 16.36 3.00
2 80 31.40 10.25
3 80 21.77 9.94
Ov.-all 221,321 200 69.51 ~.OO
2005 1 40 16.98 4.98
2 80 46.89 11.95
3 259,331 80 23.98 5JJl
Ov.-all 200 89.65 22.00.Soun:e; KNEe (2005), KCSE ExantituDJn Carididates Repod: 1
Fran the tci>le above, it was d>served that there was CI1 improvement in perfamance across the
board as evidenced by the means. The overall meal in 2005 was the highest in five years.
Despite the noted improvement in perfCJ111arlre,the soores a-e still below the desired level of
above average (over 50%). A1thotql the mean rase slightly, the performance level remcins
depressed indicaing that there is still a lot to be dale in the teaching of English. Canddates'
mastery of the language is reported to be rudmentary. They need to be given mae attention if
the meal in English is to be lifted beyord the 'C' levef (KNEC, 2005: 3). A definite rededicatioo to
the tea::hing ci Engish is reqtired, together with rigorous feedback axt remedial tea:hing ~V(f1,
if levels of performance are to rise. Increased att81tion to the teaming ci the listening skills
would presumably allay sane of the prOO/emsexperienood.
1.3.5.1:Assessing the Oral Skills
The histay of aal exaninations involving ooe- to- roe interaction betweert examiner and
exaninee, and I a examinee em written material reed aloud commuricatively, dates back to the
23
1950s. In Kenya, this mode of testing has been maintained for German and French examinations
but was discontinued for English. Currently, the KNEC assesses five languages: English,
Kiswahili, French, German and Arabic (Wasanga, 2006: 3).The latta- three are electives and are
assessed both orally and in the written form as foreign languages with a small candidature
compared to English and Kiswahili, which are compulsory and therefore with large candidature.
The table 1.6: below shows the candidature and performance in the languages for the last three
years.
Table 1.6: The Candidature and Performance for the Languages in the Last Three Years
(2003- 2005)
Subject Year
2003 2004 2005
Cand Mean (%) Cand Mean (0/0) Cand Mean (%)
English 20772SJ 32.26 221321 34.76 259331 42.88
Kiswahili 20772SJ 49.10 221286 40.77 259306 45.95
French 2032 44.44 2152 38.84 2250 37.20
German 353 57.75 34 61.85 361 60.20
Arabic 492 68.92 667 71.55 735 66.74
SOUTce: Wasanga; KNEe, 2006: 4
The above table shows that the candidature in English and Kiswahili has been increasing
significantly each year. The difference in the candidature in the compulsory subjects in 2004 and
2005was possibly due to students' absence from the examinations.
The performance in English has been poorer when compared with the rest of the languages.
English Language examinations even currently, are not oral. The last time oral exams were given
in English was in 1974 and even then, the examination was not compulsory and did not
contribute to the overall grade achieved in the written papers. A separate certificate was issued
to those who attempted and passed it. This form of assessment was discontinued due to the
rising candidature and the costs associated with it.
24
The revised S)ilabus of English has now put SI11Ji1asisoolisterlng a1d speaking skills •• bdh
primary a1d secaxay levels rot measures 00 the ways of deYelqjng <.nt assessing the
mastgy axt use cI these skills have oot been JU in pI~. Given the backwash effect
exaninatioos have (J1 ClITKUtm delivery, the t~ng of the listering skills is likely to be
influenced by the style of testing of the skills. It is therefae impa-alive to enha1ce the testifYa)cI
aal skills in whalever tam so as to reinface the t~ng a1d leaning of these skills. Alrea:fy,
efforts ae being made at the prima-y school level to erxwrage better teacher prepa-atioo in the
teadling of English Iquage by promoting the use of norms- based tea:hing a1d aiterioo-
referenced testing (English literacy Norms Project (ELN), KenyaHa University, 20(4). In this
intervention, the teacher is provided with ~ maEJiais fa each cAthe foor 1a1gUageskills,
nanely, listening, speakifYa),reafing and writing. These materials provide the teacher with
detiled guidelines 00 the expectaions (norms) (J1 each sub skill a competence, the
methodology, dloice of resources fa develq>ing the specific skill, and most importantly, and the
indicatas the teacher ca1 use to assess learners famatively on each skill (GathllTlbi at aI.
2(06). The sane coofd be date fa the secooda-y school level.
As seen in the discussion cI the significance of the listening skills above, it may tha-efae be
argued that most of the faegoing discussioo highlights the importa1oo of the listening skills in
languageleeming and therefore pafamCl1ce in English 1a1QU8ge..
The bookground imamatioo above guided the resea-ch in several ways: cOOice of instrurnEms
and W;;tfS of presentaion of listening materials fa the listering canprehension test and the
discussion on the faetas that may affect 1earrtEJ"s'listening proficiency. Having looked at the
ba:kgrOllld into listening ald listering comprehension, CI1 overview of the i~ated S)ilcilus,
25
the highlights into the performance of English examinatons and the objectives for teaching
listening and speaking skills, it is imperative to state the problem that gave rise to the reseam.
1.4: Statement of the Problem.
The focus of this study was to investigate the nature of the listening materials and tasks learners
were exposed to, the levels of performance in listening comprehension of form three students
and the factors that affect the same and make recommendations towards the development of
this language skill in selected secondary schools in Nairobi and Vihiga districts.
It has been observed that some teachers resort to teaching grammar and other language skills,
without paying much attention to the mental process of listening. The classroom assesssment
and the national English Language and Literature examinations do not have an oral and a
listening component, despite the changes to the syllabus with the aim of including examination of
oral skills. In effect, it is only the writing and reading comprehension components that are tested.
It has also been noted that some students are unable to understand English as spoken by
university and college lecturers. They seem not to have been taught techniques used to
understand spoken English. The question then is, just what are they taught?
Learning of any subject is dependent on a students' proficiency in the language of instruction.
The Kenya Certificate of Secondary Education (KCSE) English syllabus (2002) requires that the
learner develops and achieves communicative canpetence in all the four skills: listening,
speaking, reading and writing, while using the language. Research has also shown that 70% of
classroom communication is teacher talk (Flanders, 1966), which therefore calls for more
exercises and focus on the proper development of the skills of speaking and listening. Reading
and writing skills have received attention in the classroom yet the listening element in
26
interpersonal communication has been left to falter on its own. Usually after graduation frtm
school, most students enter a society where they will be required to listen for a good part of the
day. Yet the academic world has done little to train students in active listening. Very little specific
instructiooal effort is given to it (Adler & Brown: 2(03).
Considering the nature of the listening comprehensioo materials and tasks/activities that learners
are exposed to, a review of the Integrated English Book (1992) in use was done to examine how
well the books provided for the teaching of the listening skill. Despite the undisputed importance
of the listening skill as a tool of learning, it is regrettable to note that no systematic attempts have
been made to study the development of the skill at any level of education in Kenya. It has been
noted that almost all errors of stress or intonation, whether of words, phrases or sentences,
originate from careless listening or listening to a non-fluent speaker and copying himlher or
'hearing" English terms in one's mother tongue. This kind of situation creates an urgent need to
explore different aspects of listening ability.
This study was undertaken in selected secondary schools, to establish the proficiency and levels
of listening comprehension of form three students, the factors that affect the same and make
reoonmendatoos towards the improvement of the teaching of listening skills.
1.5: Research Questions
This study aimed at answering the following research questions:
i. What sub skills of listening comprehehsion are the form three students competent in?
ii. What is the level of proficiency of form three students in listening comprehensioo?
27
iii. How well are the listening materials and tasks covered in the English language
coursebook for students and teachers' guide book used in form three in public
secondary schools?
iv. What is the quality of the listening materials and tasks provided in the Integrated English
book3?
v. How exposed are the form three learners to the listening skill?
vi. What factors influence learners' listening comprehension proficiency levels?
1.6: Objectives of the Study.
This study was done in selected secondary schools in Nairobi and Vihiga districts in Kenya with
the following objectives in mind:
i. to establish form three learners' listening comprehension competencies and proficiency
levels.
ii. to analyse the coverage of listening materials and tasks in the English language
coursebook used in form three in public secondary schools.
iii. to determine the quality of the listening materials and tasks and exposure of form three
learners to the listening skill.
iv. to identify factors that influence learners' listening comprehension proficiency levels.
1.7: Significance ofthe Study.
The role of English in the Kenya school curriculum is of paramount importance. The acquisition
of all the four language skills earlier mentioned is key to a student's acquisition and total mastery
of the second language. The students' performance in English and Literature in English and
other subjects depends to a large extent, on the effectiveness listening. This is because most of
the instructions are given verbally and a great part of the classroom time is spent listening to the
28
teacher. Training of both the teacher aid the learner is needed in order to help students lea-n
more efficiently through listening. It is hoped that this study (which underscores the primacy of
listening comprehension in language learning), will go a long way in improving learners'
proficiency in English. Since much of the learning in the classroom depends on listening to the
teacher, it is critical that the skills for listening parallel to those for other language skills.
Teachers of English will benefit from this study, especially in designing practice activities and
assessing their learners' proficiency in English Language Ustening Comprehension. Teachers of
other subjects will gain likewise as listening skills are used by students to learn other subjects.
This study will also provide a basis for further studies by other researchers, on other related
aspects of the listening skill.
Students in primary school, high school and colleges will gain by improving their proficiency in
Ustening Comprehension from the suggested techniques. For the student, the findings of this
study are useful in that good listening will help them gather information and consequently pass
examinations. Good listening on a topic or subject will save the student the time of reading books
because the teacher gives a concise summary of the main points of the textbooks. Oral
presentation is key to the te~hing process, therefore, good listening techniques may also enable
the student to understand the teacher's message and evaluate the strong and weak pants in a
message (hence increasing critical thinking) and therefore, expand one's knC1Nledge.
This study will also be a pointer to areas of weakness or strElflgth in the English language
curriculum, and also throw light to the curriculum developer on where to re-appraise. The Kenya
Institute of Education (K IE) will benefit in terms of continued appraisal of the syllabus and course
book content. The Kenya National Examination Council (KNEC) has a lot to gain in terms of
•.•~ -,.... •. ,.. r
29
content and suggested strategies for assessing and examining learner canpetence in the
listening skills. They may consider including an aural component in English Language and
Business English examinations.
Counselling psychology depends highly on the listening skill, therefore counsellors as listeners
will benefit a great deal from the identified factors influencing listening problems and suggested
techniques. Other beneficiaries would be public relations (PR) practitioners who train people in
communication and listening skills. The electronic media also may gain from this research in
dealing with listening canmunication situations such as interviews and talk shows, Airlines will,
among others, benefit by training their air traffic controllers and flight attendants in good
communication through careful listening. Medical doctors, whose diagnoses highly depend on
listening, may also be beneficiaries of this research's outcomes.
1.8: Assumptions
This study had the following assumptions:
i. All students have normal hearing ability and employ certain strategies to understand
spoken language.
ii. At form one, all the students were at par. For example, it was assumed that they
generally scored above 350 marks out of a possible 700 (or over 250 marks out of a
possible 500) at KCPE examination.
iii. Listening comprehension is to a large extent, affected by academic ability and vice
versa.
30
1.9: Limitations
There was lack of related looa literature and actua research on the listening skill in Africa and
especially, Kmya. The reseacher was also restricted to analysing the available materia- the
only recanmended course book for English language teaching.
1.10: De-limitations
In order to spend reasonable time for a thorough study, this research was restricted to form three
students of selected secondary schools in Nairobi and Vihiga districts. The target population
excluded other class levels for two reasons: to be able to conduct a more intensive and focused
study and that form three students were more at ease with English. This is because they had
covered about three quarters of the syllabus of English, their language bank was assumed to be
more developed. They therefore were assumed to have a higher English Language proficiency
and were more likely to listen to and retain long structures more easily than the lower classes, a
factor much needed in listening especially to tape recorded materials. The form four classes
were busy preparing for th~ national examinations and could not be interfered with. For easier
management, the researcher was restricted to English lessons only. For the same reasons, the
researcher could not analyse in depth the course books for all the classes and study other areas
where listening is involved in the classroom. The actual fieldwork for this study was limited to the
period before the implementation of the revised syllabus (2002), that is 1999-2001.
1.11: Definition of Related Terms.
Ability - The researcher adopted the dictionary meaning: poNer and skills.
Competence - Used in relation to the dictionary meaning: having the skill, ability, or power
to do what is needed. It is used synonymously with ·ability" and ·sub skills' in this
research
31
English - This refers to both Language and Uterature as taught in Kenya. In secondcvy
school, English teaching uses an integrated approach that is, Language and Uterature
simultaneously. At the university, they are treated as two distinct subjects; literary and
linguistic studies.
Ustening - The word is used to refer the selective process of attending to, hearing,
understanding and remembering oral symbols.
Ustening oomprehension -It is the ability to listen and understand spoken language; the
process of recognition and interpretation or comprehension of the spoken language. It
involves making sense of spoken utterances such as a speech, a story or a dialogue.
Ustening oomprehension testing - This is a procedure in which a learner listens to a text
deliberately intended for him/her and is assessed based on how slhe responds to it. The
LeT for this purpose tested listening comprehension sub skills based on exposition story,
and a conversation verified by experts and presented to a sample of students, using
audio- based tests. Results were judged from quantification of learning outcomes.
Uterature - As used for secondary school purposes, it refers to the study of written works
as part of the integrated English subject.
Proficiency - This refers to learners' general ability in language, that is, if they were well
practised or skilled in listening comprehension, as demonstrated in their performance on
tests of different sub skillsl competencies or abilities of listening comprehension, which
were used for this study.
Retrieve - This is to call to mind aqan what has been learnt; retrieval is a good indication
Of comprehension and learning.
Test (a) - Refers to a procedure designed to elicit certain behaviour from which one can
make inferences about certain characteristics of an individual! a quantification of learning
outcomes.
K~NYATTA UNIVERSITY LI'BRARY,
32
Validity - A check on whether the tests were measuring listening comprehensioo or
something else.
Chapter Summary
In this chapter, the importance of the skills of l2 listening has been underscored. It has also been
shown that there is a problem in the attention paid to listening as an important language skill both
in pedagogy and assessment. The status of the development of this skill in the Kenyan syllabus
of English has also been shown and the objectives and significance of the study are outlined.
,
•
CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
2.0: Introduction
In this chapter, sane coocepts pertaining to listening and listening comprehension ae defined
and explained. The literature on processes of second Language (L2) listening is reviewed in
order to provide a theoretical franework on which this research is based. The chapter also
describes secood language listening comprehension and considers the factors which research
has shown, affect the same. It then discusses the sub skills of listening comprehension and
concludes with a review of studies done both locally and abroad in the areas of English language
education and listening. In essence, the review of related literature served as a link between the
present study and those previously done in the same or related areas.
2.1: Background to the Skill of Listening
2.1.1: Pre-concepts
As a preamble to the discussion on listening and listening comprehension, it is important to
clarify some concepts that have a bearing on the listening skill. The term pre-concepts is used
here to mean those aspects that would facilitate the discussion on listening comprehension for
better understanding and to shed light on the area of listening. Among these concepts are:
hearing, perception, comprehension, learning, understanding, memory and intelligence. Each of
these concepts could also be a process because they entail a hidden mental or OOJnitive•
process; that is why they need to be discussed prior to discussion of the listening process.
a) Hearing
This is a purely physical response to sound waves stimulating the sensory receptor of the ear - a
passive activity markedly different fron listening, which is a deliberate, active behaviour, as is
34
explained later. It could also be defined as the process in which sound waVf13strike the eardrum
and cause vibrations that are traisrnitted to the brain (Adler and Brown, 2(03).
b) Perception
Perception can sometimes be defined as the process in listening by which we become CNlareof
sound stimuli, objects and events in oor environment.
c) Comprehension
According to Clark and Clark (1997), comprehension is the process by which listeners come to
an interpretation for a stream of what is perceived. It includes the process by which listeners use
those interpretations for their intended purpose. It also means making sense of. Comprehension
and learning are inseparable because both involve relating new experience to what is already
known. Smith, (1975) contends that comprehension is a precondition to learning. He adds further
that it is related to "perception' "attention", and "thinking', that is, various stages in the listening
process.
d) Learning
Meredith (1961) says that learning be taken in two senses; learning for remembering and
learning for knowing. In the former case, Meredith arques that one should be able to read (or
listen) in such a way that the content can be remembered whenever required. He defines the
latter case as being able to remember sooner or later something one has already understood
and therefore one should listen in such a way that the content will be both understood and
retained. The implication of the above is that:
i) One can remember without necessarily understanding and
ii) One can know without necessarily remembering.
e) Understanding
This means, "to get an idea of, "to comprehend by way of information", "to have information
about" (De Cecco, 1963: 334). It invdves getting the meanings of words, perceiving the relations
35
amoog wads, appreciating the intentioos of the sender, and evaluating the significance of the
message.
ij Memory
Memay refers to the staage of the data from a few seconds to an indefinite period. There ae
two types of memories: shoo-term memay (STM) and long-term memory (LTM). The STM is a
working memory, for transient information that we want to be remembered only briefly and for
immediate use. The information is retained for a relatively shorter period and is meant for•
immediate access. Its capacity is very limited but plays a major role in discourse comprehension.
The STM holds features of meaning, syntax and sounds and acoustic information such as
speech quality. The LTM on the other hand, is the permanent memory and may be defined as
the relatively permanent accumulation of all our knowledge and beliefs of the world and
ourselves. It has unlimited capacity, used for storing information for latter retrieval. Its duration is
essentially indefinite and access to the informatioo is not so automatic. It depends on
organization and is slow to retrieve from. Amoog the procedures one uses to aid memay are:
i. organizing material into categories,
ii. noting sequencing,
iii. using mnemonic devices (memory aids),
iv. visualization (Weaver, 1972, Embeywa, 1989).
In this research on listening comprehension, we are more interested in the STM rather than the
LTM. In relation to memory, Meredith (1961: 9) sees remembering as being a state of mind in
which one can immediately produce the item if required to do so. He says that this requires both
retaining and recalling. Further to this, one has to drill himlherself to recall through repeated
testing and recall should be checked after different time lapses.
g) Intelligence
This refers to reasoning ability, a mental quality, or the capacity to grasp and manipulate certain
kinds of facts, a predictor to academiq success.
36
2.1.2: Components and Types of Listening
The listening process includes four interrelated components: Hearing, attending, comprehending
and remembering. Lundsteen (1979) proposes a tentative hierarchy of listening skills. She uses
this hierarchy as a guide for instructional activities fa elementary and secondary level students,
and identifies two skills that students must obtain as prerequisites for comprehension.
i. First, students must be able to distinguish between listening and hearing - to
discriminate incomprehensible sounds from verbal messages.
ii. Second, students must demonstrate two-way responsibility as speaker/listener - a shift
from presenting information to attending to information others are presenting.
Lundsteen (1979), goes on to provide a list of comprehending skills that range from the simplest
to the most complex: selecting fads and details, sequential ordering, selecting main data,
summarising, relating one idea to another and inference making. She adds another level to the
hierarchy and this she calls critical listening. This level requires more than understanding what is
said and includes skills such as analysing, interpreting and evaluating information.
A model of listening must also take into account other non-cognitive aspects of listening. While
Listening primarily involves comprehending the meaning of words, it also requires. interpreting
non-verbal signals. Some of these signals are received aurally. For example tone of voice,
pause, volume rate, and accent provide additional communicative information. Non-verbal
signals are also received in other ways. For exanple, much information is conveyed through
facial expressions, gestures, and posture. Listening involves understanding both cognitive and
effective meanings. The listener must comprehend what is said and also recognise the feelings
behind what is said .•
37
Wilkinson et a!. (1974) propose that listening includes cognitive, affective, situciionai. and cultural
factors. They used this model to design a comprehensive listening test for elementary and
secondary level students.
i. First. listening involves comprehending the content of what is said.
ii. Secondly. it requires understanding additiona meaning that is conveyed by the way the
speaker stresses or emphasises words.
iii. Thirdly, listening involves understanding the contextual constraints of language - the
basic requirements and grammar, words meanings. topic and so forth.
iv. Fourthly. listening requires knC1tNingthe appropriateness of language for a given
situation.
Three classifications are discussed below in an attempt to provide an overview of several
different ways in which listening has been viewed. Each classification represents a specific way
in which listening theorists such as Barker (1971) and Byrne (1986) have chosen to discuss the
listening process, which is amplified at a later stage in this chapter in the section on the
theoretical modellframework. The two authorities classify listening types differently. Barker
(1971) identifies three categories of listening: active versus passive. social versus serious and
critical versus discriminative.
38
Table 2.1: Types of Listening According to Barker (1971)
a) Active
Full involvement of one's senses, beliefs, attitudes,
feelingsand intentions
Listeningwith a purpose
Can occur in a social (informaij or serious (formal)
setting
b) Social
Informal, noo-structural communication.
ConversationaVentertainment.
Appreciative - to mood, tone, rhyth.m (in poetry, play or
short story).
Courteous- as in counselling.
c) Critical
AnaJysingevidence or ideas, making critical judgments
about the validity and quality of material skills.
Distinguishingfact from opinion, logical arguments.
Detecting bias and prejudice.
Recognizing propaganda.
Drawing inferences and so 00.
Defensive listening
c) Discriminative
For understanding and remembering.
Skins: understanding meanings of words from context.
The relationship of details to main points.
Follow directions, sequences.
Listening for details, recognizing speaker's purpose.
Taking notes and so 00.
a) Passive
Little self-perception, persorial involvement or curiosity.
Minimal concern in the process
Barely more than hearing.
Conscious thoughts evoked spaadicaHy, not
consistently.
b) Serious
Selective listening to segments of message - altemate
active and passive listening.
Concentrated - to entire message, attempting to
comprehend aD its aspects and everything that was
said.
Adapted from Barker, 1971:
For Barker (1971), the types of listening that are most likely to occur in the classroom are the
serious, active, critical and discriminative listening. It is however important to remember that a
listening event cannot adequately be characterized by one type of listening. Listening is a
process constantly in a state of change. Barker further identifies four levels or processes of
classroom listening in which students engage. For him, in a "typical" listening setting, listeners
usually engage in a variety of listening levels at one time. He therefore refers to:•
Attentive listening level: - paying attention.
ii. Retentive listening level: - which goes beyond mere attention, attempt to
comprehend .and remember message using mnemonic devices to aid remembering.
ni. Reflective listening level: - where the listener attends and retains information
,
39
and mentally evaluates the information in his mind and draws inferences and
relationships about the materials. It invdves active listening skills and active mental
processesrelated to information processingand evaluation.
iv. Reactive listening level: - which invdves attending to the information, attaining
it, reflecting upon it, and giving verbal or non-verbalfeedbackto the speaker.
Byrne (1986), on his part identifies three types of listening, which he says, depend on the
listening materials and tasks presented. He refers to exposure listening, which is listening to
different texts of conversational, narrative and informative type. He distinguishes this from task
listening, which is meant for ear training in sound, intonation, and stress and to instructions and
identifying mistakes. The final one, Byrne calls interactional listening, which involves discussion
activitiesand interviews amongothers.
While Barker (1971) identifies listening types as active versus passive; social versus serious and
critical versus discriminative, Byrne on the other hand, identifies three types: expository, task and
interactional listening. Barker further recognisesfoor levels oflistening that is, attentive, retentive,
reflective and reactive and concludes that a learner may be invdved in a type of listening at
different levels. Barker and Byrne only differ in the way in which they dassify listening. The
present study borrowed from both theorists' classifications. That is, concern was on active,
serious and ~iscriminative listening through exposure to audio-recorded materials. Social
listening was not one of the research tasks because of the complexity involved in its
measurementand analysis.
As seen from the definitions earlier given, listening involves four separate but interrelated
processes;attention, hearing, understanding and staing of meaningful infamation in the mind
40
for later recall. Since listening is an integral part of the communication system, an attempt was
made to first highlight the general communication model by referring to three models or
approaches to communicatioo: the action! linear, the interactiona and the transactiona models.
A brief review of these models will provide a background to understanding the process of
listening. This will be followed by a discussion of the process of listening, which formed the
theoretical framework for this study. The processes in listening are described in the section
below through the presentation of a listening model by Barker (1971), which provided a
conceptual view of the listening process and guided this study. Frederiksen (1986) also offers a
clarification of the process of listening and his views are briefly described in the section below.
2.2: The Theoretical Model/Framework
In this section, the terms, model and framework were used interchangeably as models help to
build systematic theories and form a frame from which observations and inferences about
listening are built. Two general communication models are briefly outlined. In addition, two
models of listening are described. These models, by Barker (1971) and Frederiksen (1986) were
used to guide the present research. It was recognised that there are other models of listening
and discoorse processing, for example, Marslen- Wilson and Taylor's (1980) interactive theory,
the 'Claisa Hypothesis' by Fodor, Bever and Garrett (1974) and Marslen- Wilson et aI. (1978)
and the 5fext Comprehension Models' by Kintsch and Van Dijk (1978). However, the proponents
of these models see the structure of discourse or a story as being hierarchical and have more to
say about memory of stories than comprehension. The models are narrow compared to Barker's
(1971) and- Frederiksen's (1986) and focus more on the cognitive processes that occur in
discourse comprehension. Barker's and Frederiksen's models are more inclusive as they
recognise both cognitive and affective processes and take into account most of the factors that
may affect listening.
41
2.2.1: The General Communication Model
There are several communication models presented to account for human communication. For
exanple, there is the linear / action model and the transactional model. The linear model
(Shannon and Weaver, 1949) presents communication as being a one- way process; that is, it
involves the message from sender to receiver and emphasises the aspect of noise as a
hindrance to communication. It can be described as a mechanical process, passive and has no
provision for feedback.
Communication may also be viewed as a transactional process that involves a developmental
interaction between communicative partners. This model presents a picture that shows that most
types of personal communication are two- way exchanges. The model reflects the fact that we
usually send and receive messages simultaneously. The roles of the sender and receiver are
mutual. The proponents of this model (Waltzlawick, 1969; Sameroff and Chandler, 1975; Kublin
et aI., 1989; Wetherbyet aI., 1998 and Warren and Yoder, 1998) argue that at a given moment,
we are capable of receiving, decoding and responding to another person's behaviour, while at
the same time, that other person is receiving and responding to ours. They further emphasise
that comm.tlnication is not something we do to others; rather, it is something we do with them.
This perspective emphasises the reciprocal, bi- directional nature of the communication
environment and the responsiveness of the communicative partners. The quality and nature of
the contexts i.n which interaction occurs are considered to have a great influence on and
consequently the successful acquisition of language and communication. The transactional
nature of communication is evident in school where teachers and pupils influence one another's'
behaviour. The models described above only provided the background to understanding the
listening process as part of communication but were not used directly to inform the present study.
42
2.2.2: Frederiksen's Model of Processes in Listening
Robinson and Barker (1990) cite Frederiksen's (1986) model of listening. Frederiksen (1986)
outlines the processing stages which one engages in while reading or listening to a text. He
states that in listening:
i. One must be capable of word identification, syntactic analysis, semantic analysis and
pragmatic analysis
ii. Readers/listeners use an expected episode structure for example, a stored story
schema, in comprehending text.
iii. Thematic organization and cohesion (textual coherence) are related to information
processing during comprehension in such a way that staging or thematisation and
cohesion properties affect discourse processing (Robinson and Barker 1990: 319).
For Frederiksen (1986), the ability to use thematic information is important to overcome speed
and capacity limitations. His virm of discourse processing is that listeners (and readers) alter the
manner in which they process discourse to meet the demands imposed by a particular discourse
or communicative context. He says: "there are individual differences in people's discourse
processing because of the variation in speed and capacity of each to process linguistic
informaticfl (that is, difference in "verbal coding speed" and "STM capacity"). (Robinson and
Parker 1990: 321). For him, skilled comprehension depends on quick and effective encoding at
various levels.
Frederiksen's model was found impcrtant to this study since it describes information processing
in terms of comprehension of words, sentences, meaning, inference, and main idea/topic, which
were sane of the concerns of the present study. In this model, listeners are presented as altering
their manner of discourse processing according to the text. It influenced the reseacher's choice
of a variety of texts for testing learners from different locales and of both gender.
43
2.2.3: Barker's Model of the Listening Process
The present research was manly guided by Barker's (1971) model of the listening process,
which is borrowed from Shannon and Weaver's (1949) communicatioo model. BCI'kerasserts
that althoogh his model looks lineCl' and two dimensiooal, it should be noted that listening is
rarely linear a1d is definitely neXa two-dimensional process; it is a complex multi-dimensiooal
activity. He adds that in some cases, there are interrelated processes in listening and these may
occur simultaneously even though in the graphic representation of the model, they appear to be
in a definite sequence. According to Barker, listening processes are therefore simultaneous.
Figure 2.1 below illustrates the listening process in the model according to Barker (1971) .
•
44
Flg.2.1: A Listening Model
Source: Barlcer, 1971:25
From Figure 2.1, four components are identified;
• The communication context
45
• The lalguage systems
• The stimuli, sound cr1dlight waves and interference
• The tralsmitter( s)
Following is a brief description of the model: •
a.The communication context:
The context may be defined in terms of environment, listener attitude, speaker attitude Clld other
variables such as cultural influences. The listening process must be examined in the cOntext in
which it occurs because context determines to a large extent, the meanings the listener will
attach to the speaker's verbal or non-verbal symbols.
b. language systems:
Before most types of listening can occur, there must be an agreed upon language system as the
basis of communication. In most cases, the language system will be a verbal one, which will be
understood by both the speaker and the listener. However, the language system may be non-
verbal (for example, the language of the deaf). It may also be a combination of the verbal and
non-verbal language agreed upon by the two communicators. The speaker must have sufficient
commonality of language (verbal or non-verbal) with the listener to be understood. If this
condition is not met, communication breakdown will inevitably occur.
c. Stimuli, sound and light waves and interference (noise):
The sound waves may be affected by interference, which leads to distortion of a primary
message in varying degrees. This interference distorts the sound waves and affects the listener's
nervous system. Light is affected in the same way as the sound; for exanple, in cases where the
message source is not humai, a listener is net able to see a speaker's non-verbal cues, or a
speaker's skin colour. Therefore, the stimuli provided by the speaker's message to the listener's
ae in turn mediated by the listener before he responds to the speaker.
46
d. Transmitter(s):
Vocals and non-verbal visual symbols ae transmitted through movements and facial
expressionsvia muscles and nerves.
In the present study, the oommunication cootext was the classroan with audio recording
(stimuli). The ICflguage, English was canmon to all students. Noise is expected from vehides
and the next classroan. The speaker's non-verbal cues were not seen but were taken care of in
the recording of the listening materials. This is described in chapter three under the development
of the test for the study. It is important to note that the mind does not separate the types of
listening. To further explain the above-jeneraised description, in, figure 2.2 below Barker (1971)
describesthe cognitive and affective processesthat occur in a listener during listening.
47
Fig. 2.2: A "Close up" view of the listener
fROM MESSAGE SOURCE-.: ..
i;:TiNTiR~"A;:·~~if~fEkfNct:~-.-.------.--" .. -~:.....-.-.----"-- -.
,
I~------------------~----~~~~----~----~----~----~~ ..~J
Soutee: Barker, 1971:26
Fran figure 2.2 above, Barker (1971) identified the following processes'
• Receptioo, neural activity, hearing and seeing.
48
• Perception CIlddiscrimination.
• Cognitive processes.
• Affective processes.
• Maturation em communication climate.
• Response(s): - (critical, social and serious)
Figure 2.2 presents an adequate analysis of what Barker (1971) sees as gang on in the listener.
This is described belON.
a. Reception, Neural Activity, Hearing and Seeing
According to Barker (1971), seeing is critical variable in listening (but the eyes are seconday
receptors in the listening process). He says that reception invdves hearing and seeing and can
be a biological process. Understanding does not occur until the received messages have been
internalised, analysed and interpreted (that is, decoded em assigned meaning). Once messages
have been received in the form of visual or aural stimuli, the stimuli initiate the flONof the electro-
chemical neural impulses to the brain and the central nervous system (eNS) which when
decoded, cause the listener to begin thinking about or reSpondingto the new stimuli.
b. Perception and Discrimination .
Perception is a combination of physiological (primary neural) and mental processes (both
cognitive and attitudinal). It is the filtering of stimuli before they reach the brain f selecting the
stimuli whfch are of sufficient strength or impotence to stimulate thought. Using the arlalogy of
sifting sand through a screen, the smallest partides are allowed to slip through but the biggest
(most important) partides remain for examination: the more novel the stimuli, the more likely they
are to be perceived by the listener. Consequently, these perceived stimuli are subjected to pre-
conscious or conscious cognitive and attitudinal processing by the listener.
49
c. Discrimination:
Discrimination interacts with the process of perception. Perceptua discrimination is primarily a
learned behaviour which makes people attend to oatan types of stimuli more reOOilyand
completely than to others. For exanple, one listens better when slhe heas hislher name or a
familiar name in a speechlor to symbols which have a Id of meaning to himJher as a result of
his/her past experienoe and education. Perceptual discrimination takes place at both cognitive
and affective levels of listening. In much the same vein, it can be argued that perception is a joint
product between the perceiver and the perceived. Fa example, a student who grew up being
told that short teachers are hot tempered may not listen very effectively to his short English
Languageteacher because of fear.
d. Cognitive Processes of Listening
• Attention: Barker says that once a message has been perceptually discriminated, the
message must be given conscious attention in order to be comprehended.Attentioo is a
factor of prime concern for a speaker because research has indicated that adults attend
to specific stimuli for v~y short periods of time (about 5 - 25 seconds). Once a stimuli
gains cognitive attention, a succession of mental processes operate in such 'rapid fire-
order that it is somewhat misleading to talk about them as discrete processes.
• Sound isolation: After attention, sounds are perceived CIld placed in sane order and
context before the listener recognizes them as meaningful wad symbds. This
mealingfulness will in turn be deternined by the listener's perception and reasons for
listening. The aiteria fa" meaningfulness may therefore depend on the individual.
• Language recognition: The listener sees soond as a meaningful set of symbols
(cognitive assimilation), that is, language. It also involves non-verbal vocatizationssuch
as moans, groans, sighs, and paralanguagesuch as rhythm, pitch and intonation.
50
• Primary meaning assignment: This invdves assigning "first level- of meaning to wad
symbols. At his stage, very little aitical examination of the mea1ing of the wads symbol
is present. Therefore, in a class of 40 listening pupils for example, there may be a variety
of ways of assigning meaning to what is hea-d.
• Integration of experiences: After the listener has assigned prima)' meaning to wads,
sIlle then integrates past experiences, which bea 00 the symbols for which slhe has
previously attached meaning, with the present - retrieved from long time in a split
second.
• Secondary meaning assignment: This is the level of interpretatioo when deeper levels
of meaiinq are assigr)ed. The message mayor may not be understood correctly by the
listener, but helshe subjectively believes he/she has attached the "correcr meaning to
the message being transmitted.
• Evaluation: This happens after the listener feels he/she understands what the message
meals "consciously or unconsciously" in the light of his value structure, attitudes and
beliefs.
• Retaining information for future use: The listener internalises the information. This is
crucial in remembering a sufficient proportioo of information to execute necessary tasks
such as in a test. The listener makes deliberate conscious efforts to retain information for
future use. This involves active listening.
Barker (1971) notes that from exanining the lea-ning-forgeWng curve, about 90% of what we
-gan from hearing will neXbe remembered unless something "cues- the informatioo up at a later
stage. The information that we do retan may become distorted, changed or re-ordered OV~ time.
His assertion is supported by Adler and Brown (2003: 114), who assert that research findings
have shown that people remember ooly half ot what they hear immediately after heaing it, and
within two months, half of the haf is forgotten, bringing what we remember (the residual
51
message) down to ci>out 25% of the original message. That is why people need training in
listening. In the present study, this was tci<en note of by giving the test immediately after the
listening had occurred.
e. Affective Processes of Listening
According to BarkEI'(1971), variables, which relate to the listener's affective state, could be either
attitudinal or emotional. These are:
• Perceived purpose to listen, which involves motivatioo and interest in what the speaker
says. A listener should perceive a strong purpose for listening.
• Intrinsic Motivation: The listener:must have reasons (ex- rewards) for listening.
• Emotiooal control: Heightened emotions can inhibit listening effectiveness. Negative
emotions may reduce comprehensioo and divide and therefore decrease perception time
between speakers message and listener's thoughts. Negative emotions may also reduce
listener's motivation to continue listening. Positive emotions may also inhibit listening
effectiveness.
f. Maturation and Communication Climate
Maturation is a variable that interacts with both cognitive and emotional processes in listening. It
is the most important variable in the listener's communication climate. Listening demands, at the
very least, basic levels of maturation. The level- of maturation of the listener will, in part,
determlne how effectively he can integrate all of the cognitive and emotional skills demanded of
an active listener.
g. Response(s)
This entails feedback and is the final element of listening process model as expounded by Ba1<er
(1971).
52
'Mile borrowing from Barker's (1971) model of listening, this study also benefited from the
contributions of Frederiksen (1986). BCI'ker and Frederiksen share certain issues in oommon
regCl'dingprocessing stages in listening: both emphasise language recognition and integration of
experiences to undEl"StCl'ldnew meaning.
I
Conclusions about the listening Process
According to BCI'ker (1971) a1d Frederiksen (1986) listening is a process of communication
within one's self in response to an external stimulus (intrapersonal). It is an active, on-Qoing
----
process, not a passive static process. It also involves perception, storing, processing, analysing
and evauatkn ieading to a response through interpersona communication. Expectatioos of the
listener contribute significantly to what he hears, comprehends and interprets; he may hear what
he thought the speaker was going to say, rather thCl'lwhat the speaker actufily did say. Barker
(1971) adds that some listeners may aso. be more skilled thCl'l others at specific types of
prooossing, for example SOOlemay have excellent word recognitioo skills while others, at
determining the meaning of sentences. Why the differences in comprehension strategies is a
subject for a full-blown research. For him, the listening setting should therefore be analysed
independent/yoThe processes and features of the listening process described above need to be
bane in mind while making conclusions about listening.
The administration, analysis m interpretation of the present research test instrument was
guided CI'ld infamed by the literature on the related components, elements a1d processes of
listening discussed in the two models described above. This study also took into consideratioo,
the qualities of spoken language that are seen to have an impact on second language listening
comprehension. These Cl'ediscussed in the section below.
53
2.2.4: Factors that Influence Listening Behaviour
The significance of listening skills notwithstanding, several footors may influence the teacher's
efforts t9 impa1 these skills and the leaners' efforts to attain proficiency in the same. The
researcher tad< cognisa1C8 of sane of the factors, briefly examined in the section that fdlows.
The theoretic<i framework provided an overview of the interlinked, interna processes believed to
underpin first language (L 1) listening. This section describes the factors which research has
shaNn affect listening in the second language. Generally, these factors include leaner or listener
characteristics, text type, speaker characteristics, task nature and environmental factors among
others .
./ a) Leamer Characteristics
Sex - that men Clld women process information differently.
Age - related variables - variables such as attention span, influence listening, for instance,
young children have a much shorter attention spai than young adults (children do not have as
well developed story schema as adults do). It is also observed that a child between 12 - 13 years
prefers reading to listening (because they CCIl read faster than a speaker talks). Younger children
prefer to listen (Barker, 1971: 46).
Listener's personality characteristics - subjective listening reduces cornprehensioo, while
objectivity in listening increases listening cbility. Usteners who have feelings of insecurity for
instance, tend to be poorer listeners thoo those who are optimistic and free from momentary
I
worries.
Listener's motivation levels - the higher the motivatioo (intrinsic and extrinsic) the better the
listening.
Interest and attitude - comprehension happens within the listener and it is highly dependent
upon the attitudes of the listener. The more interesting one finds orally presented material, the
54
more likely they will be to listen to it. This is corroba"ated by HCI"mer(1990), who asserts that in
the choice of texts for students to listen to, the teacha" must consider why CI1d when we listen
best. This constitutes readiness to listen. A student who fals to acquire readiness to listen cannot
comprehend what sheIhe listens to.
I Binaural hearing -listeners differ in their ability to suppress extra1800S noises and listen more
carefully to the major sound source.
listeners' fatigue - may cause reduced attention span and decrease listening ability.
Intelligence - any mental ability, including listening, depends to a certain extent, on intelligence.
Ustening and intelligence ate related, but not to a high a degree as might be inferred intuitively
(Wilkinson et al 1974). But mental retardation or poor intelligence may imply poor listening
behaviour. Jacobson and Faltis, (1990) add that .Ianguage proficiency does not guarantee
./
academic success, but its absence suggests poor academic achievement.
Scholastic aptitude and achievement - there is a higher correlation between listening and
scholastic aptitude. Citing BrONn and Carlsen (1955) and Green (1958), Barker (1971) reports
that listening relates moderately to scholastic aptitude. But he adds that this relationship may be
interpreted as a function of 'pure'listening skills.
Verbal ability - there is a moderate relationship between listening ability and verbal"ability.
Experience in listening - it is not the amount of listening experiences that affects listening
ability but the kind of experiences a listener has engaged in.
Reading comprehension - in situations where students can listen easily to materia or cope
with word symbols oraly, they prefer liStening to reading. In situations where the material to
comprehend is difficult or conditions fa' listening are not favourable, students prefer reading.
Speech training - in high school, this improves listening skills to a mcxJercie degree (but not
high relationship).
55
b) Speaker Qualities
Linguistic Factors: such as crxent, speed, fluency, volume and claity. It is recommendedthat
the q>tima ~ng rate fa comprehensioo is 120 - 150 wads per minute (wpm) in second
languageand 130-170 wpm in first language.
. Visibility of the speaker ~ that listening improves when the speaker is visible (via non-verbal
communication such as gesturing).
Who the speaker is - the credibility of the speaker is impotatt. Respect for the speaker will
lead to listening.
How well is the speaker liked - the more a listener likes a speaker, the more he will pay
attention to the speaker.
It is importent to note that it is difficult to sort out failures in the speaker.
c) The Message or Text Type
This has been found to have an influence 00 emotions of the listener. A good text should be
emotion - arousing. Text type also has an influence on the sexes that is; boys CIld girls will
perform differently on different text types. The type and structure of the discourse also matters.
Difficult discourse with many technical words may require considerable conceptual processing
which may impede listening (Bugel, 1996).
d) Structural factors
These are factors such as background noise, roorn ventilation, temperature and environment.
Other situational factors are: use of only one language at home - it is found that listeners who
are reared in a'I environment where more than one language is spoken usually have more
difficulty in comprehending than listeners from a home where one ICIlguageis spoken (Barker,
1971:53).
56
Being WI only child - Research in Eurq>e has indicated that listeners who are ooly - children
tend to comprehend better than those who are members of l<I"gefamilies (B<I"ker,1971 citing
Nidlolas, 1948).
Seating arrangements - that the doser people sit to each other the more likely they are to listen
to eadl other carefully. Also sitting in a semi-circle tends to increase not only listening
. comprehension but also verbal output as well (Barker citing Furbay, 1965).
e) Other variables
Other variables which may influence listening behaviour are; the optimism of the listener; the
socia ease of the listener, listener self-satisfaction; general state of the listener's health; listener
self-concept and listener's prior interest in the subject (these are within -listener conditions).
From the factors discussed above, we learn three main lessons about the testing of listening:
i. It is inadvisable to judge learners' listening ability from their performance on a
single listening task given.
ii. There should be no long anticipation for listening.
iii.- Listening materials and tasks should be carefully chosen or defined.
2.2.5: Obstacles to Second Language Listening
In addition to the factors discussed above, there are some common listening obstacles. Some of
these are:
i. Non-preparedness to listen. Trowbridge and Gatherer (1978) discuss what they cal
abilities for readiness to listen thus:
• Ability to hear
• Alertness
• Pre-listening preparation
• Psychologica readiness Clld attitude re-orientation or willingness to listen.
57
ii. Viewing a topic as uninteresting
iii. Ustening only for facts - students become conditioned ea-Iy in their education to
take notes in order to pass examinations. This conditioning process creates a type
of listener who listens for primarily factua infamation that can be recorded on
paper. It is argued that the practice of listening primarily for facts may produce a
distorted version of the message.
iv. Preparing to answer questions before fully understanding. Students are said to
sometimes pay attention to listening only to what is easy to understand, that is,
avoiding difficult listening
v. Permitting personal prejudices or deep-seated conviction to impair comprehension
and understanding (closed - mindedness).
The listening difficulties above reveal three different problem listeners: pretend listeners, limiting
listeners and self-centred listeners. Apart frcm these listening problems, we find that as listening
takes place, there are varied degrees of listening. Gigous (1996) identified eight of these as:
. i) occasional conscious listening,
ii) frequent distractions - superficial,
iii) half -listening - waiting for an opportunity to express what is 00 his mind,
iv) appa-ent absorptioo - passive reception,
v) 00 - and - off listening; close attentioo aternated with preoccupation with other
ideas the speaker's words bring to mind,
vi) associative listening - recall of personal experiences,
vii) close and emphatic listening - following a speaker's train of thought,
viii) actively meeting the speaker's mind.
,
58
1l1erefae, it is SlpSCted that <ifJerall leaners listen to dsause with varying ~ and tfis
will detsrmine their abiDty to caT1p'ehend. In the next sectioo, the meaing and nabn c:l seant
la'9Jage listering canprehensia1 and the canpetencies a sub skills expected we dsalSS8d.
The reiatiCJ1Shipbetween spd<en Imguage a1d listening is aso aciilessed .
.2.3: The Meaning and Nature of Ustening Comprehension
2.3.1: The Meaning of Usfanlng Comprehension
In its narrowest definitioo. listening canprehension is the process by which IislSllEl's oome to at
interpretation eX a strean of speech. In its broader definitioo, it aso includes the process by
which listeners use tlD;e interpretations for their intended PlJ'POS9. The product of marta
proa:JSSeSinvolved in interpretciioo of verbal symbols is canprehension. To listen with
COfl1)rehensioninvdves creation of meaing fran wha is head andItmlI.
Aooording to Anderson axt Lynch (1008), listering canprehension CCIl be cha"acterized as at
IcDive cognitive process, making use of linguistic knowledge (declwative CIld procedural) and
l<noNIedgeeXthe wald (deciarative)(Anderson and Lynch, 1988: 4). They-assa1 that in listering
COJ11)rehension,the intamaion that is taen and processed by the listener is rxt .ally supplied
by spcten text but ~so by knaNfedge already staed and avalable in the listeners' CX9litive
systEm. This view tallies with what Frederiksen (1009) stipulates in his model of listening-that
listeners use at expected episode structll'e, fa exanple, a staed story schema - in
COOl>fel1El1dingtext.
The views of Andersoo ald lynch (1988), support Wolfs at ~ (1983) and Egger's (1996) views.
They ~I arp that oomprehensioo is not limited to peraiving SOlIlds a1d SOlJRj pateros axf
decoding their semartic and synta:tic meajng, but involves at illterJl"etation of the spe3<er's
59
intention by relating new infcrmation presented by the ~er to one's own kooNledgeof the
world. They seem then to conclude that the process of successful listening oomprehension
seemsto be fairly simple as describedbeiC7N.
i) That the spd<ensignals have to be identified from the midst of surroondingsounds.
ii) The continuoos strean of speech has to be segmented into units, which have to be
recognizedas knC7Nnwords.
iii) The syntax of the utterance has to be grasped and that the speaker's intended
meaninghas to be understood.
iv) We have also to apply our linguistic knowledge of famulating a correct and
appropriateresponseto what has been said (Andersonand Lynch 1988).
In person- to- person communication, it is actually listening- seeing comprehensioothat is
required. Listening comprehension is needed in two basic types of communication: a)
"Interactional Talk', used in communication with a primarily social purpose; b} "Transactional
Talk'·,with the main purpose of achieving a successful transfer and/or exchangeof information;
the two representinga continuumfrom the soda to the informative aspectsof listening. Listening
compreherlsion is therefore, the understClldinglevel of the listening process. As such, the two
main sets of processes in listening comprehension are: perception and comprehension, and
these two are interdependent.
2.3.2: Second language listening Comprehension and Spoken language
Speaking ald listening ae reciprocal activities with both particiPClltSplaying different rdes. In
this regard, features of spoken language jnfluence listening. Spoken language relies on
intonation as well as pa-alinguistic features such as gesture a1d facial expression for it's
mealing. Spoken language is also characterised by pauses between words (hesitation
phenanena), when the speaker may be taking time to think aheador to choosethe carrot wad
60
and often to fill the gaps a pauses with sounds such as "et, "em". There is also the repetitioo of
phrases (redundancy) that may have a negative a positive infll.JeOOOon listening. There may
also be the contractions of the stCildard written forms, which may be dialectal, a the result of
rhythm and stress in the flow of speech. The overall impressioo of excitemenVannoyanceshown
in intonatioo is difficult to represent in writing, except by an occasional, rather archetypal
comment such as "said excitedly".
) Unlike reading, where a reader proceeds at his own rate, the listener has no contrd over the rate
of speech to which he must listen. In spoken language, the wads may be spd<enooce and the
listener may hear them or not at all. Should the listener's mind go wad gathering, the loss is
likely to be a permanent me unless the speaker repeats or the entire speech appears in print
later. As the speaker proceeds, the listener really has little time for reflection.
Propaganda and inflection in speaking make greater demands upoo the listener than reading
does upon the reader. There may be potentially more possibilities for misunderstanding,
misinterpretatioo and for being influenced adversely, a being misled in listening than in reading.
(Students should be made aware of the impatance of these noo.-segmentalelements in addition
to word chace and semantics). Few speakers are as precise and as well orgamsed as most
written material is. The student must knON how to skim in listening. He/she should comprehend
in terms of past experiences and of critical examination of what is heard (Gigous, 1996).
The features referred to above are generalized to all the listening types discussed earlier in this
chapter. The concern of this study was spoken language, specifically, academic listening (as
opposed to conversational listening) as found in classroom and other academic presentatioos (as
opposed to casual speedl). In the section that follows, a discussion of what different language
61
education specialists CIld applied linguists conceptualise to be the component sub skills and
micro skill of listening canprehension is presented.
2.3.3: The Sub skills/Competencies of Listening Comprehension
In this section, a description of the conceptualised skills and sub/micro skills of listening
comprehension is given. The present research was designed based on the skills and
competencies outlined below. Here, reference is made to c1assroon listening (the area of interest
of this research). They may be classified as involving retentive, reflective, receptive, reactive or
attentive levels a processes of listening (section 2.1.3). Wilkinson (1970) identified general
listening comprehension sub skills which listeners must simultaneously integrate while listening
as listening to:
• find the main idea or thought,
• select significant details,
• summarise and aganize ideas,
• predict outcomes and draw inferences,
• follow directions,
• find out the sequences of ideas/points,
• critically react to what is listened to,
• arrive at generalizations and cooclusions.
Richards (1978a) goes beyond Wilkinson (1970) and identifies abilities or responses involved in
both ac~emic and cooversational listening. Richards provides a more extensive set of what he
calls discourse comprehension micr~skills, which are necessary for efficient listening in an
ac~emic context. Among the skills are:
• ability to identify the purpose and scope of a lecture,
62
• ability to identify the topic of lecture and fdlow up development,
• ability to identify the relatiooships CITlongunits within discourse (such as major idea, and
supporting ideas).
• ability to identify the roes of discourse markers in signalling structure of a lecture (e.g.
conjunctions and adverbs),
• ability to infer relationships (cause, effect, conclusions),
• ability to recognize key lexical terms relating to topic,
• ability to recognize function of intonation to signal informatioo structure (supr&segmental
phonemes),
• ability to recognize markers of cohesion,
• ability to detect attitude of speaker towards topic,
• ability to sense emotions and mood through word usage and through manner of delivery,
• ability to form sensory images from oral description.
Listening comprehension may therefore be seen as a unitary skill or a series of sub-skills/micro-
skills. The second language teacher needs to identify what listening instructional approaches
need to be developed in order to enhance the above sub-skills in English. The researcher was
guided by both schdars' (Richards (1978) and Wilkinson (1978) views.
Tomlinson ~d Ellis (1992) notes, however, that the sub-skills of listening comprehension are
also dependent on skills taught in other lessons such as phoneme disaimination, understanding
the fundions of structures (specific elements of language), passive knowledge of vocabulary and
overall comprehension. In other words, the learner needs to acquire these listening skills
proficiencies (of grammar, phondogy and vocabulary) in order to listen efficiently.
63
It is a useful to note that although the native speaker of English will find listfrling a natural single
operatioo, the second language student may have to develop proficiency separately in each of
the areas mentiooed above. The focus of this research was haNever not on all the sub-skills
(Wilkinson, 1978) ald the micro-skills (Richards, 1978a and Tomlinson, 1992), but on overcil
listening comprehension to academic, non - interactive speedl in fam three English as a
Second Language(ESL) classes.
The theoretical framework on listening processes, the discussioo on the nature and meaning of
listening comprehension ald the competencies ald faetas in listening developed in section 2.2,
2.3 ald 2.4 above provided a background to the study in second language listening. This guided
the researcher in the design and delivery of the LeT materials and tasks. It also guided the
discussion of students' performance including one of the concerns of the present research: to
find out the students' strengths and weaknesses on various listening comprehension sub-skills
and consequently establish the performance proficiency levels on students' listening
comprehension in English. the next two sections of this chapter review researches done on the
teaching of English in general and those dooe on the listening skill in particular.
2.4: Related Local Researches
Little research on listening has been disseminated effectively in Kenya. This is not surprising
considering the limitations of recording aid measuring cognitive-behavioural reaction of ·within a
listener'. Some basic findings and assumptions about the listening process can be made use of
in the t~ing of listening comprehension in the second lalguage classroan. In this section, a
review of related studies, which provided guidelines ald informed this study, is presented.
64
Obuya-Deya (1980) sought to find out the apprqxiateness of reooing canprehension passages
by CIlalysing their content <rid the genres of these passages. His reseach specifically sought to
estci>lish whether there was a relationship between Certificate of Primary Education (CPE)
English canprehension eXaTlining and classroom English comprehension testing prcdices. He
found that CPE English passages had no relationship with the expected readability level of
standard seven children. He aso foond that very few of the tests and class text materials we/e at
the appropriate level despite the fact that a good majority of them had African backgroond and
universal appeal. There was use of inappropriate passages. He recommended testing of
constructions and remedial action. 'Mlile Obuya- Deya's reseaoh addressed comprehension in
English in general, and focussed on the primary schad, the present reseach was more focussed
on the secondary schad and on a specific language skill: listening.
Karanga's (1984) study on the problem of teaching oral English in form one classes in Kenya
found that the syllabus of oral English was vague and that there was lack of national standards of
English pronunciation in Kenya which would act as a guide. 'Mlile Karanga focused on the
speaking skill, the current research looked into the listening skills. The present research goes
further to establish how learners perform On these skills.
In her study of the conceptions and practice modes of micro-teaching, Bwire (1990) fomd that
student teachers did not like practising teaching listening and reading comprehension as much
as they liked other aeas of English such as gramma'. the novel and oral Uterature. It was also
found that teacher-training colleges (T.T.C) in Kenya, lacked the proper facilities, had large
classes and inadequate time to train teachers adequately for teaching English especially with the
integrated approach. Disparities in terms of facilities and resources in the cdleges were found to
affect the quality of teachers. The current research had, as one of its sub objectives, to get the
65
English Language teachers' vision, preparedness, awareness ~ commitment to teaching the
listening skills ~ especially, listening comprOOension,whim as is indicated in Swire's findings
above,was not a pq>Ulararea even with student teachers.
Omallo (1990) in her investigation of techniques aid problems in integrating the teaching of
English LCIlguageand Uterature in secooday schools found that teachers still relied heavily on
expository techniques for teaching. They disregarded other useful techniques such as
discussion. The teachers' attitude towards the integrated English syllabus was not favourable as
the majority of them were still tearning according to the dd syllabus. Tearners complained of
lack of time. In a similar study, Nanach (1990) investigated the factors that affected the
implementation of the 8.4.4 syllabus in secondary schools. He found out that teachers of English
were not adequately prepared to teach the new programme. He also found that course books for
English were shallow and teechers had to look for other books in order to tearn effectively.
Omallo's and NCl"nach'sresearches were in mCllYways related to the present research, in that,
the latter also looked at the adequacy of listening materials provided in the English language
course books. Uke these two researches, the present one addressed the issue of teacher
development CIldother factors that could affect listening comprehension.
Kirigia (1991) studied the assessment of English reading comprehension of pupils completing
primary education. He gave a reading test to dass eight pupils and the study revealed that the
pupils in the Iowa- half of the score grade found it hard to unda-stClld genera statements when
used in particular contexts. They also found it difficult to comprehend statements with difficult
words or words with special usage. Although Kirigia's study focussed on reading comprehension,
it helped to inform the present study regarding the language level to be used in the test materials.
66
Nderitu (1992), resea-ching on the training in production aid use of resources for English
teaching found that too large classes in small classrooms reduced the tecdler's efforts to teach
effectively - there was shortage of resources ald space. He recommended in-savice training of
teachers. The current research, though on a specific area of language, also addressed issues of
large classes against a backdrop of minima resoorces for teaching listening skills.
Njogu (1993) studied the implication of classroom interaction on performance and found that
learners performed better in cases where there were more verbal interactions with the teacher. In
a related study, Gathumbi (1995) observed the verbal discourse events in bilingual formal
settings in rural and urban secondary schools. She found that teacher - talk dominated the
English Language classrooms for 75% of the time with pupil - talk taking only 25% of the total
verbal transactions. Mogaka's (2001) in his study, aimed at determining the classroom interaction
patterns in English language classrooms and to identify which teaching techniques encouraged
learner participation. Using Second Larlguage Interaction Analysis Schedule (SLIAS), he found
that teachers dominated the classroom interaction with methods mainly lecturing and question
and alswer, creating no room for students' innovativeness cr creativity. He recommended a
restructuring of the syllabus, in-service training of teachers, and teacher training to equip English
language teachers with apprq:>riate teaching techniques. The findings of the three studies shed
light on the nature of classroom interaction in Kenyan schools and the possible implications for
listening comprehension peformmce; one of the objectives of the current study. Since these
studies focussed on verba interaction, their findings are significant, considering that learners
spent at least 75% of the time listening.
Otieno's (1996) study aimed at finding out whether teacher's questions in English Language
classes promoted oral language leCJ'ning by giving students a lot of opportunities to express
67
themselves in the language. He used classroom observatioo and aJdiotape transcriptioo and
found that English ICI1guageteachers asked more context-based than soda-based questioos.
They aso asked more closed tha'l opoo-ended questions. The students w~e foond to uttEr"Vf!S'J
few words in English in a lesson. He recommended that teachers of English skilfully use
questions in the classroom to provide students with the much-needed ora English practice
opportunities. The findings regarding question type were useful in guiding the researcheron the
type of listening materials to expose leaners to and the task canplexity in test item
development.
Muthwii (2002) aid others carried out an exploratory study that sought to find out the extent to
which language pdicy and the concomitant practices on language of instruction (LOI)
encouraged or hampered the acquisition of desirable learning competencies. One of their
findings was that many class six children, espedaly those in monolingual and underprivileged
schools experienced problems in communicating; they were not able to express their ideas fully
in English. However, more participation occurred when there was a switdl to mother tongue or
Kiswahili. Many pupils reported that they either failed to understand the whole piece of instruction
or just slightly got the general idea. Some blamed the teacher, saying that "the)' talked too fast'
and others had problems with understanding the pronunciation of English words (Muthwii, 2002:
20). This research, althoogh on general language skills, revealed that pupils had problems in
listening in English as a second language, an aea that the present study explored. Ho.v9ver, in
the latter, the focus was on the listening skills in seconday, nd in the primary school.
A reseaeh carried out by researchers from Kenyatta University (2003), sought to determine the
proficiency of primary schad leaners in Kenya in English. This was done throogh a criterioo-
referenced test on a national sample of 7000 class 3 pupils and 7000 class 6 pupils in'185
68
primary sdlods. One of the tests given was 00 the listening CI1dwriting skills. Perfa-mance of
learners on these skills was found to be poor as 70.21% of the dass 6 pupils and 81% of class 3
pupils tested, failed to attan the desired competence level on the listening and writing skills
(ELN, 2004 Repcrt 6: 95). This research also revealed that the fernaes in both class 3 a1d 6
performed better on the listening and writing skills, except fa Coast and North Eastern
provinces, where cultural and social factors were found not to favour the female pupils. There
existed a rural urban disparity in perfa-mance favouring the urban areas and those in proximity to
them, for exanple Naircbi and Central Provinces. The resea-chers attributed this to the fact that
the city had better amenities than other provinces and that Nairobi pupils had a chance to get
exposure to English through media. In terms of schad type, this reseach shewed that private
schools performed better than even the best public schools. Pupils in the rural schools performed
considerably worse than those from the urban schools. This was attributed to poor learning
facilities and non- adherence to the language policy. 'Mlile efforts have been made towards
exploring the oral skills in the primary school, the present study delves into the same, but at the
secondary school level. Although the focus of the present study was not the writing skills,
learners' listening competencies were tested through the productive skill of writing.
In the study carried out under the English literacy Norms Prqect, Phase 1 (Kenyatta University,
2004), resea-chers found that the teacher- pupil ratio was unfavourable to teaching the language
skills, especially with the introduction of Free Primary Education (FPE), resulting in overcrowded
classrooms. This situation was said to be aggravated by the inadequacy of teaching and learning
materials. Pupils were found to be just passive listeners and it was amazing that although there
was a lot of verbal communication in class, learners were not taught how to listen to and for oral
presentations. In a similar but more generalised study carried out by Alubisia (2005), it was found
that poor ped~ical methods were used in schools due to high student enrdments in prima)'
69
schools, now estimated at 7.6 million (Republic of Kenya, 2005). This made the teachers to use
methods that coeld not guarantee quality learning. This has hed a negative impact a1 the
teaching of English language especially. Although these two researches were conducted in the
primary schools and later than the data cdlection pedod fa the present study, the discussionon
the factors that affect the listening skills of ~y leaner could be informed by them, because
ability to listen well will also rely on earlier oppaiunities a learner had been given.
Vikiru et a!. (2005) carried out a research in one ot the primary teachers colleges (PTTC), where
they sought to know the English language competence of pre-service teachers and its
relationship to learner language needs. In their paper based on this research, they repaied that
38% of the pre-service teachers had the minimum competence level on a test of listening and
writing. The case was worse on the test on listening and speaking, where 50% of the sample
student teachers were found to have only minimum competence. The difference in the
performarJcebetween the male and female pre-service teachers on both tests was found to be
significant at the 0.05 level, with higher scores for the females. This means that they did not
possess the skills required to teach the same in the primary schools. Although based on pre-
service teachers, the findings of this research shed light on the discussions of the present study,
which also looked at English Language teacher development in the light of teaching of the
listening skills.
The above studies reveal that students in both primary and secondary schools have the same
problems of understcrJdingthe context and the vocabulary in the texts. It is also evident that
teaching methods are mainly teacher - centred and classroom interaction is teacher dominated.
The majority of the researchers cited seem to agree that teachers found the syllabus
overcrowded,hence poor performance in English. It is also apparent that much of the researchI
70
attention has been pad to teaching methodologies rather thCll quality of achievement 00 English
LCllguage skills. The listening canprehension canponent has not been ernphasi sed, yet
listening canprehension is a fundanenta skill towards performance. To bridge this gap, the
present study pad specia interest to the listening skill. To this end, teachers as implementers
and students as recipients were used to provide data fa the study.
2.5: Other Researches
Most of the researches cited below are drawn from those done outside Africa and a few from
Africa. Many of them are with regard to listening in English as a second language. Various areas
such as teaching methods, materials, tasks, testing modes, cognitive variables and other factors
found to influence listening comprehension, have been reviewed in this section.
2.5.1: Researches on Tests of Listening Comprehension
a) On the Nature of lCTs and Test Types
Charter (1984) refers to the findings of Wilkinson, at aI. (1974), who carried out research into
listening and devised a series of standardized listening tests. Their research evidence showed
that listening ability can be improved and the best structure for its development is listening to
interesting language, produced not by fer - distant literary figures but by people in the world
around us, engaged in living and communicating" (Charter, 1984: 103). In fact, they Saw the
construction of anthologies of taped speech reflecting a variety of situatioos operating everyday
as a priority, regarding the nature of listening comprehensioo testing. They suggested the
follONing methods for testing listening comprehensioo:
• All materials, questioos and examples to be on tape and that, students' answers,
multiple-choice items should be in their booklets fa- swift and objective marking.
71
• That the materials chosen sha.dd be suited to the age a1d interests of the users. In as
much as possible foreign, materials shoold be avoided.
Other testing forms for listening comprehension as multiple ch<ice questions, true/false and
giving short answers to a question 00 spokEll discoorse in the form of one seoteooe or brief
summaries. This research guided the present study with rega-d to the choice of IistElling material
types and testing methods where the resea-cher adopted multiple - choice items format and
short-answer questioos.
b) On standardized Tests of listening/Listening Comprehension.
Several standardized tests have been designed for measuring listening comprehensioo. Below is
a summary of the description of a few, which were found to be informative of the objectives of the
present research.
i. The Brown, Carlsen, Carsten (BCC) listening Test
This is a 1995 revision of the first published (1955) test 00 listening comprehensioo - The Brown
Carlsen Carsten Listening Test. The original test was designed to be used in grades 9 -13 (form
4-6), but the revised test is designed for use at all college levels as well as among adults of all
ages. The BCC test consists of two comparative forms (E78 CIld E8l) each comprising 76 test
items. The 76 items are grouped into five paris, each measuring a listening skill a skills, namely:
• Recalling items in a sequence (17),
• Following directioos (20),
• Recognising transitions (8),
• Recognising word meanings (10) and,
• Canprehending lecture materials (21).
The audio taped test requires less than 45 minutes to administer. Examinees record their~
responses on answer sheets that are centrally scored. From this test, the researcher leant the
72
test type and tamat to use in the presoot reseach test. Since the present study also focussed
on form three, it also helped in the determination of the listening sub skills to be tested.
iI. Sequential Tests of Educational Progress: listening Comprehension (STEP)
The Educational Testing Service (ETS) published these tests in (1957). Two alternative forms for
each of the foor levels are avaleble for use:
• Level 1 - designed for college freshmen (1st year) and sophomores (2nd yea)
• Level 2- for grades 10 -12
• Level 3 - for grades 7 - 9
• Level 4- for grades 4 - 6
Each test measured the following skills:
• Plain sense comprehension = 35% of the test,
• Interpretation = 40% of the test
• Evaluation and application- 25% of the test
The test is about 30 minutes long for each level, and consists of 12 - 13 passages, ranging from
25 seconds to over 4 minutes in length. The passages were carefully selected to be spoken to
students in school situations, with the language used, being that which a student. is used to
listening to rather than that which slhe generally reads in the books. The listening material was of
the foilONing types:
• Direction and simple explanation
• Exposition
• Narrative (simple and figurative)
• Argument and persuasion
• Aesthetic mateQal (prose CI'ldpoetry).
The number of items included in each form was 72 - BO. Test forms for the same levels had
equal number of items. All items were objective type, mainly multiple- choice, The examiner
73
reads the passage and reads the associated questioos to the exaninees, who answa- than in
separate alswer sheets from the test booklets that contain, suggested answa-s. The process of
standardization was followed ald relici:lility indices of the diffa-ent forms were high (ranging from
0.88 to 0.93). The test used in the current study borrowed a Id from the STEP test. For exanple, ""
in listening materials selection, deta-mination of skills to be tested, the length and timing of the
test and test administration. Just like in the STEP test the present study used multiple- chace
questions and also followed the standardization procedures and reported the test reliability
indices in Chapter Three.
iii. The Watson - Barker Test
This test was designed in 1984 to be used by any secondary and cdlage student as well as
business professionals. It consists of two comparable forms each consisting of 50 items
designed to tap 5 dimensions of listening namely:
• listening for message content,
• listening to dialogues/conversations,
• listening to lectures,
• listening for emotional meaning and,
• listening for videotape formats.
From four spoken or written multiple choice responses per question, each examinee selects the
letta- of the response that best represents the answer to each question and then writes that
answer to a self-scoring answer sheet. The current study used only written questions because
the intentioo was not to test understalding of a spoken questioo but focus was more on
interpretation and respooding to spoken discourse.
iv.· The Steinbrecher - Wilmington Listening Test
This test was designed to assess comprehensive, empathic and critical listening skills of
college/university students in a 'Fundamentals of Communication' coorse. It was published in
r r r r ~
74
1993.The test can also be used to assess the listening skills of students in public speaking and
listening courses. It takes 45 minutes to administer and consists of 55 test questions. The
contents are: brief speeches, announcements, directions, descriptions, cooversations and
statements- all of interest and relevance to students in higher education. The test questions are
on videctape format, and examinees write answers on answer sheets - these can be hand or
computer scored. Although this test is meant for university students, it sheds light on the kind of
materials to use in testing listening and the amount of time to spend. The skills tested using this
test were a bit too advanced for the learners in the present research sample who were in form
three. It also differed from the current one in its administration format; the present study used
audio- tapes, not videotapes.
There are criticisms on the above tests regarding: a) Their validity: are they really testing
listening ability or are they testing some other traits such as intelligence, aptitude, memory,
inference or hearing? b) The representativeness of the types of listening tested for (for example,
critical or appreciative?). For instance, the BCC test evaluates ·aural assimilation of symbols in a
face to face speaker - audience situation, with both oral and visual cues present' and STEP
measured interpretation and evaluation in addition to "aural assimilation skills' (Comprehension).
It is important to note that although most of these tests purport to test ·critical" listening skills -
they do not test evaluation or appreciative skills.
It has also been observed that listening canprehension has traditionally posed reliability
problems, both through the skewing effects of high memory load and especially the difficulty of
\associpting speaker attitude with a canplex of paralinguistic features present in speech as seen
in section 2.2.4 above. These features are used as signposts to guide the listener through the
75
structure of a spoken argument. The coostructioo of tests of different aspects of listening is thus
an appropriate q:>erationa procedure.
The pitfalls and strengths of these instruments were recognized and modifications done to fit the
present study. In the present research, materials relevant to Kenyan learners' experiences and of
the appropriate language level were used. The test items were of multiple-choice type with some
short answer tasks and the test was subjected to appropriate standardisation procedure. Despite
the criticisms on the weaknesses of the tests, they had strengths such as stability and reliability.
Currently researchers have improved on them and the present researcher adopted and
standardized her instrument to make it contextually valid. The next two sectioos review some of
the researches that have been done, borrONingfrom the ideas in the standardized tests above.
2.5.2: Experimental Studies on Listening Comprehension
a) On Testing
Buchanan (1986) developed a norm - referenced test of listening comprehension proficiency for
beginning to low - intermediate level adult ESL students in Philadelphia. A test with a picture -
selection response format was coostructed and students responded by circling the correct
answer or writing the letter of the correct response. The 30- item test called the Basic Aural
Comprehensioo Test (BAC) was presented at reduced speed rates and made reference to the
real language heard in many dassrooms at lONer listening levels. Buchanan found that "the
structural simplificatioo and reduced rates of speed was key to language learning".
An Lc.T was written, field-tested and standardized by Kerr (1989). The stimulus material
consisted of 6 passages, which were ranked by teachers, so as to select the best 3 passages
and 45 questions for field-testing. The field study facilitated the selection of the best 30 test items
76
through factor and item- analysis. The final form of the test was administered to 45 pilot studmts.
Internal reliability coefficimts were obtained ald concurrent validity estimated. Item analysis
yielded acceptcble discrimination ald difficulty values fa most items.
Buck-Gary (1991) carried out a study to detoonine whether listening comprehensioo exists as a
separate trait among EFUESL speakers; what the nature of listening comprehension was and
how listening comprehensioo Cal be measured. A multi-trait method construct validatioo study
indicated clearly that listening comprehension is a separate trait different from reading. Results
showed considerable diversity between listeners in their mental ages, inferences, and their
interpretation of the text. The three researches referred to above guided the present study in
terms of problem identification, choice of listening materials for the test, test item determination
and the data analysis.
In the field of language testing, there is growing interest in the identificatioo of those factO'Sthat
affect the test performance of the language learner. Bachman (2002) reports findings in his
research (Bachman, 1990) on this where he distinguished three sets of factors that can affect
test performance: characteristics inherent in the task itself, attributes of the task takers, and
interactions between test takers and task characteristics (Bachman, 2002: 471). While Bachman
sought to identify factors in general English language perfcrmaice, the present researcherwent
further aid focussed on factors that affect performance on the listening skills in paiicular.
Although his followed an experimental design, Bachmars research guided the design of the
present test instrument used in the current study in terms of climate or mood setting and task
type fcJ the tam three pupils. The above researches provided highlights into the constructioo of
the subtests fa the present study.
77
b) The effect of training on Listening Comprehension
Fawcet (1964) conducted an experiment to knoN the effect of training on listening. He gave 25
minutes' duration lesson to 638 students thrice a week for 14 weeks. The experimental group of
322 students of 4th,5th, and 6111 grade was given training or instruction to improve listening. The
exercises prepared by the investigator were given twice by a teacher and once by tape. Fawcet
found significant improvement in the experimenta group. Hence, he concluded that by training,
the listening skills could be improved.
A study by Swanson (1986) suggested that teachers are not apt to get much training on teaching
listening. His survey of 15 textbooks used in teacher education programmes revealed that out of
a total of 3704 pages of text, only 82 pages mentioned listening. Unlike Swanson who analysed
many books used by the teacher, this researcher analysed one textbook, which was for the same
purposes of determining the coverage of listening skills.
Mubenga (1988) in a longitudinal study with undergraduates in the English depatmeot
investigated the effect& of training on the performance of EFL listening tasks on learners. He
suggested that materials and classroom activities needed to be varied for practice at different
levels of proficiency. While Mubenga's was 00 EFL, the subjects of the present study were ESL
learners. Ho.vever, foreign language learning, to some extent has some similcrities with second
"-
language learning especially, for some pupils in Kenya for whom English is almost a re«
language when they join school for the first time.
Through an experimenta study, Rerncrk (1990) aimed to determine whether or not listening skills
training improved university resident assistants' ability to actively listen and jo determine the
effects of gender, age, placement in residence hall and academic status. Those in the control
78
group received a four-week course on listening. All the subjects were pre-tested and post- tested
using the BrONn-C~sten (BCG) LCT and a five-rninute videotaped segment. He found that
gender, age and academic stCllding had no significa1t effect on the ability to actively listen and
there was a significant improvement in listening after tnining.
Pitak (2000) constructed listening comprehension exercises for 60 students who wexe in the first
semester of the academic year. She used an experimental design with 30 students each in one
group and a control group. One group was taught using the Concentrated Language Encounters
Approach and the control was taught using traditional methods for 10 periods each. She used a
comprehension achievement test and a listening exercise - data obtained were analysed by a t-
test. The SOO'esof the post-test in the listening COOlprehensionachievement of the students in
both groups were different from those of the pre-test at the level of 0.01 with higher scores in the
post-test of both groups. The scores of the experimental group were significantly different fron
those of the controlled group at the level of 0.05. Although an experimental design was used,
Pitak's reseaeh informed the problem of the present study and also, the same inferential
statistics, the t- test was used.
\.
c) Effects of various variables on Listening and Listening Comprehension
In a study on the perfamance of girls and boys on a test based on various listening materials,
using the BCC test, it was found that there was no statistically significant difference between the
total listening score of the boys and that of the girls (Wilkinson et al. 1974:95). It was found that
the bo~ scored significantly higher than the girls 00 a test of content - an expooition aIxx.rta
poem, and the girls scored higher than the boys on a test of phonology - a conversation that
stresses and emphasises speechlmeaning. There proved to be highly significa1t ccrrelations
between the listening and intelligence scores (0.6035) and on reaiing tests (0.7519 and 0.7311).
79
The present study, like 'Mlkinsoo's (1974), used exposition, narative and diaogue as test
materials. It also employed the sane statistical tools; correlations, to conpae relatiooships
betweensubtests and therefore different test materials.
King (1985) used The Kentucky Comprehension Ustening Test to measure three types of
listening (comprehensive, interpretative and short - term listening) with 120 subjects. The data
from the test was analysed by ANOVA and simple mean tests. He found that comprehensive
listening, which relies upon long-term memory, might suffer from a lack of adequateprocess and
encoding time, which may be induced by time compression. Short - term and interpretative
listening are processes, which rely primarily 00 short-term memory and may not be adversely
affected until a level of time compression is reached, which impairs intelligibility. VVhileKing
(1985) measured different types of listening, the present study focussed 00 overall listening
comprehension.
Dunkel (1985) evaluated the effect of concurrent note - taking and the quality of notes taken on
immediate recall of English lecture information by both native and non-native speakers of
English. She found that note takers and non - note - takers did equally well in recalflngconcepts
and details. Also, that subjects with high short term - memory ability recalled more concepts and
detail information thCll subjects with low short - term memory ability. This finding reiterates
King's (1985) findings. She also found that native speakers of English recalled significCl"ltlymae
of the concepts and details presented in the lecture than non-native speakers. Dunkel's study
compared native CIld non-native speakers but the present study had as its subjects, ESL
speakersooly.
80
In GIl experimental attempt to explae and analyse the differences in canprehensive listening
between men and wanen, CoIner (1987) used 160 undergraduates who listooed to a 2O-minute
message GIld answered a 15 item multiple choioo test. Analysis of VariCllCeshowed no
significant differooces between the sexes in comprehensive listening a any significGllt interactioo
between types of message, sex of listooer and effect 00 the test SC<J'e.Sex of speaker did not
sha.Yto have a significmt effect 00 comprehensive listening. These findings ae corroboratedby
Costello's (1991) study that showed that men and women process information differently and that
women are inclined to adopt a serialised approach to lecr-ningand therefore, better at tasks that
require reflection. He says that men are impulsive and mathematical and are more competent in
spatial related activities. These differences in interest and background knowledge, he says,
influence the knowledge that candidates possess as they face English Language tests and their
response to what they read and hear. Although the present research did not aim at compcr-ing
men and women's listening, it had a lot to copy from Coiner's (1987) and Costello's (1991). Fa
example, the use of multiple- choice items in testing listening comprehension and the statistical
analysis tool; ANOVA, to show the significance of the differences in performance by different
school types on the subtests.
2.5.3: Exploratory Studies on Listening Comprehension
a) Models of language Teaching
Barakat (1985) did a study whose aim was to develop a working model fa creatioo of an
effective language progrcrnme for teaching EFL in Syria. He cr-guedthat listening comprehension
should be explicitly taught. He observed that English department progrcrnmes in Syrian
Universities did not emphasise the development of oral skills especially the listening skills. He
observed that due to pedagogic and techndogical inadequacies, teachers of English were
inadequately trained to serve as language models in the TEFL dassroom - they have
81
inadequate language skills, using no audiovisual suppa! equipment to provide fluent language
models. BCI'akatrecanmended modification of existing curricula in pre-service training to place
greater emphasis upoo teaching the language skills, especialy. listening throogh the use of
media. He aso recanmended in-service trcining for teacha's. Uke Barakat, this researcher
explored the exposure that students get 00 the listening skills and also teachers' awareness,
preparednessand vision about the teaching of the listening skills.
In a similar study, Takahashi (1993) suggested a model of effective use of video materials to
develop the listening canprehension of Japanese learners of English, with 251 form three
students, three Japanese teachers of English and 12 teacher observers. Results showed that the
nature of the test used influences comprehensioo and recall as well. He concluded that listening
comprehension materials for example, video could be implemented more effectively if teachers
are apprq>riately trained. He. like Barakat (1985) above. recommended a three-phase workshop
for teachers. The present study was also concerned with the kinds of materials to use CIld the
modeof delivery of oral material when testing listening comprehension.
b) Studies on Various Variables in Listening Comprehension
I. Pronunciation and Learning Strategies:
Marloy (1983) investigated pronunciatioo and learning strategies as factors in English Ustening
Comprehensiooof Thai - speaking graduate students in the United States of America. He foond
the different English proounciation taught in Thailand, inadequate English vocabulary, lack of
Englis/1 conversation trcining were perceived by the students as the major causes of their
difficulty in English listening comprehension. The methods used by students to improve their
English listening canprehension were foond to be through watching television. talking with
American peeole ~d listening to lectures. While MCI'Ioy (1983) got the factors influencing
82
listening canprehension fron the students, this resea-cher invdved the teachers, gave a test
anddid content alalysis of the course book to provide infoonation on this.
ii. Presentation Ratesand Mode:
Payne (1984) conducted a study where 16 stoies WfLe read to students at different rates. The
students answered a 20- items multiple-chdoe test. He cane out with very inta-esting results.
One was that rates of presentation had a significant effect upon listening comprehensioo of 4111
grade students aid that better grade scores came fron slower rates. He also found that males
had higher test scores at faster rates of presentation, whereas females did better at slowa- rates
than males. Males perfamed better on written examinations than males taking listening test.
Females taking the listening tests on the other hand had a higher score than the females taking
the written tests. The reseacher therefore recanmended that tapes, records and videotapes of
actual use of spoken English by native/model speakers in a vCI'ietyof canmunication situations
could be used as instructional aids in teaching students listening comprehension. Unlike Payne
(1984) who used stories only, this researcher used dialogue too aid the rate of presentation was
constant for all the sub tests.
iit Speed Modification and Prior Knowledge:
Chiang (1990) investigated the effects of speech modification, prior knowledge and listening
proficiency on the lecture listening comprehension of Chinese inta-mediate EFL students using
multiple choice comprehension test. Results showed that:
• Socres were higher when listening to the familiar topic lecture,
• Redundancy of infoonation in a speech helped to improve high listening proficiency
levels,
• Tests measuring listening comprehension using ferniliCl' - unmodified materials do
not always test listening comprehension - they test measures of integration of
listener's prior knowledge and the new infO'mation in the lecture.
83
Berquist (1997) repated his study, which compared the effect on comprehensionof heaing (1)
speech at normal speed, (2) speech at slaNed rate and (3) normal speed speech with pauses
inserted. The third coodition facilitated greater comprehension. That pauses have been
consistently demonstrated to provide greater comprehension has implications for multimedia,
where learners can be given cootrol of input and initiate their own pauses to facilitate their
comprehensionwhen needed. While Chiang (1990) and Berquist (1997) focussed heavily on
speed of presentation of spoken texts, this present study held the speed of presentation of the
spcken text constant. The present research did not look into the effects of test familiarity on
listeningcomprehensionperformance.
Research into the effects of the frequency of pauses in spoken texts has shown that such
phenomenahave a positive effect on comprehension for exanple, Blau (1990), Dunkel (1988),
and Berquist (1997). Dunkel (1988) found that pauses aided the quantity of note taking which
resulted from lectures. Blau (1990) found that the inclusion of pauses in texts facilitated greater
comprehensionthan did a reduction in the rate of speech. Additiona"y, those pauses that were
filled with 'ar' and 'imm' and so on. had a greater effect than blank pauses. She"concluded:
'Pauses at constituent boundaries, on the other hand, were found to enhance the
comprehensibility of aural input significantly' (1990: 752). The present study haNever, did not
delve into the styles of presentation like Blau and others did as this could be done after the
generalpicture of students' listening proficiency has been established.
iv. Text type:
Studies have investigated haN a variety of factors associated with types of texts affect listening
comprehension.This review covers: different types of texts such as, news or narrative texts; the
contentof spoken texts and the effects of the amount of visual support, including the use of video
84
as opposed to audio only texts. In a similar study, Berne (1992) compaed subjects' perfoonance
across two different texts: a lecture and an interview. Results showed that text - type was not
significant in second language listening comprehension. Text type was found to be a significa1t
factor in the canprehension of details (not of main ideas) on multiple-chdce tasks, not on open-
ended tasks or cloze task. She recanmended the use of pre-listening activities to relevCl'lt
background knowledge and more exposure to authentic speech, in addition to emphasis on the
differences between speakers and written discourse. Brown et aI. (1990) approaching the issue
of text type and comprehension difficulty from the point of view of language testing, found the
following order of difficulty for types of texts: news broadcasts; lecturettes; and least difficult, a
consultative dialogue. Brown (1990), cited in Schmidt (1994) demonstrated that narrative texts
were easier to listen to and recall than expository texts. Further work by Brown (1995) showed
that the difficulty of listening texts is affected by their content. She lists five factors which act to
increase the difficulty of listening texts, (1) amount of things or people being spoken about, (2)
how easy these can be distinguished in the text, (3) the representation of time and space, (4)
how explicit the expressions were and (5) the accessibility of the topic. These studies on effects
of text type intormed the present study in the choice of different listening materials.
Research into the effects of video on L2 learning has investigated its relatiooship to listening
comprehension, to the development of the reading, writing and speaking skills, and also to the
learning of grcmmar and vocabulary. Studies that have been carried out with L2leCl'ners seem to
indicate that the use of visual support materials does enhance comprehension. Rubin (1990), in
Rubin (1994: 204-2(5) found that the listening comprehension of late-beginna" students of
Spanish.who used dramas shown 00 video improved significantly canpared to a groop of other
students who had received no video support. She argues •... video can serve as a haven to
enhance listening comprehensioo if it is selected so that it provides sufficient clues for
85
informatioo processing. It is the selectioo that is critica, not just the use of video alone" (Rubin,
1990: 205). In summa)', it appears that video can have a positive CI1dcumulative effect on the
levels of comprehension attained with spoken texts. The researcher in the current work, while
taking cognisance of the significance of the use of video in listooing comprehension, hO'tYever
usedthe audiotape as the mode of delivery of the spd<entexts.
v. Effects of Accent and Acoustic variables of Spoken Texts:
TorcrMonzano (1997) examined the effects of non-native varieties of English on listening
comprehoosion and attitudes, with 152 freshmen using a questionnaire which assessed listening
comprehension, regarding four different English accents: Standard Americai, US Southern,
Puerto Rican (local) and Greek (fCX'eign language). He found that all accents were
comprehendedequally well.
The phonetic composition of a learner's L1 will also affect their ability to perceive sounds in
English. If certain sounds are not present in the L1 then there will be initial difficulties in
recognizing them in English. For example, in a study similar to Toro - Moozano's (1997) above,
Miyawaki (1975) demonstrated that Japanese and Korean learners of English found difficulty in
distinguishing between the phonemes Irl and III, which are not found in their languages. While
taking cognisa1C9of the role of learners' L1, the present reseaeh did not explore its effects on
second language listening comprehension but Toro- Moozano's (1997) study helped to inform
the discussion of factors affecting second language listening comprehensioo.
vi. Topic Familiarity, Task/Question Type, and Pre-listening activities:
Min-OG, (1996) investigated the effects of topic familicrity, pre-listening activity and question type
on high school students' listening comprehension. 178 students form four classes listened to four
folk tales recorded by a native English-speaking teacher (two folktales were familiar, two Wf$S
neX).After the listening activity, students were given a 40 item multiple choice test - 20 items for
•
86
familiar tales and 20 for unf~iliCl' tales, 20 w~e explicit and 20 were inferential. The Secooday
level English Proficiency Test (SLEP) was given to students one week prior to the experiment to
assess whether all classes were at the same or a similar level of English proficiency. Data were
analysed through ANOVA for the present one. Results from this study showed that:
• Students performed better on familiCl' stories than 00 unfamiliCl' ooes.
• Students engaged in pre-questioning produced the highest mean score,
• Students scored better overall on explicit items than on inferential items.
This study was useful in helping to determine the choice of materials arid tasks for the listening
comprehension test and the statistical analysis tools to use (ANOVA) for the present one. It also
guided the discussion of the factors affecting listening comprehension.
Buck and Tatsuoka (1998) were concerned with identifying cognitive abilities needed to perform
short- answer listening comprehension questions. They singled out two factors that influenced
item difficulty:
• The necessary information: information in the text, which the listener must understand to
be certain of the correct answer (Buck & Tatsuoka 1998: 134)
• The stem: this is the written text on the answer sheet which test takers have in front of
them as they listen and which serves both as a guide and a structure for the written
response. In response- constructed tasks, lhe stem would be the listening to the short
answer question to be aiswered.
Brindley and Slatyer (2002), in a related study examined the effects of task characteristics and
task conditioos on learner's performance in competency- based listening assessment tasks. Key
variables investigated included speech rate, text type, number of hearings, input source (live vs.
audio- recorded) and item format. Quantitative and qualitative anciyses of test scores indicated
that speech rate and item format coold affect task arid item difficulty. Yet another research by
•
87
Kastin (2004) explored the relatiooship between a set of item characteristics and the difficulty of
TOEFL dialogue items. It found that the lexica overlap between words in the text and wads in
an item's optioos affect listening item difficulty. These three researches go beyond a general
focus on listening comprehensioo (as in the present reseatn) and delve into the details of text
and item characteristics.
Hu Ying - Hui (2005) investigated the effects of task features on test performance in Englishas a
Foreign Language (EFL) listening tests. She analysed a sample of 159 multiple-choice LCT
items of College English Tests (CET). Using correlation and regression analyses, she found that
redundancy of necessary information was a predictor of item difficulty. When necessary
information was repeated, items were easier (r =.388, N= 159). Another interesting finding
involved the topic of passages, where she found that differential familiCl'ity with different topics
covered by listening passages might playa role in accounting for listening performance. Items
that inquire about the non-academic topics may, because of their greater general familiarity, be
easier than items about academic topics. While Hu Ying -Hui analysed existing tests, the
researcher in the present study, designed her own test CI'Idused it to find out factors that affect
performance.The latter study was also more generalised than Hu Ying- Hui's. The findings of the
three researches above guided the discussion of students' proficiency and the factors affecting
listeningcomprehension.
vii. Listening Comprehension Strategies:
Nicosia (1988) studied cdlege students' listening canprehension strategies in a lecture situatioo.
The study has implicatioos for educators in that it showed that while students use their prior
knowledgeas they interact with text, fa' some students, the prior knowledge they possesson the
topic can cause boredan and impede comprehensioo. Since the study demoostrates that al
listeners do not receive informatioo in the same way, it implicitly questioos the effectiveness of
88
the lecture method. This reseatn was important as it guided the discussion of the present
research.
viii. Others Variables:
In his studies on Indian pupils of grade 10 (form 3), Verghese (1990) found their ability to listen
for meanings was hampered by weakness sum as:
• inadequate range of words and phrases that are understood,
• inability to maintain attention,
• inability to understand any other pronunciation different from the personal or regional
pronunci ation,
• inability to understand fast speech among others.
He suggested some remedies, such as:
• exposure to dictionaies, broadcasts and recorded plays and dialogue,
• adjustment of teacher' speech and clarity to the capacity of the class and gradually
speeding up (choose relevant, interesting and clear texts)
• use of specially designed multiple-ohcice questions for class, good tape-recording and a
variety of carefully graded texts from short, simple to longer; harder passages.
Verghese's research helped the researcher in the present study in determining expected
listening abilities while setting the research test items and also in the statement of the problem
for the study.
c) The relationship between Listening Comprehension and other Skills of Language
In their research on secondary schad leaners, Wilkinson et aI. (1974) found that there was a
high correlation (0.73) between listening COI11prehensionand reading comprehension test scores
in the learners aged above thirteen yeas. The present study, while focussing on the listening
comprehension, did not delve into other skills of English language.
89
Cha (1988) did CIl investigation of English listening micr~skills of KoreCl1students 00 a
diagnostic test. District, sex, television effects, motivation CIld self-coofidence were variables. A
3O-itemdiagnostic test with a 1~itern questionnaire to 302 form one Kaean students' in three
cities was used. Results showed that students' listening skills were low. Their particular areasof
weakness among the six micro-skills focused on were: inference (6th), recognising major
syntactic patterns (5th) and understanding basic American culture (4111).The areas of strength
were found to be ability to discriminate soonds (1st), comprehend a simple spoken sentence (2nd)
and recognize vocabulary in conversation (Jrd). There was quite a variation in English Ustening
proficiencyfrom one district to another. The female students' proficiency scores were significantly
higher than those of male students on most of the micro-skills. Motivation was found to be a
significant factor in listening comprehension ability, but not on students' self-confidence. Cha's
study was useful to the present study as it used similar research instruments: both the test and
questionnaire.Like in Cha's study, the current one examined six micro skills of listening although
in the latter, emphasis was on micro skills of overall listening comprehension.
MeCarty (1994) in her study with 154 first year students on lexical and grammatical knowledge
on 2nd language reading and listening comprehension found that lexical knowledge was
significantly correlated to listening comprehension. Grammatica knowledge was hCNIevernot
foundto significantly correlate with listening comprehension. She then recommendedthat:
• lexical develq>ment be fostered in the classroom,
• teaching of comprehension be approached from a hdistic perspective,
• instruction in listening comprehension should be an integral part of the dassroon
independentof instruction in reading.
In a related study, Park (1996) examined whether the comprehension of spoken CIld written
language were the same or different. Two languages were used: Kaean fa 111 speakers of
90
Korean as a native language, and English with 50 American undergraci.Jates . Results sOOHed
that the correlation between reading and listooing in each native language was significant. In the
ESL, the carelation between the two was lower but still significant. The comprehension
component in reading was found to be lowEr', but still significantly related to the comprehension
component in listening both in English and Korean as native languages. However, in ESL, the
two were nct related (with carelation of close to zero). The present study was concerned with
the listening comprehension of seoonday school students rather than that of university students
like in MeCarty's (1994) and Park's (1996) case. These studies also influenced the diooussion
regGl"dingperformance in the current one.
d) The Relationship between Cognitive levels and listening Comprehension
Larzan (1984) investigated possible relationships between cognitive complexity, receiver
apprehension and listening comprehension in an educational environment on 401 students of
college level using the Sequential Test for Educational Progress - Ustening Test (STEP) (1979).
Procedure correlation CIlalysis revealed that statistically significant positive relationships between.-
levels of cognitive complexity and listening comprehension existed. No significant correlations
were found to exist between receiver apprehension and listening comprehension. Mood state
was not found to be a significant covariate in relationship to cognitive complexity as correlated to
listening comprehension. Although Larzan (1984) used cdlege students, the sample size for his
research was almost like what was used in the current study. While he used a standardised test,
this researd1er designed her own test.
Chapter Summary
This chapter has provided CIl overview of concepts useful in understming listening
comprehension; knaNledge about the processes of listening comprehension; the nature of
listening comprehension and factas which research has shaNn affect second language listening
91
comprehension. Researches on listening comprehensioo have been reviewed. The theoretical
framework reveals several types of listening at foor different levels - waking in a communication
context. The tests were adapted and their strengths used to standardize the current test
instruments. However, some aspects of the reviewed tests were changed to suit the subjects fa
whom the subtests were designed. For instance, test materials were chosen with the form three
learner in mind, both multiple-choice and short answer items were used and the mode of
presentation; audiotape, was borrowed from most of the reviewed studies. Most of the literature
presented here is largely confined to researches done ootside Africa in a few countries, mainly,
Britain, USA, and India and at different college and school levels. This is because listening in
general and listening comprehension in particular have a longer history of pedagogy and are
more firmly established and researched on in these countries than in Kenya. This does not
however reduce their relevance to present research. The research (from current and reviewed)
conclusions nevertheless point oot the importance of studies on listening and listening
comprehension. Specifically,. the review provided insights into and influenced the present
research in terms of:
• the statement of the problem,
• choice of test materia/s, types and methods,
• choice of research instruments,
• data and statistical analysis and inferential techniques (Cha, 1988; Chiang, 1990;
Berne, 1992 aid Min -D.G 1996).
The findings cited in section 2.4 and 2.5 point to the fact that research is needed in Kenya,
particularly in the pedagogy of the listening skill aid in the training of English lalguage teachers•
who are key participants in interpretation aid implementation of curricul~. The present study
explaed this possibility in the domain of listening comprehension. In the to/lowing chapter, the
92
methOOology for research is presented. The approach and procedure of test refinement and
standardisation and use of the research instruments are discussed.
CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.0: Introduction.
This chapter gives a description of the soirees of data, the design of the study, the data
collection procedues and statistical methodology. Sectioo 3.1 describes the sample and
sampling procedures, sectioo 3.2 describes the develq:>ment, construction and description of the
research instruments, while section 3.3 outlines the data cdlection and administration
procedures. The data presentatioo and analysis techniques used are discussed in section 3.4.
Research Design
This study used the exploratory and descriptive survey ressach design. The aim was to find out
students' second language listening canpetencies (abilities) and proficiency levels. This
descriptive survey also aimed at exploring the nature of the listening materials, tasks and
activities the form three leaners w~e exposed to in the teaching of listening skills as well as
factors affecting the leam~s' performance in listening comprehensioo. It was carried out in
selected public seoondary schools in Nairobi and Vihiga districts. VVhile Nairobi is Kenya's capital
city, the latter is a rural district in the Western Province of Kenya.
3.1: The Sample and Sampling Procedures.
In order to achieve the objectives of this study (referred to above and in ch~ter one), data were
obtained from the following subjects in fifteen (15) public secondary schools in NairOOiand Vihiga
districts: 520 form three students, who were at int~ediate level of English, 56 te<rllers and 8
heads of la1guages department (English) from the same schods, a1d the head of the English
curriculum panel (Secondary division) at the Kenya Institute of Education (KIE).
94
3.1.1: The School Sample
The sample fa the study was drawn from form three students of selected public seoonday
schools in Nairobi and Vihiga districts (See Appendix A and B fa m~s). As stated in ch~ter
one, fom three was chosen for the study because the students were expected to have had more
exposure to the English la1guage tha1 their peers in form one and two and the form foor classes
were busy prepaing for examinations and could not be interfered with. There w~e about 60
public secondary schools in Nairobi and 80 public secondary schools in Vihiga district. Nairobi
schools represented the urban pooulatkn while Vihiga represented the rural pq:mlation of
schools. These two districts were comparable because they both fall in the lower half of KCSE
performance in general (KCSE analysis over the years).
According to Ary et aI. (1972), in descriptive research, 10-20% of the accessible populationof a
sample is acceptable as being representative one. This guided the sample size for the schools
and respondents for this study. Hence, 15 schools were sampled thus: 6 from Nairobi and 9 from
Vihiga, using stratified proportional sampling to represent the urbsn and rural populations
respectively. Representation by gender was also taken into consideration: two girls' schods, two
boys' schools and two mixed schools, represented Nairobi while Vihiga was represented by two
girls' school, one boys' school aid six mixed schools. Vihiga was found to have more mixed
schools. The researcher visited the respective education offices (The Provincial Director of
Education (PDE), in Nairobi, and District Education Officer (DEO) in Vihiga.) from where the lists
of schools aid the zones were obtained. From these lists, the schools were sampled with the
foll<1Ningstrata in mind:
• the academic performa1ce (position in KCSE over five years),
• the gender,
• the zone or divisioo where schools were situated.
95
The schods sampled w~e therefae considered representative of diff~ent gender, locas, type
and performCllce levels of schools (pegged 00 their KCSE school mean grades), aid diff~ence
in school resources, hence providing a diverse populatioo fa the study. These variables Wafe the
same fa both districts. Tables 3.1 and 3.2 below show the number of public schools fron which
the 1S'schods were sampled from Vihiga CIld Nairobi.
Table 3.1: Number of Public Secondary Schools per Sex per Division in Vihiga
Source: Ministry of Education, Distti:t EducatIOn Offue, Vifl/ga, 1999
Total no. of Girts· Boys' Mixed
Oivision schools schools schools schools
Vihiga 15 3 1 11
Sabatia 11 2 1 8
TirikiE 8 2 2 4
TirikiW 12 3 1 8
•...muhaya 11 2 1 8
Chavaka~ 11 2 1 8
uanda 11 1 10
~otal 79 14 8 57
Sample
approx: 12°~ 9 2 1 6..
In order to achieve a true representative sample of Nairobi region of the schools in Vihiga, the
sampling was done as follows:
• For Vihiga, each educatiooal divisioo was represented, with Vihiga and Chavakali
divisions being represented by two schools each because Vihiga divisioo had the
largest number of public schools and Chavakali provided the top boys' school and
girls' boarding school.
• Type of school and gender were considered thus:
- One top performing girls boarding school,
- One top performing boys' boarding school,
- One average perfaming girls boarding school (because it was found that most
mixed schools had more boys thCll girls-to get a gmder baaice),
%Six mixed schooIs-3 average perfooning and 3 poor perfooning since the ICI"gest
number of schools were mixed.
Table 3.2: Number of Public Secondary Schools per Sex per Division in Nairobi
Total number of
Division schools Girls' schools Boys'schoois Mixed schools
Str"ehe 8 1 5 2
Kamukunj 4 3 1
~estlands 11 4 5 2
angata 5 2 3 -
;:mbakasi 6 2 - 4
pagoretti 8 3 2 3
Kasarani 4 - 1 3
Makadara 5 2 2 1
Total 51 17 18 16
Sample approx:
12% 6 2 1 2..Source: Ministry of Ec!Jcat/On, PrOVincial Education OffK:e, N8Irobl, 1999
In order to achieve a true representative sample of Nairobi region the sampling was done as
described below. Six schools in total were sampled from only six divisions, which represented
nearness to the city centre, the densely populated parts of Nairobi and the outer Nairobi. Type of
school and gender were considered thus:
- one top performing girls' boarding school.
- one top performing boys' boarding school.
- two average performing day schools (1 boys, 1 girls).
- two poor performing day schools (mixed).
This variability therefore took cognisance of the different ability levels of students, differences in
school resources and gender.
3.1.2:Respondents' Sample
The target population for the study included 520 form three students who had coe year to go
befcre they did KCSE examination, a sample of 56 English ICIlguage teachers, 8 heads of
English section of languages department and the KIE head of English curriculum pCllel
-,
97
(seconday divisioo). It WCEexpected that form three students had higher linguistic levels needed
for listening ccrnprehension, oornpaed to forms one and two students, while form four was a
busyclass just preparing for the KCSE examination. Stratified-j)I'oportionai SCl'npiingWCEdone to
arrive at a sample of 520 form three students who took the LCT. Both males and females were
proportiooally represented at a ratio of almost 1:1 (259 girls and 261 boys).
From each sanpled school, a class list was provided. In single-streamed schools, that whole
form three clCESwas used. Where there WCEmore than one strean, simple random sanpling
was done. This was done by odd- even method where every Yd, 5th, 7th, 9th student fa' double
streams and every Yd, 6th, 9th student and so on for schools with more than two streams picked
from the provided class list. Where there was under- enrolment (for example, 15 - 20) students in
two streams, the classes were merged to form one average class. The number of students in
each stream varied between 20-55, with an average of 40 students per clCES.Therefore, fifteen
schools provided the sample of 520 students.
From each of the 15 schools in Nairobi and Vihiga, one English Language teacher was sampled.
Purposive sampling was done, where the form three class teacher of English was used. Where
there WCEmore than one stream, one of them was sampled by simple balloting. This gave a
sample of 15 teacher respondents. An additional 41 form three teachers (27 from Vihiga and 14
from Nairobi) of English from secondary schools outside the study schools WCEdrawn using
proportional sampling, m~ng 56, the number of teachers who participated in the study (a 33%
sample of form three teachers of English from the two districts). This was becaJse it WCEfound
important to include the additional teachers for purposes of getting a representative and
reasonci>ly large sample of teachers fa their views on the teaching of listening skills. From
• Nairobi, the 14 teachers were proportionally sampled from schools in each of the divisions, to
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represent mixed schools, single sex schools, boarding and day schools. From Vihiga, 27 more
teachers were picked from each of the divisions, in the same way.
The teachers were invdved because they are the ones who interpret and implement the syllabus
in the classroom, are able to assess the syllci:>us and students, interpret the course bock and a-e
in close contact with the students. They were useful in giving information and their views aboot
the syllabus in use.
In order to clarify factors and observations influencing the patterns/trends obtained through the
main instruments, the researcher interviewed heads of English departments in some of the
sampled schools. Eight heads of English in the sampled public secondary schools in Nairobi (3)
and Vihiga (5) were selected through a proportional random sample from the category of top,
average, and below average schools in terms of academic performance. The sampling also
covered boys', girls', and mixed schools. 'Only eight HODs were included because of the
limitation of time spent on interviews. Moreover, the interview instrument they responded to was
only used to supplement the main instruments; the test, questionnaire and content analysis
guide. The head of the English curriculum panel (Secondary Division) at KIE who was also a
respondent to the interview was in charge of coordinating the curriculum plalning of the English
course panel. She was, therefore, important in supplying facts and views about the teaching of
English in general and listening and listening comprehension in Kenya secondary schools.
3.2: Development of Research Instruments· Construction and Description
In order to achieve the objectives of the study, an exploratory and descriptive survey used the
following main data collecting instruments: a test, a questionnaire and a content analysis guide .
• In order to clarify the factors influencing the patterns and trends obtained through these
99
instruments, semi-structured interviews were carried out with the heads of English aid the KIE
head of the English curriculum panel (secondary divisioo) as stated above. The general
objectives of language teaching, the researcher's emn experience in language teaching aid the
review of relevant researches provided the sources of infa'mation fa' the detailed constructioo of
the resea-ch instruments mentioned. This background also provided a conbinetion of what to
look for using the research instruments mentioned above.
3.2.1: The Content Analysis Guide
Content analysis of the KIE Integrated English course book (1992) for form three was done. This
was the only recommended course book for teaching English used in all secondary schools in
Kenya.Although the detailed analysis of content was done for the form three course book only, a
general and brief overview was done on the Integrcted English course books (1992) in use in
forms 1, 2 and 4 for purposes of giving a general picture of the learners' exposure to the listening
skill before form three and thereafter. This helped to give a complete picture of the emphasis of
the listening skill in secondary school.
A definition of content analysis to suit the purpose of the study was taken from Sommer and
Sommer (1991) who describe it as "a technique for systematically describing the form and
contentof written or spoken material for instance, of interview records, letters, songs, cartoons,
advertisementsand textbooks'. And according to the Internatiooal Encyclopaedia of Education
(Husen,at aI. (eds); 1994), content analysis involves counting, measuring and classifying. In this
study, content analysis was done of the message itself (the textbook materials) and the tasks,
looking at both the material and its fam or the structure and counting. Templeton (1977)
suggesteda model fa analysing listening tasks, which this researcher borrowed a lot from after
• further appraisal by English language university lecturers. From the guide, criteria for evaluating
100
the English language course book used in form three were determined. Appendix 1 shows the
content analysis grid adapted from Templeton (1977) and adapted fa this study. This study was
therefae infamed by the insights from Sommer and Sommer (1~~, H~sen at aI. (1994) and
Templeton(1977) and experts' opinion.
3.2.1.1: Purposes of doing the Content Analysis
The content analysis guide sought to explae and describe the provision of listening and listening
comprehension exercises and tasks in the English syllabus as interpreted in the English
languagecourse book: Integrated Eng/ish- Students' and Teachers' Book 3. Specifically, content
analysiswas done in order to obtain infamation 00:
i. the general trend or format of coverage of the listening! speakingskills,
ii. the kinds of materials in use for teaching and assessing listening and listening
comprehensioncompetencies,
iii. the focus for attention - quantity, emphasis,balance andcoverage,
iv. the provisions made for listening and listening comprehension practice in the
course book and accompanying instructions and guidelines for the teacher in the
Teacher's Guide.
The cootent analysis also highlighted the possible factors that may influence listening
comprehensionproficiency in form 3. For instaioe, the results of the content analysis helped to
checkon:
a. The effect of the type of listening materials (message Clld coverage) 00 students'
listening comprehensioo(to serve as basis for improving the syllabus)
b. The effect 00 listening comprehension of frequency/amountsof exposure to listening
materials.
c. Attitudes, interests and values of the English Languagesyllabus designers.
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d. Students' attitudinal and behaviooral respooses to listening materials.
e. Quantification of the written accoont obtained from interviewing the HODs m the
KIE head of English to cross-vaidae findings from the test and the questionnaire.
3.2.1.2: The Content Analysis Procedure
The listening materials aid tasks to be analysed were identified throogh insights frcm previous
research on listening and the listening comprehension skills and .frcm studies on reading
comprehensionskills. The identified tasks were validated by six experts (languageeducatiooand
English language lecturers and teachers of English), as constituting what listening
comprehensioncompetencies or sub skills content should be. The experts were two lecturers
from the English department and one ICIlguage educationist frcm the Educational
Communication and Technology Department of Kenyatta University, and three teachers of
Englishfrom three secondary schools in Nairobi (1) and Vihiga (2). The head teachers of these
schoolsgave out the names of all the teachers of English on their staff, showing their experience,
academicqualifications and ye~s of service. Then one was chosen from each list - the most
experiencedwith the highest academic and professional qualifications were considered to be
bestplacedto cross validate the content.
The listeningmaterials in the said text were quantified and qualitatively described.The procedure
is describedbelow. The universe or entire content to be studied was identified: the Integrated
English Book 3. The categcries into which the universe was to be partitioned were defined in
orderto reflect the purposes of the research. These categaies were objectively defined, adapted
and generally agreed upon by the researcher and experts (supervisors and language
educationists).It IS important to note that a computerized approach to content CIlalysiscould not
be adopted because standardized categaies were not available. Units that could be reliably
102
quantified wfKe determined (this is useful in detfKmining the level of measurement in statistical
analyses). Most of the structurci categories called for interval measurements such as space, time
and number, while the content categcries called for ordinal measurements by ralking texts in
termsof, for exanple percaved listening comprEilensioo difficulty.
The quantification took the form of simple, frequency coonts, while the non-quantifiable
categories were described qualitatively in line with the research oojectives. The coverage of the
listening skills was then rated according to the scale, ranging from very favourable to very
unfavourable. The means of the structure categories were computed to show what the results
suggested,that is, whether neutral coverage or full coverage or no coverage.
The reliability of this instrument was ensured by prior discussion of the coding categories with
experts as already mentiooed earlier, and the researcher did the coding herself to ensure there
was no variatioo. The reliability of the quantitatively described categories was verified by expert
opinion. However, for the qualitatively described categories, reliability was not easy to determine
becausethey were subjective. All the content specifically pertinent to the research problem was
analysed. The content categories were defined according to the first research objective: to
analyse listening tasks in the English language course book for form three. The content was
categorizedas follows:
A: Structure Categories
A1- Total number of pages in the book
A2- Units in the books covering listening comprehension VfKSUSUnits covering other language
skills (To check 00 frequency of tasks occurrence in the course book)
f\J- Number of sections in the book
A4- Length of listening comprehension matfKials in words and time spent.
103
Afr Sentences in terms of number, length and type.
Afr. Phrases (number on
A7- Word length in letters
A8- Number of characterslpeq>le per listening text
A9- Format of the listening comprehensioo texts
B: Content Categories
81- Topics/themes (depth and content)
82- Type of listening materials (quality ald quantity of listening comprehension tasks)
83- Themes of topics (relevance, familicrity and interest)
B4- Cootent authenticity, relevance and familiarity
85- Language level of the listening material (suitability)
Bfr. Types of abilities! sub skills tested by the listening materials.
87- Evidence (features) of spoken language
B8- Text analysis for listenability
89- Methods suggested (observed trendsl patterns of presentation).
After determining, categorizing and coding the various content variables, analysis was done
through absolute frequencies, for example, numbers of specific incidents found in the data and
relative frequencies, for example, the proportion of particular events to the total events. The data
were presented both qUaltitatively and descriptively.
3.2.2:The Listening Comprehension Test
3.2.2.1:Purpose of the Test
This descriptive study addressed itself to the following questions through the test:
• 'Mlat were the students' listening comprehension competencies or abilities?
,..-' r r
104
• 'Mlat were the listening comprehensioo proficiency levels of form three students?
• 'Mlat factors determine lea-ners' listening comprehension ability?
The kind of test given fa this study was a written. individual - based. criterioo - referenced
diagnostic test. The test amed at showing students' proficiency levels of listening
comprehension. It also aimed at showing the vCliability among students in their listening
comprehensioncompetencies and to identify areas of strength and weakness and the factors
that accountedfor the same. This audicrbased test checked 00 whether students had mastered
thevariouslistening comprehension micro-skills stated in Table 3.3 in section 3.2.2.2 below.
3.2.2.2:Conceptuaiisation and Designing of the Test
a) Criteria: The test comprised three sub-tests; each sub-test measuring two sub-skills of
listeningcomprehension (shown in Table 3.3 below). Items consisted of both multiple choice and
short answer type of questions. In selecting listening materials for the test. the following criteria
wereused:
• Languagelevel (simplicity and complexity)
• Vocabulary- words beyood students' comprehensioowere substituted.
• Phrases and sentence constructioo - difficult ooes were either substituted with manageable
onesor made shorter and simpler.
• Interest- appeal to students.
b) Material Types: The listening materials were of three types: expositioo (naratlve), figurative
and aesthetic. and conversatiooal. typical of the things that students actually listen to in school
situatioos and those recommended by previous resea-chers. An anecdote. a news item and a
conversation(dialogue) were used. The aieocote was on a social event. the news item was on
a commonevent in Kenya - a music concert. while the dialogue was adopted from a past litera)'
• set book for seccnday schools (See Appendix 2a. 3a. and 4a for the listening materials). These
j " I
105
types of test materials Cl'e recanmended as relevant fa ESl language learning fa middle
seoondaryschool classes by Vallete (1977) and Rivers and Temperly (1978) as among the types
of listeningmaterias best suited fa testing listening compreher1sion.
c) The sub skills: It is important to ncte that the test used in this study was not designed to
measurethe whole array of listening competencies a abilities but only some aspects (listening
comprehension)of the tota listening act. The questions for the subtests were made to meet the
requirementsof assessing specific listening comprehension sub skills/competencies and throogh
expertopinion and review of literature, the following competencies of listening were agreed on for
testing:
• listening for gist and specifics,
• listening fa selected significant details,
• listening for topic- main idea or thought,
• drawing inferences and predicting outcomes,
• deducinga inferring the mealings of unfamiliCl"words,
• recalling without memorizing wholes (paraphrasing).
d) Face Validity of the Test
This involved the evaluatas' (the six experts mentioned earlier) appraisal of what the content of
the test should measure. That is, if the items appeared to deal with relevant cootent in listening
comprehension. The experts were asked to appraise the texts and the test. In this way, the
content of the listening materials and test items were arived at. It is important to note that the
judgment in face validation is always subjective and therefore only used to supplement
information about predictive, ooncurrent and oontent validity, hence the need for content
validationas explained below.
e) Content Validity of the Test
This is the representativeness of the content: the substance and the topics of a measuring
instrument. The specific content universe of listening comprehension skills was purposively
106
sampled for develq>ing the test items, that is, all listening canprehension skills content was
tabled and from it, crt objective choice of six different skillslcanpetencies of listening
comprehensionwas arrived at. (The degree of content validity is not expressed in numerical
"terms as a CCfreiationcoefficient). The sane jury of six experts was consulted to appraise the
contentof listening comprehension skills, which were refined and are shONnin Table 3.3 below.
The table shC1NSthe weighting of each sub skill accordingto expert opinion.
Table3.3: Weighting of LeT Sub skills/Abilities by Experts
No. CompetencieslAbilitieslSk~1s Weighting
1 Listening for gist and specifics 10
2 Listening for selected signifICant details 20
3 Listening for topiclthought or mail ideas 10
4 Abiity to interpret speaker's tone and intention 20
5 Drawing inferences, deducing meanings of unfamirlar words and predicting 25
outcanes.
6 Paraphrasing (recaBing without memorizing wholes) 15
TOTAL 100%
These skills were considered to cover a representative sample of the content of listening
comprehensionand useful in deriving, constituting and developing the test items suitable for form
three.
The abilities to be tested were arrived at through a review of literature on second language
testing by different authors, among them: Anne, (1975); Anderson and Lynch (1988);
Scarborough, (1988); Nunan, (1990); FIC1Nerdew,(1994) and Ferrer - Hanreddy, (1996). These
authors agree on key elements of listening comprehension abilities in assessment, namely;
ability to pick the main idea, the details, follow topic develcorneot, guess mecrtings of words,
understand the speaker's tone, draw inferences, predict outcomes and recall from a spoken
discourse. The review of other literature on listening and the expert opinion of the jury of six also
formed a basis of constructing the test items. The conceptualised listening comprehension
abilities (skills) were given to two experienced language teachers, three lecturers of English and•
Language Education aid a psychornetricicrtwith a task to rate according to crder of importance
107
of the six selected listening comprehension ~ilities, keeping in mind, the grade level of the
students (form three). The grid below shows how the experts rated each of the six skills
mentionedin the Tcille 3.3 above.
Table 3.4: Rating of the Listening Comprehension Skills in order of Importance
Listening Skill
Expert Rater 1 2 3 4 5 6 Position Rating
Skil1 5 6 5 6 6 6 6
2 3 2 3 3 4 2 3
3 6 5 6 5 5 5 5
4 4 2 1 2 3 3 2
5 1 1 2 1 1 1 1
6 2 3 4 4 2 4 4
From the experts' analysis above, the weighting or the importance of the skills of listening was
done. From the above rating and weighting, three subtests were set. Skills 5 and 6 were tested in
subtest one, skills 3 and 4 in subtest two and skills 1 and 2 in subtest three, with 40 marks for
subtest one (which was rated highest) 30 for subtest 2 and 30 for subtest 3, giving a test total of
100%.
3.2.2.3: Test Item Construction
Test items were coined for each of the abilities in Table 3.4 above. The initial test item pool
comprised 60 items, that is, 20 for each of the three listening materials. These items were
arranged according to the sequence of the content presented in the listening materials and the
listening skills demanded of it. The six experts critically reviewed the items. They identified the
needed changes and raised questions on the test items. This exercise reduced the package to a
prototype of 41 items (Sub-test 1 comprised 14 items, sub-test two 14 items, and sub-test three
13 items), which were field-tested with the aforementioned target population. This numba' of
items adapted for the pilot study is supported by Borg, et aI. (1989: 267) who state that the
standard form of a test is usually 211 items for Ia-ge populations and the short form is 13 items.
The final test package for the pilot study was 41 and after the piloting, was reduced to 30 (as
108
explaned in the discussion unda- piloting below), which falls in the recommended limits.
Appendix 2b, 3b and4b show the sample of the sub test items used in the actual study.
Using mcrking schemes and keys, the subtests WEJ"escaed out of 40, 30 and 30 for sub-tests
1,2, and 3 respectively. The listening materials content and test items passed through the various
steps of refinement as a result of which only valid and reliable items remained to be induded in
the final test. (This is reported in section 3.2.2.6 on piloting).
3.2.2.4: Determining the Rate of Presentation of the Test Material
The rate of presentation (at speaking speed) of the listening material was tried out by the
researcher, the three secondary schad teachers and three experts mentioned. Each of them
practised to present the materials at a speed they deemed fit for form three students, as the
researcher timed. The times found by each of the readers were 115, 110, 117, 100,98 and 126
words per minute (wpm), giving an average speed of 111 wpm, which was adjusted to 115 and
adopted for the actual study. The researcher's voice was used in the recording of matEJ"ials/text
for subtests two and three, while a female teacher and two fluent students recorded the
conversation (subtest one). The recording was critically evaluated by the six experts before the
piloting and by the form three students involved in the pilot study after the piloting. The speed
was found to work well in the piloting, and after feedback from the students and necessay
adjustments were made, the audiotapewas used in the man study.
3.2.2.5: Description of the Pilot Sub-tests
Each sub-test material was preceded by verbal instructions. The test questionsWEJ"eon paper for
ease of administration and mcrking. AnSNer sheets were prepared alongside the questions that
would follow the audiotape.
109
Sub-test 1
The listening material for this sob-test was adapted from a play, The Govemmeri Inspedor
(Goga: 1996). The tape-script canprised a oonv€J"Satioo. This matErial was chosen for the
purpose of presenting the interactive nature of language and for va-ying the difficulty levels of the
three sob-tests. The non-linguistic behaviour required of in dranatic dialogue was achieved in
the recording by repetitioo and inclusion of supra segmental features such as appropriate tone,
pitch, stress and intonation. Background sound effects such as movement; crying, whispers and
quiet moments were also effectively incorporated in the tape. This was folla.ved by 14 multiple
chace and short answer questi~s testing ability to draw inferences, deduce meanings of
unfamilicr words, predict outcomes and paraphrase (skills 5 and 6).
Sub-test 2
The listening material for this sub-test was adapted from Kingsbury and Spratta, (1990),
Longman Profidency Skills. The typescript canprised a short story or anecdote. Fourteen
objective items were used to test students' ability to: listen for topi~ and identify the mdn idea or
thought and interpret speakers' tone and intention (Skills 3 and 4).
Sub-test 3
• The listening material for this sub-test was adapted from Sccrborough, (1988): "Reasons for
Ust~ing.' It comprised a news summary. Thirteen objective type questions were used to test
ability to listen for gist or specifics and for selected significant detcils (skills 1 & 2).
3.2.2.6: Piloting and Refining the Test
In this sectioo, a description of how the test was piloted and refined for use in the field is given.
a) Preparation and Piloting of the Test
The test used for the study was subjected to the procedures of refinement and standardization as
indicated below. The subtests were piloted 00 form a three class of 36 in an average- pafaming
1,,10
Nairobi public secondary school (by perfamance in KCSE examinations), which was not part of
the field sample, in the third schod term. This time of the year was found most suitctlle when the
students had almost finished or advanced in the syllabus before the final excmination. With the
permission of the head teacher, the researcher was assisted by the head of I<I1guages
department a1d the class teacher to make arrangements for the dissemination of the test, two
days later. One stream was randomly chosen out of the four streans in the school (The strecms
were not classified on academic ability criterion).
The pilot exercise began at 8.00 a.m. (to avoid fatigue and anxiety) for prior arrangements and
confirmations. The school library was used for the exercise, as it was quiet. Physical conditions
such as a working socket, working cassette recorder, ventilation and comfortable sitting were
ensured. The pilot class assembled in the library and were briefed by their teacher of English and
the researcher, on the purpose of the research. The kind of test and its format were explained
and the pre-tape verbal instructions were repeated for clarity. Students' hearing ability was tested
by asking them questions and clapping twice from the front end and back end of the class to
draw each learner's attention. None of the students showed poor hearing. The volume of the
recording was tested to ensure it was well balanced and loud enough for all to hea ..
The students were given the answer sheets for the first sub-test before they listened to the
typescript and were helped to fill in the administrative details and bio data on the top sheet betere
the listening exercise began. They were instructed to remain quiet and net to open the question
papers until they were asked to do so. The above procedures worked well and the same was
done in the actual research.
III
The test was administered on tape in ader to hdd the rate of presentation, the vdume and the
tone of the speaker (accent and intensity) constait. This was found to work well except sub-test
two where the appropriate revision was done fa the actual study.
b) Detennining the Time for the Test
It was decided that 75% of all students shall have time at least to consider all items and that the
test shootd be administered to a dass within the usual length of a cfass period: a double lesson
of 80 minutes. It was atso decided that, as much as possible, all the responses of students be
got. However, for the sake of focus, an appropriate time limit fa each test had to be determined.
The investigata played the tape with instructions and tape-script for each sub-test twice and then
switched it off to atlow students to answer questions on the provided question and answer
papers. The students were instructed to raise up their hands as soon as they finished. As this
happened, the researcher timed and put a hash mark against the time each pupil took to finish.
This exercise was repeated until the last finisher was recorded; noting down the number of
~students raising their hands between particular time limits. The average time taken for each sub-
test was frond and adjusted. The time determined fa each subtest was as follows:
Sub-test One
The first student to finish took 8 minutes and the last 14 minutes. Therefore, the average time
needed fa answering questions was 11 minutes and was adjusted to 13 minutes fa the field
study. The total time needed fa the whole test administration was decided to be 20 minutes
(that is, 5 minutes for audio play and replay, 13minutes Cllswering questions a1d two minutes for
fogistics).
Sub·test Two
The first finisher tad( 7 minutes while the last took 14 giving an average of 10% minutes. This
was adjusted to 12 minutes. The total time needed fa this sub-test was therefore 20 minutes
= \ 1
I
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(Iha is 3 rniootes fa ado pay and replay, 12 miIUes alSWering questims a1d 5 nirliEB fa
logistics).
Sub-test Three
The average time taken to canplete the test was 7 minutes and was ~ed to 10 nil1lte&.
The total time needed fa the whde sub-test was 20 minutes (that is, 4 minutes ado play and
replay, 10 miootes mswering questioos a1d 6 minutes for logistics). The students did nci ~
to have any prdJlems answering the questims.
The whde test (sub-tests 1, 2 and 3) was folJ'ld to last 49 minutes in tota, in aiditim to 20
minutes fa prepa-atim and 5 ninutas' I~ betweoo sub-tests and collecting the canpleled
test~. The tota time needed therefore was 74 minutes, which meant a double lesson (80
minutes) was to be used fa the exercise in fNery school in the actual fiefd.
c) The Marking Scheme and Scoring Criteria
The dljective type itBTlS were scored by ticking a1d -awa-dng a rna1< ~a11y fa ea:h item,
using a prepared key. The structlJ"ed a1d me-word answer itBTlS also hoo the same weighting
(sub-test two and section B of sub-test me) a1d were scored using a marking scheme. Each
_sub-test was scored out of 10. The marking scheme was furtha" refined when during the
marking, a few vmations fran pupils' answers were bot Saneof these, which woold pass to
be reasmaNy carect were ~ CIld irxD"porcted in the marking scheme, CIld oojustments
were instituted axxlrdi~y, fa use in the main study. The rWII scores were t~ated fa each
test and item analysis and selection of items fa refinement was done and is repated in sectial
(d) below.
d) Item Analysis, Selection, Refinement and Adoption for use in the main study
The rupose of item analysis was to identify suita>le and unsuitable items a1d select those ~
would .tam the fina tam of the test to be used in the field. Therefae, test statistics (the
elicitation, difficulty and discriminaioo indoos, the poinl-biserial carelatims of the sW tests aJd
113
whole test, z-scores measures of central tendency and internal reliability using the Spearman
BrONn Prophecy Formula- split half method or sub divided test) were computed for this purpose.
This sectioo gives a report of the results of item analysis and selectioo and the procedureused.
i. TheElicitation Index
An elicitation index of at least 0.75 or 75% of the subjects responding to a question is considered
good. The elicitatioo indices for most of the items in sub-test one were above 0.9 (90%) - a very
high elicitability. Sub-test two also had a high elicitability of 0.85 while most items in sub-test
three had a perfect elicitation index (1.00) except for two items with an index of 0.97 each. The
whole test package therefore had a high elicitation index (0.92) and considered suitable for
adoption for the main study.
ii. TheDiscriminationIndex
A discrimination index above 0.4 up to +1 is acceptable, but there are no rules as to what
discrimination indices are acceptable since the possibility of getting high indices varies according
to the test type and range of ability of the examinees (Ferguson, 1984). Most of the items (9 out
of 13) on sub-test one had discrimination indices of above 0.5 which means the test
discriminated well between the weak and strong students. Half of the items on sub-test two and
three had discrimination indices below 0.3, and so some were rejected and others were refined
and adopted for the study. However, it is important to note that both sub-tests had a test total
discrimination index above 0.3 and so it was safely concluded that the whole test package
discriminated well and with refinement, could be used for the man study.
iii. TheDifficulty Index
Indices between'0.20 ald 0.80 are considered of medium difficulty. An index of 0.80 ald above
is hard, while those below, 0.20 ae easy. A test as a whole should have a difficulty index of 0.50
for the average student. Most items (10 out of 13) on sub-test one were of fair difficulty (the
114
average test difficulty was 0.44). Half of the items on sub-test two and three were of fair difficulty
(the average test difficulties fa both sob-tests were 0.33 ald 0.29 respectively).
e) The z-Scores and Measures of Central Tendency for Whole Pilot Test Package
Sub-test 1 had a mean of 47.70 out of 100%, mode of 50 and medial of 47 and a package
standard deviation (SO) of 16.51. Sub-test 2 had a rneai of 62.92, median of 65, mode of 68
and SO of 17.29. Sub-test 3 had a mean of 71.22, median of 71, mode of 79 and SO of 10.24.
The test total mean was 60.61. (In the main study, scores were computed out of maximum of
10). These values indicated that the test scores were fair and well distributed (fairly big
varianees). They also shaN that subtest 2 and 3 was a bit too easy; hence they were adjusted
after the marking and re-appraisal through expert opinion babe dissemination in the actual field.
These values were used to calculate the rpbiand therefore the inter-item reliability of the test as
seen in (f) below.. The z-scores and measures of central tendency for the whole test package are
shown in Appendix 8.
f) The point-biserial correlation (rpbi)
This is described as the correlation between scores on items and their total score or item
reliability. For this test, rpbivalues of near a above 0.30 were accepted for the choice of an item
to be included in the final test package. Most of the items on suo-test one (9 out of 13) had a
high (rpbi:0.275 - 0.984) point biserial correlation, which means that most of the items were
related. On sub-test two, 11 out of 14 items had high correlation (rpbi:0.250 - 0.736) and on sob-
test three, 7 out of 14 items correlated well (rpbi:0.304- 0.653) with the total score. The items that
were too easy were revised to be more challenging ald accepted, others were substituted with
harder ones while others were rejected. Appendix 7a 7b and 7c show how the calculation of rpbi
was done.
115
From the item anaysis therefore, the number of items needed for the main study test were
determined. Some items were accepted without chcrlge while others were accepted with
chcrlges such as rewording, shortening or clarification. Other items were r~ected depending on
various factors. Some of these factors were: those that were too east or too difficult (with very
low or very high difficulty indices) and those with a low discrimination index or no discrimination
poNer at all and those with a negative 01" no point- biserial correlatioo at all. Therefore, ten items
were selected for the final form of sub-test one and three were rejected, ten items were selected
for sub-test two and 4 were rejected and ten items were selected while 4 were rejected in sub-
test 3 for the main study. The whole test package for the main study was therefore reduced to
30 items. The order of items in each sub-test was revised in accordance with the content and in
ascending order of difficulty value. Appendix 5a 5b and 5c show the elicitation, difficulty and
discrimination indices and the point biserial correlations (item reliability) for the three sub-tests.
g) Correction for Guessing
.According to Ebel and Frisbie (1991),correction for guessing may only be necessary if there are
only two options and therefore can allow blind guessing (such as Yes/No or True/False items) or
.when many or all of the students have omitted a large number of test items. In this test, there
were an adequate number of response options (4) and short answer questions, which would not
allow for blind guessing. Therefore, correction for guessing would have little effect and was not
applied to the pilot test scores and therefore, not recommended for the main test.
h) Test Reliability using Spearman Brown Prophecy Formula
To ensure that the reliabilities of the three sub-tests were good, the following was done:
i. The sub-tests were administered and scored consistently (by researcher alone).
ii. The test instructions were made very clear
,r r " -
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iii. The test items were corrected for ambiguity. and then the split half method (oddleven)
using the Spearman Brown Prophecy Fomula was used for ~riving at the coefficients of
reliability of the three sub-tests (See Appendix 6a 6b and 6c for calculatioo).
Sub-test 1. 2 CIld 3 w~e found to have high test relict>ility indices of (rt!) of 0.63. 0.75 aid 0.71
respectively. at 95% confidence level. 00000 it was foond to be a reliable test for the main study.
i) Setting the Pass Marlt for the pilot test
The decisioo fa setting the pass-rnak was taken at the level of each sub-test and then the whole
test. The method used was to categorize the tests according to their scoes expressed in terms
of stsndad scores (z) and deviations. Those. students who were more than two standard
deviations above the mean were considered very good listeners. Those between one and two
SOs above the meai were considered good and so on (Alderson, et aI.• 1996: 156). For the three
sub-tests, it was as follows (in table 3.5 below):
Table 3.5: Rating of Students on Listening Comprehension Proficiency for Pilot study
Sub-tests 1, 2, and 3 and on the whole Test
Sub-test: 1 2 3 'MIole Test Rating Grade
Freq. % Fre % Freq. % Freq. %
Q.
2+z scores above 2 5.6 0 0 0 0 2 19 Very A
mean Good
Between 1-2 z 5 13.9 5 13.9 5 13.9 15 13.9 Good B
scores
0-1 zscores 10 27.8 14 38.9 10 27.8 34 31.5 Averag C
e
Below -0 z scores 11 30.6 10 V.8 15 41.7 36 33.3 Poor D
Below 2-1 z scores 8 22.2 5 13.9 4 11.1 17 15.7 Very E
Poor
2+z scores below 0 0 2 5.6 2 5.6 4 2.7 Fa. F
mean
N= 36 36 36 108
Mean = 47.7 62.92 71.22 60.61
NB: See Table 2 (AppendIX 8) aso forcaJcliation ofz-6Cores and standard deviation (Sx) for sub-tesis 1,2and 3.
The pass mark for sub-test one was 47.70; sub-test two was 62.92 while that for sub-test three
was 71.22 with the test total average of 60.61. The pilot study students' proficiency woold
therefore be described as: very good, good (proficient) average, poor (modest), or very poorl fail
(limited). depending on their mean score on the listening comprehension proficien~ test total. In
117
the man study, these guidelines were used. The pilot study showed that the majority (64.8%) of
the students in the pilot schoo fell mainly in the C and 0 grades, showing modest cbility in
listening proficiency.
j) General Observations and Conclusions about the Pilot Test
i. The methOOof determining the rate of presentation and the time required for ccrnpletion
of test worked well and the rate and timing were used for main study
ii. Items whose difficulty values were between 0.20 and 0.80 were accepted and included
in the final test package for the main study
iii. Items whose discrimination values ranged from 0.4 to 1.0 were accepted and used for
the main study.
iv. Items that contributed most to the total test variaice were selected for the final test
package (i.e. those with great item - item covariance and item variance and inter item
correlations (rpbi).
v. The final edited test total discriminated between those individuals in the upper group and
the bottom group.
vi. The high coefficients of reliability suggested that the test package was homogeneous
enough to be used in the main study.
vii. The coefficient of reliability shcmed that there was high reliability of the test.
viii. It was found necessary to discard four of the items in each of sub-tests one and two, and
three from sub-test 3.
ix. The marking scheme was found to work well.
x. After marking the tests, it was decided that time adjustments be made by increasingtime
as it was observed from students' pa-formalC& a number of the short answer questions
in subtest 1 and 2 were unanswered. It was found necessary to adjust the time in the
actual field test by adding 5 more minutes because it was cbserved that some short-
118
answer questioos had been left unaiswered (from the elicitation indices) on subtest I
and 2.
xi. Some of the statistical tools applied in the pila study w~e used fa the man study.
xii. This researcher-madetest was subjected to the processes of test standardization aid so
the objectivity of the test items was ensured. The validity aid reliability of the test
package was established by ensuring that the test was administered and marked
consistently by the resecrcher alone. The refined packagescan be found in (Appendix
2b, 3b and 4b)
3.2.3: The Questionnaire
3.2.3.1: Purpose and description of the questionnaire
This instrument was administered to 56 teachers of English, during the same period with the
tests to check for bio data and their views towards various issues pertaining to the teaching of
the listening skills in general and listening comprehension skills in particular. The questionnaire
was designed to address the "whaf questions and describe the nature of listening
comprehension materials provision in the syllabus and in the practice of teachers of English. It
was also aimed at finding out some of the factors that affected listening comprehension.
Specifically, the questionnaire gave insights into what factors affected the teaching and learning
of listening and listening comprehension skills; what factors account for performance and
variability in scores and achievement outcomes, and why this variability. The instrument included
19 closed type and open-ended items divided into two sections: gen~a1 information and
information on the teaching and assessmentof listening and listening comprehension.
119
3.2.3.2: Piloting the Questionnaire
The questionncire was piloted on all the four teachers of English through their heads of
department in the pilot schad and validated by two experts of English. All the four questionncires
containing 19 questions that were given out were returned. The questionnaire was analysed to
find out if the questions in it were understcxx:tand answered by all the teachers without problems.
Fourteen (14) of the questions were Cllswered by all the teachers without problems. However,
items 6,9, 10, 12, 13, 18 and 19 were found to have the following problems.
• Discrepancy (question 6 and 9)
• Ambiguity (questions 10, 12, 13, 18)
• Uable to misinterpretation (10, 12, 13, 18)
• Eliciting none, wrong, or irrelevant responses (question 19)
• Outrageous and contradicting the purpose of the study (question 9).
These items were not discarded, but were restructured or replaced, for example by giving options
or providing a place for "any other" to open-ended items. Some were restated and clarified with
the help of the experts (supervisors). Finally, all the 19 questions were refined and adopted for
use in the main study (See appendix 9 for the questionnaire used in the main study). Thus it can
be said with certainty that proper procedures were followed in establishing the reliability of the
main instruments.
3.2.4: The Interview Schedules
There were two interview schedules- for the eight heads of department ald the KIE head of
English Palel. These were not piloted but the questions were validated by expert opinion. The
heads of department were purposively sampled to represent teachers in the category of top,
average and below average schools in terms of academic performance at KCSE exaninations.
More HODs were sampled from Vihiga because it had more schools than Nairooi. The sanpling
120
also covered boys-only, girls-ooly and mixed schods. Further insights were obtained from a
semi-structured interview with the KIE curriculum head for purposes of validating the content
analysis results and to shed light 00 the syllabus of English for secondary schools regarding a
variety of factors in English Language Teaching (ELT) and particularly, the teaching of listening
(See interview schedules in Appendix 10a and 1(1)). The oojectives of the interviews were to:
a) Supplement the questioonaire.
b) Verify the information from the questionnaire,
c) Specifically, to clCI'ifysome of their questionnaire responses regarding:
• Observed trends in the performance of students in English language examinations,
particularly the drop in KCSE results since the onset of the Integrated English
Syllabus.
• Opinions, beliefs, feelings and attitudes that may be undetectable through the
questionnaire.
• Open-ended items that had low returns and vague answers.
• Teachers' concerns about the standards of English in schools (the missing link).
• Teachers' contradictions about the availability of listening tasks in course books and
their reliance 00 the same for classroom practice.
• Teachers' apparent non-cornmitment to teaChing English in general and listening
skills in particular, across the curriculum.
• The level of commitment to testing of listening skills in National exaninalkns by
KNEC.
• The variation in the weighting of areas requiring listening ability in the course book!
syllabus.
• The level of the use of speechwork tasks and in relation to listening.
121
• The teat.ers aprioo regacing the inftlJef1C8 impai of spokal 1a1QtJaQ800
nstening canprehensial rblities.
d) To probe the y~ perfarnam 00 the LeT between the Vihiga (nral) sanPe schools
cn:t the NarOOi (urbal) sanpe sdlods.
The interviews were I'd piloted to the cmtent of the semi-stJ'uctlJ"ed tOO were validaed by
expert q>inioo cn:t also infamed by the results of the man research instruments.
3.3: Data Collection and Administration of Instruments in Actual Field Study
After the instruments were tried art in the pilot study, they were refined cn:t used in daa
collection in the main study. The refined test, the questioonare, the content alaIysis guide ald
interview scheOOIes were miristered in the foilONing ader in 3 phases:
3.3.1: Content Analysis
The first ~ase involved contmt mysis cI the English oarse book in use (Integrcted English
Book T!ree). Phase two involved cdministering the questionncires to teacha"s cn:t the LCT
concurrently. This was dale in the secood term in the third week when students were not very
busy ald had covered a reatma>le pa1 of the syllabus. Phac;e three led pica after the
questioonares had beoo mysed ald the test marked and the resecJ'cher had provisiCllal
restits, then the HODs and head cI EngJish, seconda-y dvision at KIE were intEniewat
3.3.2: The Test and Questionn •••
The researcher visited each school and with the help of the HOD, the teah3rs of English we-e
requested to fill in the CJJeStiooncires, wtich were cdlected during tha sane week by the heaf
of depatment. The returns were 100% - all the 56 questioonares given art were collected
personally by the resecJ'cher.
122
The researcher paid visits to the schools to seek permission, for fcmiliarization and to ma<e prior
arrangements with the school administration. A total of 15 minutes was used for preoaatlcns,
instructions and closure. The time allocated for each subtest was: 15 minutes; 20 minutes CI'ld15
minutes for subtests 3,1 and 2 respectively. There was a 5 minutes' break between subtests so
as to minimise the Hawthorne effect. Therefore, the whole LeT was administered in 3 successive
short sessions during the morning hours in a double lesson (80 minutes). This helped to
minimise possible negative effects on physical and mental states of the subjects, for example,
anxiety and fatigue. The test was administered on tape in order to hdd the rate of presentation,
the volume and the tone of the speaker (accent and intensity) constant. Because of the time
available on the school timetables and other school activities, it was decided that all the three
subtests be done in one day.
The following procedure was employed in each school, with a few adjustments depending on
schools: on the day of the testing, the sampled classes sat in a designated area (library, music
room or classroom) with prior arrangement. The researcher introduced herself and further
developed rapport through explaining the purpose of the exercise and the kind of test, its format
and timing. The pre-tape verbal instructions were explained to the students and were repeated
for clCI"ity.The researcher then ascertained that all the students had normal hearing by bCl"lginga
table CI"Idclapping from several positions in the classroom and asking the learners if any had a
hearing problem. One such learner was identified in one school in Nairobi and was asked to sit
where it was convenient for her. The volume of the radio cassette was tested to ensure that it
was well balanced and loud enough for all to hear. The students were shown how to answer
questions by CI"Iexample on the chalkboard.
123
The aJ11)Iexity c;j the test mamas, the speed c;jdelivery, d~, CIlOOIi, JXI'POS8em length of
ea:h sub-test (which were taka1 cae d cbi(JJ pllding) were 00saved dlJing the acinirIisIrciioo
of the test. This prepa'atioo took 25 minutes. The stb-tests were cdniristered in the fotlowing
ader: Sub-test two (a19Cdote), Sti>-test 1 (<i~~),. a1d Sub-test 3 (newt
sunvnay). This todc in OO1Sideratioothe test mfficujty indices that were found <bing the plot
test anaysis. Subtest 1 was tam to have the highest tifficulty irx1ex (from the refining stage of
the test- shown in Appendix Sa, 5b and Se), so it was deddad tha it wood be discourcVng to
leallEIS to stat off with the hadar task. Sta1ing with the easiest task El'lCOlJ'ageslearners but
aso has the disadvartage of giving them a fase sense ct success. ThtJ'efae, subtest 3, wtich
had the IONestciffirolty index was done last.
Fa each school, after the ~ound was set, studErtts were given the questioo - CIlSWa' papers of
sub-test one bebe listering to the tape. Then they were assisted to fill in the administrative
dEtails and bio-dsta 00 the top sheet befae the listening exercise began. They were instructed to
remain quiet and not to open the CJ,J8StioopapER until they were asked to do so. The tape was
played twice fa 2'h mnutes fa subtest 1 and 2 and fa 2 minutes fa stblest 3 and switched off
to allON the students to stat alSWering the questioos within the ~ven time (15 minutes fa- St.b-
test 1, 20 fa- Stb-tesl: 2 a1d 15 minutes fa sub-test three). This exercise was repeaed fa ea:h
test with a 5 minutes' brea between one lest a1d a'lOlI'l«.
In subtest 1, the students did ra appea- to have CI'fJ pr~erIlS alSWering the (JJSStioosthaql
the time taken showed that it was a more demanding test thal suMests 2 and 3. The materia
fa subtest 2 seemed an interesting topic to the students. and the task demanded that they apply
their o.m Iquage skills by writing canplete staements here. The stlX1entsdid net ~ to
have any pr~ems answering the <JJeslionsin subtest 3. The whde test (sub-tests 1. 2 and 3)
124
lasted 55 minutes in totei, in ooditioo to 15 minutes for logistics CIld 10 for minutes' 1C1>S9S
between sub-tests and cdlecting the completed test p~s. The totei time used was a double
lessoo (80 minutes) for the exercise in every school.Jhe question-answer papers were cdlected
from the students at the end of each sub-test.
3.3.2.1: Observations on the field administration of the test
• The students in most of the schools (except ooe) showed great enthusiasm and
keenness for the test and even asked for more of such tests.
• Some students in 7 out of the 15 schools were unable to complete subtests 1 and 2
comfortably. Others needed more time.
• In some schools, students seemed not to find the listening materials hard during the
listening, but spent a lot of time responding. For example, they enjoyed listening to the
anecdote but were fidgety and seemed stranded and unsure during the answering of the
questioos on the test and took a long time.
• Only the urban boarding schools and one rural girls' boarding school were able to finish
responding to all the subtests comfortably.
• In three of the schoofs in Vihiga, students seemed to have been taken unawCl"eswhen
asked to pay attention to the re- piay of the first subtest - they did not know that they
were supposed to have been listening, despite the researcher's repeated and dear
instructions and first audicrplay.
• Some school principals, particufCl"lyin the rurei district showed eagerness to have their
schools have more of the researcher's intervention.
• The urban schools students completed responding to subtest 1 and 2 in a shorter time
than the rurei ones.
125
• During the ma-king, a few variations from pupils' answers were found and some of
these, which would pass to be reasonably correct were accepted and incaporated in the
marking scheme.
3.3.3: The Interviews
As stated eaiier, it was found necessary to probe the observations from the content analysis, the
test, and the teachers' questionnaire. Therefore, the HODs and the head of the English section at
KIE were interviewed four months after the researcher completed collecting content analysis, test
and questionnaire data from all the schools and had provisional results. Like stated earlier in this
chapter, for manageability purposes, only eight HODs were interviewed and the KIE curriculum
head of English (secondary division) also offered information on the managementof the syllabus
for English. It was possible to interview all the nine sampled respondents as was planned.
3.4: Methods of Data Presentation and Analysis
3.4.1: Presentation
Two types of data were collected: qualitative and quantitative. Qualitative data were collected
from questionnaires, interview schedules and content analysis. Most of the data from this
instrument were mainly presented descriptively and some, which were quantitative, were
presented through frequency and percentage tables. The data helped to answer questions such
. .
as what kind of materials, tasks and exercises are used for teaching listening comprehensioo,
what kind of exposure lea-ners get in learning listening skills and if the form three textbook for
English had adequate listening comprehensioo exercises. Quantitative data were collected using
the test and the teachers' questionnaire. These scores and responses were presented through
frequency tables ald polygons, histograms and bar graphs.
126
3.4.2: Statistical Methods used for Analysis
The data collected were subjected to statistical analysis using the foilONing methods: test
statistics (difficulty indices), measures of central tendency (mean, mode, and median) and
measures of variability (staldard deviation, range and variance). ANOVA was dooe to determine
if variations that appeared among the diverse groups of students, rurall urban schools; school
types, test materials and the sexes could be attributed to sampling error or to varying cooditioos.
Correlatiooal and inferential statistics (t- test) were also used. The t- test was used to test the
significance of the difference between the means of the scores of males and females who did the
LeT and of the pairs of different school types. These inferential statistics were used to explore
the significance of the differences in performance on listening comprehension competencies and
draw cause-effect relatiooships by addressing questioos such as what factors determined
listening comprehension proficiency and the listening comprehension proficiency levels students
had. The specific statistical methods used for each instrument are explained below.
a) Content Analysis
The technique of appraisal was that of caJnting pages of the course book against the number of
pages of materials devoted to listening skills. The cootent in each page was then evaluated.
Non- textual materials were also counted. After determining, categorizing and coding the various
content variables, da~awere analysed descriptively and presented in tables showing frequencies
(for example, number of pages, lines and so on), numbers of specific incidents, relative
frequencies (e.g. prq:>Ortionsof particular events to the total events) and percentages. This was
follcmed by a description of the means to compare the occurrences of different events. General
observations were made on the Integrated English [3ocJ{ listening materials with regard to
amount, type, adequacy a1d appropriateness.
127
b) The Test
The total sample size from the accessible populatioo of 520 was 325 students from Vihiga and
195 students from Nairobi. The test yielded contlnuous scores. The test validity. relici>ility and
test-item reliability were determined after the pild study and are repaied in sectioo 3.2.2.6
above. The various schools were coded. The sub-tests were scored using a preoaed marking
scheme CIld presented in tables of raw scores. percentages. measures of central tendency and
variabilityl dispersion (means. median. range. standard deviations. aid variance) of each sub-
test aid of the whole test package. The difficulty indices of the LeT were calculated and
presented in tables. Since the elicitation and discrimination indices. the item and test reliability
and the point bi- serial correlations (rpbi) had been done for the test during refinement (see
section 3.2.2.6b). this was not repeated. as the refined test is what was used on the actual
sample in he field.
The data were presented in summary frequency tables and polygoos. histograms and bar graphs
shONing the students' performence 00 sub-tests and test total in the two districts. The vaiaoles
presented graphically were:
• Mean performance in subtests and test total in 2 districts combined and by gender.
• The rating of the students from limited. modest. to proficient listener on the test.
• Mean performance in sub-tests and test total by gender.
• Mean performance in sub-tests and test total by individual schools.
• Mean performance in sub-tests and test total by school type.
• Mean performance in sub-tests by school type by district.
The test data were further analysed using descriptive a1d correlation statistics. The statistical
tools applied in this study were:
• One-way ANOVA (to see the differences in meats between and within groups).
128
• Inter carelations of sub-tests (paired differences).
• Correlations between different groups: rural/urban locale; boys/girls, school type and test
materiaI type.
Tests of significance were determined by the value of t at a 95% or 0.05 level since the sample
was considered small (belC7N1000). SPSS statistical package version 10 and Microsoft Excel
computer programmeswere used in this analysis.
c) The Questionnaire
Tally sheets were prepared for the respooses and their frequencies, means, percentages and
ranks were computed as deemed fit. These were presented in tables and further described
where relevant. Open-ended questions had their responses copied onto sheets of paper and
then used in developing coding frames. Thus, 13 items were tallied and seven were coded for
descriptive analysis. These data were presented in frequency distributions, percentages and
ranks accordingly.
d) The interview
The semi-structured interviews with the HODs and the KIE curriculum head of English
(secondary division) had a" open-ended items whose results were tallied and data presented in
frequency distributions and analysed descriptively. Data from both the interviews were discussed
concurrently. These results were used to verify data from the content analysis, test and
questionnaire. The results were also used to develop strategies for tackling the problem of the
teaching of listening skills in secondary schools in Kenya. The results from the data analysis are
presented in chapter four.
3.4.3: Challenges in the field
A major challenge arose from the unavailability of model tests or even researches at the local
level that could guide and inform the researcher. Some challenges were experienced in data
129
collection, for example, in sdlools where streams were too small, fa example, 18 students only,
two of them had to be combined to make a full class of between 40 to 50 students. There were
other challenges such as the inability to play the audiotape for testing listening when it was
raining in sane areas and also some schods near the highway experienood a lot of nasa fran
the passing vehides; this meant re-sdleduling the exercise for a different time or even day.
Chapter Summary
The sampling procedures used and outlined in this chapter guided the resea-cher regarding the
school type and population. The detailed prepc:ration of the instruments was useful in giving
focus in the fie/d. Detailed wak on OO1structingand refining the test instrument goes a long w~
in building the oonfidence in its reliability and validity. A detailed report of what guided fieldwork
has been given in this chapter. The next chapter presents the analysed data fran the
instruments described above.
~-r - J'""
CHAPTER FOUR
PRESENT AnON AND ANALYSIS OF DATA
4.0: Introduction
This chapter presents and alalyses the data collected for the study. It is done in three parts: the
first part ouHinesdata ooIIected from content malysis of the lriegrated EngfISh Book. The second
focuses 00 the results from the LeT, while the third and the last parts bring in infoonatioo from
the teachers' questionnaire responses and from interviews with heads of language depa1ments
(English). Patterns and trends within the data are also revealed. This structure of presentation,
was adopted with a view to bringing oot infamatioo on the interrelatioo between the teaching
context, the avalable materia/s, the performance of the learners and the factors that affect their
performalC9.
The data were collected from 520 students, 56 teachers, 8 heads of English languages
departments from fifteen public secondary schools in Kenya, and from the head of the secondary
curriculum panel of English (secondary division) at the Kenya Institute of Educatioo (KIE). The
main research instruments were a test, a questionnare and a content analysis guide. Interview
schedufes were used for the purposes of cross checking infamation from the three main
instruments CIld for supplementary infamation. The purpose of the research was to describe the
nature of listening materials; tasks ald activities the form three students were exposed to, and
esta,lish their levels of listening comprehension. It is also sought to explore the factors that affect
listening comprehensioo levels with a view to determining if there is vaiability in students'
listening abilities. Two types of data were collected: quantitative (throogh the test) and qualitative
(through the questionnaire and cootent analysis guide). Data were presented in frequency
counts, distributions, tables shoNing percentages (from content analysis guide and
queslionncire), frequency pdygons, histograms a1d bar graphs CI1dfrequency tables (from the
131
test). Results fran the test, cooteot CJlalysisguide CJldthe questiooncire wr:re presented and
analysed separately and where applicable, corrd:>orated a othr:rwise, by the results fran
interviews.
4.1: Content Analysis
Content analysis of the Integrcied English Books 3, fa students and teachers by KIE (1992),
which was the main course book recommended, fa Kenya Secondary Schools for form three
was done. A brief report was also given 00 the Integrated English course books for forms one,
two and four in ader to shed light on the coverage of the listening skills in the seconday schools
syllabus of English.
The content analysis guide sought to explore and describe the listening materials in the English
language course book for form three. This provided information 00 the coverage, the adequacy
of provision and interpretation of these materials and the general trends. The content analysis
also highlighted the possible factors that may influence the students' listening comprehension
proficiency at this level. The findings from this instrument were used to cross validate those fron
the test and questionnaire. The analysis also focussed 00 the text features as they relate to
comprehensibility (for example, listenability) or writing style. Further insights on the English
language course book in use were cotained fron interviews with the HODs in the sampled
schools and the head of the KIE English Panel, secoodary division.
The sections below present the findings of the oootent analysis fa the form three course bod<in
pa-ticular, and also summarise the coverage of the listening skills in the course books for forms
one, two CJldfour in general - to give a complete picture of the coverage of the listening skill in
seoondaryschools.
132
4.1.2: Findings from the Content analysis
The purpose of this analysis was to check 00 the inclusioo and treatment of listening materials
vis a vis the other language skills (reading, writing and speaking) in it. The book has 21 units,
eGK:hunit having six sections incorporating speech wak, study skills, canprehension, grcrnmar,
writing and further studies. The testing units have five sections ecd1. For purposes of this
research, these sectioos were broadly categaized as reading, speaking, writing, grammar and
listening. Table 4.1 below shows the distribution and coverage of listening materials in the
Integrcied English Book. The items fa analysis are divided into two sectioos 1A and 2A: section
1A1-3 shows the whole text analysis and section 2A1-6 shows listening skills coverage. The first
column shows the different codes (For example, 1A1 represents pages) used to describe the
structure categaies of the listening material, the second presents the details, while the third and
fourth columns show the frequency of occurrence and percentages of the listening material for
the whole text analysis. Sec~on 2A is more descriptive, only showing the frequency of
occurrence but no percentages.
a) Structure Categories
Table 4.1: Stru¢ure Categories of the Listening Material in Integrated English Book 3
Code Unitslltems for Analysis Number Percentage
of coverage
1A Y1/holeText AnalySis
1A1 Pages
Tetal number of pages il the textbook 252
Number of pages covering listening comprehension ski" 2% 0.99
1A2 Units
Total number of units il the book 21
Number of unils coveritg listenilg comprehension 2 9.52
Number of units coveri1g other language skils:
Reading 21 100
Speaking 21 100
Writing 21 100
Grcmmar 18 85.71
1A3 Sections
Total number of sections il textbook 133 100
Number of sections coverilg listening comprehension 2 1.45
Number of sections coverilg other language skils:
Reading On speech v.OO<, study s~Is, comprehension) 59 42.75
Speaking [m speech work, speech wtrk) 25 18.12
Writing On gramm<¥',writing activities) 31 22.46
Grcmmar 21 15.22
133
2A. Listening Skills Coverage
2A1 length of istening Comprehensiln Ma1eriaIsil:
Wordsil
Unit 4 pg 32 Students' ilstructioo and questions 69
Pg 206-207 Readilg text aid teachers' !J.Iide 332
Unit 16 pg 146 Students' instructions and questions 64
Pg 237-238 reaollg text and te<dlers' guide 317
T0181 number of words il istenilg comprehension exercise 7rrJ.
Minutes in
Unit 4: Readingistening through dira"iiollS and map 3mils
Reading islening through the istenilg materials fM) times 4mils
Unit 16: Reading through directions and questions 2mils
Reading through the istenilg materials two times 4mils
Total amount of time spent on listening skills in book 3 13mins
ua Sentences
• Number:
Unit 4 14
Unit 16 14
Length
Unit 4 - average length 20
Unit 16 - average length 16
Unit 4 - range of sentence length in V«>I'ds 13-19
Unit 16 - range of sentence length in INOrds 1-54
• Type (words per sentence)Complex = 6
Compound = 5
Sinple sentences = 3
2A3 Phrases
No. of phrases in listening text
Unit 4 = 39
Unit 16 = 43
2M Word length in letters:
Unit 4 (average length/no. of letters in a word) 4.06
Unit 16 (average length/no. of letters il a 'Mlrd) 4.18
2NJ Number of characters (people) per listening text:
Unit 4 = . 2
Unif16 = 3
2NJ Format of the listening comprehension texts:
Unit 4: pages 32 and 206 (Students' and teachers' books respectively)-
continuous prose with instructions and a map (illustration), questions and a list
Unit 16: pages 146 and 7.37/8 (Students' and teachers' book respeclively)-a
olaloguel play extracts (from Muntu by Joe de Graft) and questions.
The findings revealed that the listening skill was generally nd given much emphasis as shown in
the tct>le 4.1 above and 4.2 below. This suggests negligible coverage of the listening skills in
general aid the listening comprehensioo skill in particular (1.63% coverage compared to the
other skills). Out of the 252- page course book, listening skills were covered in ooly 2.5 pages
(O.ggok). Only two out of 21 units (9.52%) were devoted to the same, while the numba- of
sections covering listening was ooly 2 (1.45%) out of 21. Despite the appa-ent inclusioo of the
134
speaking skills in ~ery unit of the course book, these were found to be vrry short utterances and
focussed on pronunciatioo. Most emphasis was pleoed on the reading skills, which were well
covered in 59 out of 133(42.75%) of the sections, followed by writing skills, which were covered
in 31 out of 133 (22.46%) of the sections in the course book. The listening materials were not
authentic in the sense that they did not reflect the usual discourse a learner woold listen to. For
example, from what leaners ae exposed to most of the time, such as stories aboot people,
things, or events they know. The attentioo paid to the listening skills was therefore found to be
unfavourable (in content adequacy) to its promotion and therefore to learners' proficiency in
them. Table 4.2 below shows a summary of this scenario. The rating indicated in the last column
of this table was guided by the cootent analysis guide adapted from Templetoo (19m for this
study.
Table 4.2: Percentage distribution of the English Language Skills in Integrated English
Book 3 . .
Skills No. of Units % No. of sections % Comments
1. Speaking 21 100 25 18.12 Favourable
2. Listening 2 9.52 2 1.45 Very unfavourable
3. Writing 21 100 31 22.46 Very Favourable
4. Reading 21 100 59 42.75 Very Favourable
5. Grammar & 18 85.71 21 15.22 Fairly favourable
Vocabulary
Total 138 100
Xey: Scale
0-5% - Very unfavourable
6-10% - Unfavourable
11-15% - Fairly favourable
16-20% - Favourable
Above 200Al - Very favourable
B. Content Categories of the Listening Skill Material
Further analysis was caried out on the topics, types, content, language use, skills, features of
spoken language, listenability and the suggested methods and activities in the available listening
materials. Related aspects and.attempts to cover the listening skill through other skills such as
reading and speaking were also explored. Therefore, below are simple categories, which are
indicators that are applicable to the material analysed. The findings of this are shown in
.. rrv tP"
135
categories 81 to 89, which describe units 4 a1CI16 on listening comprehension activities, while
810 describes other related aspects (reading and speaking) as covered in eleven other units.
B1. Topics;
Unit 4: Page 32 of Students' book and page 206 of Teacher's guide: section A: Speech work and
Listening Comprehension.
Unit 16. Page 146 of students' book and 237-8 of teachers' guide: Section A: Speech work and
Listening Comprehension.
B2. Type of listening materials:
Unit 4: Direction and simple explanation (taking instruclioos about directioos)
Unit 16: An extract from a play; verse! dialogue - aesthetic.
B3. Themes of Topics:
Unit 4: 'Going shopping'
Unit 16: 'A prayer by Muntu and hi~ children for God's (Odomankoma's) protectioo'
B4. Content authenticity, relevance and familiarity
Unit 4: Giving directions or instructions
This is a day-to-day speaking theme; - students always takeinstructioos from parents, teachers
and so forth.
• Use of familiCl' local town- Nakuru Road, Simba Street, Mugumo lane.
• Use of familiCl' names! chaacters: Muga, (a friend), Kiru
• Use of familiCl' venues; - bakery, chemist, grocery, restaurant, post office, market.
• Use of familiar items! examples- quite natural e.g. bread, film, medicine, soda, samosa,
stamps, chicken, and potatoes.
This material was found to be relevant for form three-age level and interests- the values
expressed were relevant to young people (16-18yeCl's) CI1dtherefore favourcble.
136
Unit 16: A prayer by Muntu and his children fa- God's (Odanankoma's) protection
Scenes are familiar, but rather removed fron leaners' experience (the earth where Muntupours
some water)
• Names and characters (Muntu and Odomankoma) oould easily be imagined though not
common in Kenya. Reference to the "gods"may be familiar to a few pupils, but "deities',
the "Divine Drummer" and "ancestral spirits' are not used in day-to-day school discourse
and experience and are actually not suitable to the interests of many of them. These
references are better understoodby the older people.
• Events were not familiar, fa example, pouring libations is a kind of prayer not common
to young people.
• Items such as 'Osato drums', 'talking drums', - were not natural and relevant examples
to learners' modern experience.
The materials were not relevant to form 3-age level and interests:- the values expressed are
removed from students' experiences (reference to religious and metaphysical themes). One
anomaly is that the register of the listening material was not related to the age level of the
learners (listeners).
85. Language level of material
Unit 4: The vocabulary level was found to be simple enough for form 3 except for words such
as "T-junction', "antiseptiC", "roll of cotton wool', "grocers', "restauranr which, although
appropriate, may not be easy for rural students (rural-urban preferences sometimes differ)
especially in listening.
• Sentences: There were a mix of very long sentences (39 words in one sentence),
medium length (18 words in one sentence) and short sentences (5 words in a
sentence). They were well punctuated,straightforward and with clear descriptions.
• Illustrations: A map was given for clarity or to simplify the content in the materials.
137
The language used was foond to be the language a student normally listens to, which is
representative of authentic, spoken language except, possibly for the rural student.
Unit 16: Vocabulary load; Some unfamiliar vocabulary was used such as 'whence', 'whither'
(old English), 'sojourn', 'libation', 'Ose', 'unfathomable', 'supplication', 'playa closure'. Otherwise,
the vocabulary level was found to be fairly appropriate, because in form 3, students should be
able to infer the meanings of words from context.
• The material appeared in verse form- it is not easily recognisable as dialogue.
• Short phrases used in poetic language, for example, "long the journey', "And here but a
brief sojourn" were rather complex in punctuation and unusual word order and therefore
not easy to listen to naturally and understand.
• Use of repetition of several phrases, for example, "but this we know·, may have
increased understanding.
The language used was the one the student generally reads in a book; not authentic, spoken
language. It was abstract and therefore, not appropriate as a listening material.
86. Type of abilities and sub- skills tested by materials
These were checked against a checklist adapted from Templeton (1977) for use in this study.
This list is provided in Appendix 1.
Unit 4: The material generally tested sub -skills of overall listening comprehension such as:
-Genera or plain sense comprehension- the students had two tasks to perform while listening; to
copy a sketch map, and fill in the names of shops on the map.
• Fdlowing an explanation or directions
• Following instructions.
• Ability to distinguish the essential from the nco-esseotia i.e. picking out significCllt
details/main words from the discourse and make a list of items.
• Attentiveness.
138
• Finding out the sequence of events! and formulating CIl appropriate response in reactive
listening.
Unit 16: This materia tested ability to listen for interpretation CIld evaluation through questions
such as, "'M1at kind of being is...? Give reasons for your answer... '), Therefore it tested the
ability to:
• Usten for details C!1dspecifics
• Usten for inference and insight into a dialogue and deductions.
• Usten to detect mood.
• Usten critically to react to what is listened to.
• Usten to make generalizations and attitudes.
• Recognize the function of intonation to signa information structure (through background
effects).
Despite the inappropriateness of the listening material, the questions or tasks given were
appropriate. They covered both the lower and higher order listening skills. A further discussion of
this is presented in Chapter five.
B7. Evidence (features) of spoken language
Unit 4: There was a lot of use of contracted forms such as: 'I've, you'vf!, "there's'. Other features
of spoken language included; 'now ...• , 'please ...• , 'Oh yes...• , '1 remember you said...• , 'well. ..' ,
'right, have you got that or shall I repeat it. ..?"
• Use of non-formal register such as 'Oh yes...• was also common.
Unit 16:
• Action words, which attract effective listening such as pouring libations, children rcising
their hands high and chanting, and son playing a drum, were used.
139
• Repetition of phrases for stress a emphasis such as; 'some things we don't knCNt, ·but
this we knCNt, 'Odomaikorna remains with us', 'peaoe peace...• were considered to be
very suitable fa listening.
• Beseeching atd direct address: ·hear our supplication· and "you who are gone before us
into the mix...' This is direct address, which characterizes good listening material.
• There was also use of dialogue, which is also important for active listening.
These listening materials were found to contain features of spoken language and therefae, were
well thought out as suitable for learners. Further discussion of this is done in chapter five.
88. Within -Text analysis for listenability
This was done within the text for the purpose of determining its listening difficulty. In terms of
complexity, it was found that in unit 4, the sentences are fairly long but straightforward, and the
long words formed a small percentage of the text (8.57%). The number of long sentences (which
usually make a material difficult to listen to) was few (4 out of 14). In unit 16, there was use of
short phrases in verse form, with only two (2 out of 14 = 14.3%) long sentences. There was a
number of long and hard words (29 out of 226 =12.8%), which could hinder effective listening
and therefore, understanding of spoken discourse.
Findings indicate that the listening text in Unit 4, though inadequate, was appropriate for
listening, in that the choice of vocabulary, sentence structures and length were of the level suited
to form three students. The second text (A Prayer by Muntu), although found to contain features
of spoken language was inappropriate because of use of abstract vocabulary, with images far
removed from learners' experiences and values not espoused by the form three student. The
language used in this unit material was that found mainly in a book meant for reading, not fa
listening.
140
89. Methods suggested for teaching the listening skill .
Unit 4: The teacher was expected to read Oli aloud a detailed explanation twioo, given by a
friend to another called, Kiru.
• Students were asked to fill in the names of the shops on a given map as the teacher
read.
• Students were asked to list the items bought from each of the places mentiooed in the
directions.
Unit 16: Students were asked to listen as the teacher reads extracts from a play. A second
reading was done.
• Students were asked to answer questions on the play extract.
• Teacher was expected to vary voice, according to the character being acted or invite
departmentci colleagues to present the extract to the class.
The methods and activities suggested for teaching the listening skills were found to be
inadequate and not varied. Only five teaching methods and activities were suggested. Methods
and activities suggested were not interactive enough. There was no provision for
assessmenUtestingof the listening skill.
810. Other provisions for listening activities the Integrated English Book 3
Although listening activities are implied in the speech work section of the units, these are not
overtly spelt out as listening exercises per S8, by the syllabus designers. In 11 out of 21 units of
the Integrated English Language course book, aspects of the listening skills are induded in the
speaking and reading activities. These are briefly described below:
Unit 1, page1- Proverbs: Students were required to give proverbs in groups as other~ respond
by giving the meanings. (It was noted that no directions of listening were given).
Unit 2, page 9- Dialogue: Students were required to read a dialogue in pars, and then discuss it.
(Again, no instructioos for listening were given).
141
Unit 3, page 21- Story telling: Students were required to practise reooing the stay in the text
aloud in groups, with each student reading ooly one paragraph, then dramciising the story. (No
instructioos for listening were given).
Unit 5, page 44- Poem: Students were expected to read a poem twice, then read it aloud in
pcirs, act out the poem-following the movement CM1d rhythm in the poem, sho.ving understanding
of the mood of the poem. (No direction for listening was given).
Unit 8, page 66- Speech work: Students were expected to read a conversation once, then in
groups of 5, read it aloud; each me taking the role of one of the characters. (No listening
direction; or teaching guidance was given).
Unit 10 page 8~ Acting: Students expected to read the short story silently then act the roles of
different characters in the story after practising in groups. (No listening directions, no teacher
guidance).
Unit 11- Interviews: Students were to play the roles of Wabuti and Gulan as the teacher reads
out the interview. (No instructions for listening or teacher guidance were given).
Unit 12- Speech work: In groups, students were expected to complete a story and report it to the
rest of the class (No instruction for listening were given).
Unit 15- Speech work: Teacher reads a poem to the students, then the students read the poem
silently first, identifying the speaker, the subject matter, the speakers' attitude to the subject
matter and the therne(s) of the poem; pronounce properly and observe punctuation marks. The
students read dosd again. (No instructioos for listening were given).
Unit 17- Dialogue: Two students at a time, read part of a dialogue in turns. Teachers are
expected to discuss the excerpt with the class first, then ask the dass to practise. Stage
directions were to be read by the third student. (No instructioos fa listening given).
Unit 2~ Poem: Students read the poem; do chorci reading in groups, four students expected to
recite the poem, prooounce and punctuate well; pick out the message.
YAT u V S TY IBs-,,-.-..
1~2
There was provision for exercises that lend themselves well to use for listening comprehensioo.
However, the number was found to be negligible and there was lack of direction for the teachers
on haN to use them. Ustening could not be assumed to be taking place where it is not
deliberately plamed, simply by the provision of the above materias. There was no provisioo for
assessmenUtesting of the listening skill.
4.1.3: General Summary of the Listening Skills' Coveragein the other Integrated
English Books 1,2and 4
As earlier explained, a general overview of the Integrated English Course books used in form
one, two CIld four in order to get a picture of the nature of exposure the students had before and
after form three.
In the form one book there were only three materials covering listening. Unit 3 was on listening to
instructions on how to get to Nyeri from Nairobi, while Unit 4 was on witnessing an accident and
Unit 19 explained a process to students on mending a puncture and students expected to do a
eloze- type exercise on it, which could be used for assessrnenUtestingof the listening skill. The
textbook aimed at developing fluency in listening comprehension, yet provided very little
coverage and direction for it.
Book Two had five listening materials: Units 5 and 7 gave poems, Unit 10: a passage on
students' instructions for a trip, Unit 15: a dialogue 00 the examination timetable and Unit 21: a
passage on a party. There was no provision for assessmenUtesting of the listening skill. The
coverage was fairer compared to the form one class (5 out of 21 units). The material provided
was good, but inadequate (only 5.5 out of 217 pages used to cover the listening skill).
u ItJ
143
In Bod< Four, listening skills were covered in three units. Unit 8 was a passage (dictated for
speech sound identification), Unit 15 was a passage on problems facing learners of English as a
foreign language with a task to fill in tables. In Unit 21, a letter was given. There was no provision
for assessment/testing of the listening skill. Therefa'e, the general coverage of the listening skill
from form 1 to 4 was found to be poor and inadequate. Table 4.3 below summarises the above
scenario.
Table 4.3: A summary of aUthe 4 Integrated English textbooks in terms of Listening
Comprehension Skill coverage
Book Total number of Number of pages % Coverage. Total Number of %of unit
pages on Listening Number of Units on
Comprehension Units in Listening
book
1 247 3 1.21 21 3 14.29
2 217 5% 2.53 21 5 23.81
3 252 2% 0.99 21 2 9.54
4 292 3.08 1.05 21 3 14.29
Total 1008 14.08 5.77 84 13 Ave:15.48
4.1.4: Comments on the Findings of Content Analysis
The following were the observations made from the analysis.
a} It was observed that there was very little coverage of the listening comprehension skill in the
form three-text book (2 out of 21 units=9.52 % and 2 Y2 out of 252 pages=O.99%). The analysis
found that the secondary school syllabus was lacking in materials and coverage of the listening
comprehension skill. The quantity and quality of coverage was very unfavourable to the
development of the skill in question. This situation was seen not only in form three (and this Wa<3
the worst hit), but also in the other dasses where the total coverage of listening comprehension
was less than 15 pages (5.n%) of the tota number of pages in the whde series of Integrated
English books. Students had little exposure to listening exercises, considering that in form one,
lonly three 1.21%} pages of listening comprehension were used, 5 Y2 (2.53%) pages in fam 2
and 3.08 O.05%} in form 4. The focus of attention was more on the other skills.
144
b) The mataias on listening comprehension were not spread out over the terms-it was only in
one section of one unit in term one, none in second term and one section in third term. The
presumed time spent on deliberate teaching of listening comprehension was only 2 out of a
possible 26 weeks, representing 7.69% of the time spent on teaching English. Considering that it
takes about % a lesson to teach one short (1/2 page) listening section (out of 6 long sections) in
a term, this translated to a total of only one lesson (40-80 minutes) a year!
c) It was further observed that the listening comprehension exercises! activities were not only
inadequate in amount but also inappropriate. One of the two materials (unit 16) was not suitable
for listening. The questions measured higher levels of listening (interpretation and inference), but
the material itself was non-authentic and the themes were far removed from students' interests,
and so, students were not likely to listen to it spontaneously.The characters in the text were far
removed; the items and events in the discourse were not relevant for young people. It used
poetic language, which was rather too complex for listening. The language did not contain natural
features such as pause- phenomena and syntactical continuity. The listeners were also not
involved in any activity. Otherwise, the vocabulary load was suitable for form three students who
had presumably mastered language in terms of grammar, phonology and vocabulary, so all they
had to do was grapple with the listening tasks and could infer meanings from contextual clues.
The listening material in unit 4 was authentic spoken English whose content was familiar and
relevCIlt to the age for which it was meant. The language and interest levels of the listening
materials were favourable for form three. The listeners were involved in activities such as
follcming directions, using a map and making a list, to ensure listening comprehension. The
language used in this unit was suitable for form three with a balance between compound,
145
complex CI1d simple sentence structures and reasooable vocabulary. Several listening
comprehension abilities were measured.
d) The reading CI1dspeaong exercises would easily provide opportunities fa listening practice,
but instructions to the teacher were lacking and these were not deliberately brought out as
listening activities.
Generally, listening skills were found to be inadequately incorporated in the syllabus and
insufficiently covered by the then secondary school Integrated English Book. In the next section,
the results of the students' performance on the LCT are presented. The findings shed light on the
effects of the above scenario (inclusion and emphasis of the listening skills in the course book)
on learners' listening comprehension scores.
4.2: Findings from the Analysis of the Test
The analysis of the test was done through description of means, percentages and ranks, followed
by measures of variability and relationship and application of relevant inferential statistics (the
correlations between subtests and test total and t - tests for significance of difference between
the means aid standard deviations). There were various variables observed: locale, school type,
and gender. Therefore, it was important to find out if the observed differences in the means and
the standad deviations occurred frequently, by chance a as a result of sampling variations,
hence the need for the 't' test a critical ratio.
This section begins with a global view of the test facility/difficulty, and the students' perfamance
on the total LCT in both districts conbined, showing the students' general levels of proficiency in
listening comprehension. Further, the performance on the test by different districts and schools is
146
presented. This is fdlowed, more specifically, by a preseotatkn of the perfamance of individual
schools, locale and different types of schools on the subtests (and therefae test materials) and
perfCX"manceby gender in the two districts. Compaisoes in perfamance on different test
materials, by locale (rural/urban) and by gender and relevant inferences are also presented.
4.2.1: The Difficulty Indices of the Test
The difficulty of the subtests and whde test was calculated in order to determine which test items
and therefore skills, students were strong or were weak in. To find out the difficulty level of the
items and the test, difficulty indices were calculated using the following formula:
01 = Number (N) Passing test item
Total Number of pupils
Tables 4.4, 4.5 and 4.6 belON show the difficulty indices of the test items 00 subtests 1 - 3 in the
various schools in the two districts.
a) The Test Difficulty Indices of Subtest 1 by the various schools in Nairobi and Vihiga
Districts
Table 4.4: The Test Difficulty Indices of Subtest 1 by Schools in Nairobi and Vihiga
Districts
~chool in Nairobi (n= 195) School in Vihiga (n=325)
E E !Xl m m m E~ rn I) I)0 0 0 0 rn :: 0 0 0 0 0 zn m 0 !Xl ::- "? ~ ~ ~ zn <9 :iF ~ ~ ~ ~ <9 <9 ~ rnm M :!i ,;, cD 1)- ~ ~ ~ ,;, cD ~ ~ ~ 1)-CD ::; ~i5 .•... ~i5I- ::::> ::::> ::::> ::::> a:: a:: a:: a::
1 0.04 0.04 0.03 0.08 0.03 0.02 0.040 0.03 0.03 0.00 0.06 0.14 0.03 0.00 0.18 0.00 kl.052
12 0.26 0.25 0.25 0.14 0.10 0.02 0.170 0.30 0.45 0.60 0.30 0.47 0.23 0.08 0.46 0.40 ~.365
13 0.70 0.71 0.81 0.76 0.58 0.30 0.643 0.73 0.81 0.80 0.85 0.88 0.93 0.75 0.71 0.84 0.811
14 0.61 0.71 0.75 0.68 0.62 0.44 0.645 0.51 0.74 0.60 0.64 0.73 0.70 0.50 0.57 0.76 0.638
5 0.74 0.50 0.60 0.73 0.82 0.63 0.685 0.78 0.84 0.80 0.82 0.73 0.75 0.80 0.79 0.76 /0.785
6 0.83 0.88 0.72 0.95 0.87 0.81 0.843 0.95 0.9 0.65 0.97 0.84 0.85 0.68 0.96 0.96 10.862
7 0.65 0.75 0.56 0.73 0.74 0.86 0.715 0.54 0.65 0.70 0.64 0.63 0.68 0.90 0.86 0.53 10.681
8 0.70 0.58 0.66 0.57 0.79 0.67 0.662 0.73 0.84 0.65 0.61 0.59 0.53 0.70 0.86 0.47 ~.664
9 0.61 0.75 0.53 0.92 0.74 0.51 0.677 0.68 0.77 0.65 0.52 0.73 0.80 0.68 0.71 0.69 0.692
10 0.70 0.96 0.69 0.78 0.72 0.86 0.785 0.86 0.94 0.85 0.82 0.88 0.70 0.45 0.71 0.80 0.779
Total 0.584 0.613 0.561 0.632 0.601 0.512 0.587 0.61 0.697 0.63 0.623 0.662 0.62 0.554 0.681 0.621 10.633
147
The average subtest difficulty for both districts combined was 0.61 showing that the test was
found by the students to be fairly hard. Results illustrate that the students in both districts found
most of the test items to be of average difficulty, with item 6, which tested learners' ooility to
infer/draw cooclusions. They found that the item on recall of specifics (item 1) easiest. The
average test difficulty for subtest 1 was 0.587 for Nairobi and 0.633 for Vihiga.
b) The Test Difficulty Indices of Subtest 2 by the various schools in Nairobi and Vihiga
Districts
Table 4.5: The Test Difficulty Indices of Subtest 2 by schools in Nairobi and Vihiga
Districts
School in Nairobi (n= 195) School in Vihiga (n=325)
E~ E E1;; CD CD CD CD0 0 Cl Cl CD CD ID 0 0 Cl Cl Cl CD CD Cl CD ~CD CD C> ~ ~ co C> == ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ C> C> ~ enI- ~ N ..s, ...t ,;, ch ID:::: ~ ..s, ~ ,;, ch ,..!. ell ~ ID:::::> ::> ::> ::> ::> ::> ~c 0: a: a: a: a: a: ~c
1 0.30 0.25 0.47 0.24 0.74 0.86 0.435 0.16 0.52 0.55 0.46 0.42 0.38 0.15 0.54 0.38 0.396
2 0.22 0.13 0.25 0.11 0.97 0.88 0.427 0.16 0.52 0.30 0.24 0.37 0.15 0.13 0.54 0.16 0.286
3 0.70 0.88 0.88 0.59 0.46 0.44 0.543 0.78 0.81 0.95 0.94 0.96 0.65 0.85 0.86 0.78 0.842
4 0.57 0.54 0.84 0.78 0.54 0.44 0.591 0.81 0.87 0.90 0.64 0.80 0.53 0.50 0.61 0.80 0.718
5 0.57 0.50 0.72 0.73 0.69 0.67 0.635 0.65 0.74 0.75 0.67 0.76 0.58 0.65 0.82 0.84 0.718
6 0.43 0.21 0.59 0.57 0.82 0.67 0.548 0.46 0.68 0.70 0.64 0.67 0.53 0.25 0.50 0.36 0.532
7 0.35 0.58 0.75 0.84 0.59 0.42 0.588 0.76 0.94 0.75 0.79 0.84 0.73 0.55 0.89 0.76 ~779
8 0.70 0.83 0.75 0.84 0.31 0.35 0.630 0.76 0.84 0.80 0.67 0.80 0.58 0.60 0.89 0.78 ~747
9 0.74 0.79 0.84 0.95 0.15 0.49 0.660 0.78 0.74 0.90 0.73 0.82 0.90 0.78 0.86 0.80 0.812
10 0.74 0.46 0.56 0.76 0.72 0.70 0.657 0.68 0.68 0.70 0.58 0.65 0.68 0.53 0.68 0.42 0.622
Total 0.532 0.517 0.665 0.641 0.599 0.592 0.571 0.60 0.734 0.703 0.636 0.709 0.571 0.499 0.719 0.608 0.6451
The average test difficulty for subtest 2 was 0.571 for Nairobi and 0.645 for Vihiga. The average
subtest difficulty for both districts combined was 0.608 shONingthat the students found the test to
be fairly hard. The data from the table 4.6 above shows that the students found most of the items
fair to fairly difficult with item No 1 being the easiest and item No 9 the hardest. It can be seen
that this test appeared less difficult than the former. The items demanded that the students
express themselves in their ONn words.
148
c) The Test Difficulty Indices of Subtest 3 by the various schools in Nairobi and Vihiga
Districts
Table 4.6: The Test Difficulty Indices of Subtest 3 by the schools in Nairobi and Vihiga
School in Nairobi (n= 195) School in Vihiga (n=325)
E~ 0 0 0 0 CD CD E CD 0 0 CD CD CD CD CD CD EG_ o 0 0 0 G_- 'J? Cl :::l!! :::l!! CD C9 ~:!: ~ :::l!! :::l!! :::l!! :::l!! Cl C9 :::l!! CD ~!!::!1) M =!i .;, c.b ~ M ,..:. enCD :5 N GC c! .;, co t:O GC•... ::J ::J ::J ::J ~ oc IX: IX: IX: IX: IX: IX: ~
1 0.22 0.25 0.28 0.32 0.05 0.02 0.190 0.62 0.52 0.35 0.30 0.41 0.15 0.20 0.54 0.24 0.370
2 0.17 0.21 0.22 0.27 0.03 0.00 0.150 0.43 0.55 0.30 0.16 0.39 0.08 0.28 0.46 0.18 0.314
3 0.57 0.42 0.53 0.64 0.23 0.14 0.422 0.50 0.61 0.80 0.76 0.51 0.53 0.58 0.68 0.58 0.617
4 0.96 0.90 0.94 0.84 0.46 0.58 0.780 0.86 0.81 0.95 0.88 0.96 0.93 0.88 0.93 0.91 0.901
5 0.83 0.96 0.84 0.89 0.79 0.81 0.853 0.65 0.84 0.85 0.85 0.76 0.83 0.78 0.86 0.84 0.867
6 0.57 0.58 0.78 0.87 0.49 0.49 0.630 0.57 0.52 0.75 0.70 0.65 0.73 0.70 0.50 0.60 0.636
7 0.30 0.17 028 0.24 0.13 0.07 0.198 0.32 0.26 0.50 0.16 0.20 0.45 0.23 0.32 0.18 0.291
8 0.52 0.79 0.53 0.62 0.26 0.26 0.497 0.84 0.77 0.85 0.67 0.76 0.73 0.78 0.89 0.71 0.778
9 0.57 0.71 0.41 0.59 0.36 0.38 0.503 0.65 0.68 0.70 0.64 0.65 0.58 0.78 0.68 0.60 0.622
10 0.91 0.75 0.84 0.76 0.79 0.84 0.815 0.78 0.94 0.95 0.88 0.80 0.83 0.93 0.93 0.96 0.889
Test
total 0.562 0.574 0.565 0.604 0.359 0.379 0.504 0.623 0.65 0.679 0.6 0.609 0.504 0.614 0.7 0.58 0.629
The average subtest 3 difficulty for districts combined was 0.567 showing that the test was found
to be of average difficulty. The table below shows a summary of the subtest items and whole test
difficulty. The data from table 4.7above shows that three of the test items had very high difficulty
indices (over 0.780) and three of the items were' low, indicating that there was a variety of difficult
and easy items. The items that were found to be the easiest were those that tested recall of
information that is, 'what, 'where', However, the items asking for significant details (number of
people injured) and the ones that were on evaluation (why questions) were found to be hard by
the students. The average test difficulty for subtest 3 was 0.504 for Nairobi and 0.629 for Vihiga.
Table 4.7: Summary of Tables 4.4, 4.5, & 4.6 above
Test item difficultyfor: Naiubi (0=6 schools) Vihiga (0= 9 schools) Average
Subtest1 Play) 0.587 0.633 0.610
Subtest2 Anecdote) 0.571 0.645 0.608
Subtest3 ~ews item) 0.504 0.629 0.567
Whole test <fffficu/ty 0.554 0.636 0.595
149
Fran the three tables above, it can be seen that:
1. The test was of average difficulty (0.584 fa Nairobi and 0.636 for Vihiga)
2. The test difficulty fa Vihiga in all three subtests was higher than fa Nairobi, meaning that the
Nairobi schools found the test easier than their Vihiga counterparts did, and by extension were
likely to perform better than their Vihiga peers.
3. Subtest three (which was based on a news item testing listening for specifics Cl1dfor seleded
significant details) was found on average the easiest, while subtest one, (which was based on a
play/conversation and testing students' ability to draw inferences, infer meanings of unfamiliar
words, paraphrase and predict outcomes) was the most difficult. The Vihiga students found
subtest two (based on an anecdote and testing ability to listen for topic, man ideas and interpret
speaker's tone and intention using own words) more difficult than the rest of the tests. Nairobi
students on the other hand, found subtest 1 the most difficult. Both groups found it easier to
respond to the news item (subtest three).
4.2.2: Students' Performance Levels on the LeT in general and by locale
The performance by the whole sample population on the three subtests and the test total was
computed to shCNIthe scores (10 marks on each subtest, with a total of 30 marks for the test
total), the frequencies of the scores and the percentages. From these, measures of central
tendency and varici:lility were calculated fa each test and on the whole test. This section shCNIS
the results of this.
4.2.2.1: Students' Performance levels on Subtests in both districts.
This section shows how students in both districts performed on each subtest and the test total
and was used to determine their proficiency levels. Tables 4.8,4.9,4.10, and 4.11 and Figure
4.1, 4.2, 4.3 and 4.4 below show the students' performance on the various subtests and test
150
total. Data is presented both in tciJle form and in the line graph form for a detciled CIld d9Cl'9I'
picture. Descriptive statistics for each subtest are given after each figure.
a) Proficiency on Subtest 1
Table 4.8 and Figure 4.2 below show students' perfOOllance00 subtest ooe.
Table 4.8: Students' Performance on subtest 1 in Frequencies of scores and Percentages
in both districts
Value FreQuency PercentaQe Cumulative % Comment on Proficiency level Grade and Remn
0 2 0.4 0.4
1.00 29 5.6 6.0 44.8% of the students were poor E to F (limited)
2.00 85 16.3 22.3 to Very poor
3.00 117 22.5 44.8
4.00 144 27.7 72.5 44.81% of students were
5.00 89 17.1 89.6 Average C to 0 (Modest)
6.00 30 5.8 95.4
7.00 16 3.1 98.5
8.00 7 1.3 99.8 10.38% of students were A and B (proficient)
9.00 1 0.2 100 Good and vef'/ good
Total 520 100
Descriptive statistics for Subtest 1
Mean - 3.708.
Kurtosis - 0.218.
l) -1.518.
Median -4.
Minimum-D.
Skewness- .380
N=520
Mode-4
SEm-D.067
Range-9
Variance - 2.304
Maximum-9
151
Fig. 4.1: Students' Performance on Subtest 1 in frequency distribution of scores in both
districts
1 2 3 4 5
Values
6 7 8 9 10
Performance in SUb-test 1 in Nairobi and Vihiga
150
140
130
120
110
100
(;' 90
i 80s 70£. 60
50
40
30
20
10o
o
~
/ -~
/ \
? \
/ \
/ \
11 '\
/ \
/ \
/ \
/ \.I \..
./ <,
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Table 4.7 and Figure 4.1 above iOOicatethat 00 this test, the mean paiorma1Ce by the whole
popuIatioo 00 sub test was 3.71 with a mode of 4. The standard deviatioo was 1.52 a1d the
variance was 2.»t. The table above shoNs that 44.81% (233 out of 520) of the students
performed at average level, while almost half of 233 out of 520 (44.80%) of the students scored
below the meal of 3.71. Only 10.38% (54 out of the 520 students who sat the test) of than
scored above the mean. The fact that about 89.6% of the students scored at average and below
level shows that their listening proficiency was below aver~. Almost all the students lacked the
required proficiency in this test as seen in the small vaiance and the small meal score. The
students ca1 therefore be described as being below average level or having between modest
and limited ProficiSlCY in the ability to listen and to draw inferences, deduce meanings of familiar
words, predict outcanes and par~ase.
'KENYATTA UNIVERSITY U3RAR
·.•..
152
b) Proficiency on Sub teat 2
Table 4.9 and Figure 4.2 below show students' Performance on subtest two.
Table 4.9: Students' PerformatlC8 on Subtest 2 In Fraquencies of scores and Percentages
in both districts
Value ft'equency Pen:Ientage Cundative% Comment on Grade and
Proficiency Level Remark
0.00 11 3..3 3..3
1.00 72 13.8 17.1 52.9% of the students EtoF(limited)
2.00 105 202 37.3 were
3.00 80 15.4 52.7 Poor and Vecy poor
3.50 1 02 52.9
4.00 62 11.9 64.8 2327% rl the sIudents
5.00 59 11.3 76.2 wereAvemge CfoO(Modest)
6.00 47 9.0 852
7.00 30 5.8 91.0 23.85% d the smdents
8.00 33 6..3 97..3 Good and VfIYgood Aand8
9.00 11 2.1 99.4 (Proficient)
10.00 3 0.6 100
To1al 520 100
DesaiptiYe Statiltics for Subtest 2
Mean=3.757
Kurtosis = -0.584
6=2.330
Median: 3.000
Min=O
Skewness- .534
N=52O
Mode=2.000
SEm=O.102
'Range=: 10.00
Variance= 5.429
MaFi0
Fig. 4.2: Students; Perfonnance on Subtaat 21n frequency distribution of scores in both
distrids
"
Perfmncrtee in Sub-test 2 in Nairobi and Vihiga
120
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10o
o 11
..•.•.......
7 '\
/ \.
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I I <,
I T •.......I <, .--...I I -,
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2 91 3 4 5 6 7 8 10
Values
153
The table 4.9 above shows that mas than haf (215 oot of 520 i.e. 52.9%) of the students scored
belON the average, with a mean of 3.757, a median of 3.00 and a mode of 2. The staidad
deviation was 2.33 a1d a large variance of 5.43 shONing that marks were well spread. Less than
haf of the students (235 oot of 520 i.e. 47.12"k) scored above the mean of this test. That means
that they failed a were very poor on the skills tested by this subtest. A small number (124 out of
520 a 23.27%) of the students were foond to be average, while (121 out of 520 i.e. 23.85%)
were between good and very good. A tota of 76.17% of the students were foond to be average
and below (a better performance than subtest 1 and 3). This subtest was better performed than
subtest 1. Most of the students can therefore be described as having modest (poor) and limited
(and very poor) proficiency in listening for topic, main idea, and interpreting speaker's tone and
intention (the skills tested by this sub test).
c) Proficiency on subtest 3
Table 4.10 and Figure 4.3 show the performance proficiency of students on subtest three.
Table 4.10: Students' Performance on subtest 3 in Frequencies of scores and Percentages
in both districts
Value Frequency Percentage Cumulative % Comment on Grade and
Proficiency level Rema-k
0 4 0.8_ 0.8
1 18 3.5 4.2 56.7% of the students
2 57 11 15.2 were Poor and Very E and F (Umited)
3 107 20.6 35.8 poor
4 109 21 56.7
5 103 19.8 76.5 32.88% of the
6 68 13.1 89.6 students were C to D (Modest)
Average
7 32 6.2 95.8 10.38% of the
8 16 3.1 98.8 students were AandB
9 6 1.2 100 good and Very good (Proficient)
Total 520 100
Desaiptive Statistics for Subtest 3
Mean=4.265
Kurtosis= -0.182
/5=1.752
Median= 4.000
Mean=O
Skewness-.252
N=520
Mode=4.oooSEm=o.on
Range: 9.000
Variance= 3.070
Max=9
154
Fig. 4.3: Students' Performance on Subtest 3 in frequency distribution of scores in both
districts
Perfonnance in Sub-fest 3 in Nairobi and Vihiga
120
110
100
90
80
~ 10
~ 60! 50
LL. 40
30
20
10o
o
I' --..
/ '\.
/ \.
/ \.
/ "-? \./ '\.
/ ~
/ <,./ ~
~ ...
2 91 3 4 5
Values
6 1 8 10
Sub test three was the best-performed test, with a mean of 4.27. The mode was 4, with an
average variance of 3.07 (marks were fairly well spread). The standard deviation was 1.75.
Students getting below the mean of 4.27 were considered to be limited in their listening ability.
Those scoring below this mean comprised 291 out of 520 (56.73%) of the students. These were
very poor and failed on the LeT. 171 out of 520 (32.88%) of the students scored at average,
while only 54 out of 520 (10.38%) scored good and very good and therefore considered
~ proficient. A total of 89.61% scored average and below. This shows that most of the .students
were either of modest (poor) or limited proficiency (very poor) on listening for gist, specifics and
for selected significant details.
d) ProfICiency on the VJholeTest Package in both districts
Table 4.11 a1d figure 4.4 below show the distribution of students' scores on the test total in both
districts. They also show the percentage of students who demoostrated proficiency or otherwise,
in the LCT.
155
Table 4.11: Students' Perfonnance on Test Total in frequencies of scores and percentages
in both districts
Whole test value Frequency percentage CUmulative % Proficiency Level Grade and
Remarks
3 1 2.0 0.2
4 6 1.2 1.3 54.4% of the
5 12 2.3 3.7 students were
6 27 5.2 8.8 Poor ~d VfrY poor
7 31 6.0 14.8 Eand F
8 40 7.7 22.5 (Umited)
9 50 9.6 32.1
10 68 13.1 45.2
11 48 9.1 54.4
12 38 7.3 61.7
12.5 1 0.2 61.9
13 38 7.3 69.2 32.42% of the
14 30 5.8 75.0 students were CtoD
15 39 7.5 82.5 Average (Modest)
16 22 4.2 86.7
17 11 3.1 88.8
18 17 3.3 92.1
19 17 3.3 95.4 11.15% of the
20 5 1.0 96.3 students were
21 8 1.5 97.9 Good and very AandB
22 5 1.0 98.8 good (ProfICient)
23 2 0.4 99.2
24 4 0.8 100
Descriptive Statistics for the test total
Mean= 11.730
6=4.173
Variance: 17. 417
Range= 21.000
Max=24
Kurtosis - -.039
Mode: 10.00
Median= 11.000
Skewness = .580
Kurtosis= -.039
Min=3
N= 520 .
156
Figure 4.4: Students' Performance on Test Total in frequencies of scores and percentages
in both districts
Performance in Test Total in NaiJd)i and Vlhiga
80
70
60
£;' 50s 40::JfLL 30
20
10
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26
Values
It was foond that many (283 out of 520 a 54.4%, N= 520) of the students scored between 3 and
11 marks out of a possible 30 00 the test total 00 the LeT. They were found to be pea and vf!X'j
poor (modest and limited proficiency), in other words they failed the test. Only 179 out of 520
(32.42%) performed at average level {between 12 and 17 marks out of a possible 30}, while a
paltry 58 out of 520 (11.15%) were either good or very good (between 18 and 24 marks out of a
possible 30).
Fran the tables above, the mean scores suggest that the test was poorly performed (Meal:
11.73 out of a possible 30 mCl"kson the test total), suggesting that the students' proficiency level
was limited or vf!r/ JlOO'. The standard deviatioos of the scores 00 all three tests were small
shoNing a small dispersion from the mean. There was a high variance (5.43) in the scores on
subtest two, showing a variatioo of interpretatioo by students (this subtest of had, as its task, the
students to respond by expressing themselves in their own words). The scores in all three
subtests ranged fran 0 to 9 showing that student' respooses varied well. The minimum mark for
157
thetest total was 3 while the highest was 24, giving a wide range of 21. The good spread of the
marks is also evident in the fact that there was no skewness. There was hONever, a noticeable
concentratedcluster of mean scores between 5 and 12 and another, between 13 and 16. in
fav(lJr of urban schools as seen in the histogram (Figure 4.5) below. The significance of this is
exploredthrough the ANOVA explained in section 4.2.2.2; "Analysis of Variance- below.
e)Conclusions about the Listening Comprehension Proficiency levels as shown by the
Means
Table 4.12 and Figure 4.5 below show a summary picture of the mean perfamance by the
studentsin both districts. The mean! pass mark (Maximum: 10) for subtests were as follows:
Table4.12: Mean Performance on LeT in both districts
DISTRICT Subtest 1 Subtest2 Subtest3 Test Total
Nai'obi (n=195) 3.99 4.30 4.91 13.21
Vihiga (n=325) 3.46 3.29 3.68 10.36
Average 3.71 3.76 4.27 11.73
ToIaIn=520
Fig.4.5: Mean performance on Subtests and Test Total in Nairobi and Vihiga districts
Subtest 1 Subtest2 Subtest3 TestTotal
Mean performance on Subtests and Test Total in Nairobi and Vihiga districts
Subtests
oNairobi
Vlhiga
n &"fOMr«!O
N: Nairobi = 195. Vihiga = 325
158
The meal scores for the subtests were 3.71 for subtest 1, 3.76 for subtest 2, 4.27 for subtest 3
and 11.73 for the test total. Table 4.12 c:Ild figure 4.5 above show that Nairobi (Meal Score =
13.21) had a definite edge over Vihiga district (Meal score = 10.36) in perfamance on the LeT.
In the section that follows, the detailed results of how the students pafrrrned on each subtest
and the whole LeT c:Ildof the analysis of variance in performance are given for the two districts.
4.2.2.2: Mean and Standard Deviations on the Subtests for Individual Schools in Vihiga
and Nairobi
This section shows performance levels of the form three students in individual secondary schools
in the individual districts on the LeT test total on the three subtests. The differences in the
performance between the urban and rural schools are brought out here. The Nairobi schools had
a total of 195 students while the Vihiga schools had a total of 325 students. Means and standard
deviations were used to show the performance levels of form three students in individual schools
on the LeT. Below is a tabulation of the results for individual schools in each district showing the
mears and standard deviations on subtests one, two, three and the test total. The school code
column describes the type of school in terms of its location and whether the school is boarding,
Jday, girls'-only, boys'-only, mixed day, or mixed .day and boarding. The codes for these schools
are described in Appendix 12. The results from each school in each district ar.e presented
separately in the tables below and then compared later.
Table 4.13: Mean and Standard Deviations of Individual schools in Nairobi district on the
LeT
Serial SUBTEST1: xl10 SUBlEST 2 xl10 SUBTEST3: xl10 TESTTOTAl..:xI30
No School Code N Mean SO Mean SO Mean SO Mean SO
1 U1-BD 23 4.091 1.316 3.870 2.490 4.440 1.610 12.440 4.105
2 U2-GD 24 3.830 1.250 4.830 2.478 4.177 1.700 12.833 3.613
3 U3-MD 32 3.661 1.107 2.094 1.355 4.310 1.402 10.060 2.761
4 U4-MD 34 3.650 1.380 3.080 2.019 4.010 1.602 10.840 3.404
5 U5-8B 38 3.870 1.522 5.970 2.213 6210 1.492 16.080 3.983
6 U6-GB 44 4.860 1.579 5.930 2.106 6.301 1.664 17.091 4.016
TotaJ 195 3.990 1.359 4.30 2.11 4.91 1.578 13.211 3.647
159
Table 4. 13 cix>veshaHs the performax:e by the students in individual schools in Nairobi on the
sub tests and the test total. The best performance on the whole test was by the girls' boarding
school (MeCl1=17.091) fdlowed by the boys' boarding school (Mean=16.08), while the pocrest
performalce was from a mixed day schad (Mean= 10.06). This means that the boarding and
single sex schools were favourable to perfornaice on the LeT. The overall mean for the Nairobi
schools was 13.21 out of a possible 30 maks, shONing that although this was above the
computed mean score for the whde test the students failed on the LeT. Their best performance
was on subtest three (meal: 4.91); while their worst was on sub test one (meal: 3.99).
Table 4.14: Mean and Standard Deviations of Individual schools in Vihiga district on the
LeT
SUBTEST 1: xl10 SUBTEST 2: xl10 SUBTEST 3: xl10 TEST TOTAl..: xl30
$chool
Code N Mean SO Mean SO Mean SO Mean SO
7 R1-MDB 37 3.57 1.198 3.05 1.541 3.76 1.441 10.38 2.593
8 R2-MD 31 2.97 1.694 2.52 1.847 3.48 1.411 8.97 3.980
9 R3-MD 20 2.80 1.360 2.35 1.956 3.0 1.517 8.15 2.390
10 R4-MDB 33 3.67 1.385 3.15 1.811 3.3 1.507 10.12 3.102
11 R5-MDB 51 3.08 1.453 2.67 1.906 3.9 1.600 9.65 3.253
12 R6-GB 28 3.12 1.520 2.39 1.839 3.21 1.081 8.71 2.801
13 R7-GB 40 4.50 1.703 4.86 2.2 3.9 1.375 13.26 3.430
14 R8-MDB 40 3.85 1.152 4.15 2.14 4.33 1.403 12.33 3.110
15 R9-BB 45 3.62 1.216 3.93 1.569 4.13 1.454 11.69 2.819
Total 32~ 3.46 1.409- 3.29 1.83 3.68 1.427 10.36 3.053
Table 4. 14 above show the performance by the students in individual schools in Vihiga on the
sub tests and the test total. The best performance on the whole test was by a girls' boarding
school (Mean: 13.26 out of 30), while the poorest performance was from a mixed day school
(Mean: 8.15 out of 30). This meats that the boarding and single sex schads were favourci>le to
performance on the LeT. The overall mean for the Vihiga schools was 10.36 out of a possible 30
marks, showing that the students failed on the LeT. Their best performalce was on subtest three
(mean: 3.68 out of 10); while their worst was on sub test two (meal: 3.29 out of 10).
160
In general, the Nairobi schools recorded better performance than the Vihiga schools on the test
total, On the individual subtests, the Nairobi schools still performed better than the Vihiga
schools, ANOVA was done to determine if the differences observed ~ve were significCllt or not
and this is reported below,
Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) of the Schools' Perfonnance on the LeT
One-way ANOVA was computed for the purpose of testing the significance of the difference in
the two groups or sample means (of the performance of the different schods in the two different
locales: urban and rural), This helped to determine whether the probability that there was a
significant difference in the means of scores in Tables 4.13 and 4.14 above were significant or
were simply due to chance, The F probability and F ratios are presented here for each subtest
and the test total.
Table 4,15: Difference in Performance in Nairobi and Vihiga Schools on Subtest 1
One Way Analysis of Variance
Variable: Subtest1 in Nairobi and Vihiga Districts District where school is located
Source D,F Sum of Squares Mean Squares IF Ratio :1= Probability
Between Groups 1 36.8328 36.8328 16.4657 ~.OOO1
WrthinGroups 518 1158.7364 2.2369
Total 519 1195.5692
The statistics above indicate that the probability that the urban and rural schools perform
differently on sub test 1 was found to be fairly high (F probability= 0.0001, F ratio = 16.4657).
Therefore, it can be concluded that there was a significant difference at 0.05 level in students'
performanceon sub test 1 in both districts, in favour of the urban schools.
T bl 416 D'ff , P rf betw N' bi d V'h' Sch S btest2a e , I erence In e ormance een alro an I laa ooson u
One Way Analysis of Variance
!Variable Subtest 2 in Nairobi and VihiQa Districts District where school is located
Source ~,F Sum of Squares Mean Squares F Ratio F Probability
Between Groups 1 159.2508 157.2508 130.6199 .00סס
Wrthin Groups 1518 12660.2256 15·1356
ITalai ~19 2017.4764
161
The statistics 000V9 indicate that the probooility that the urban and rural schools perform
differently on the sub test 2 was found to be high (F probooility= 0.00סס, F ratio = 30.6199).
Therefore there was a significant difference in student performance 00 sub test 2 by the students
of both districts, in favour of the urban schools.
Table 4.17: Difference in Perfonnance between Nairobi and Vihiga Schools on Subtest 3
One Way Analysis of Variance
~ariable Subtest 3 in Nairobi and Vihiga Distri:ts District where school is located
So..-ce D.F Sum of Squc.-es Mean Squares F Ratio F Probability
Between Groups 1 229.5185 229.5185 ~7.1722 .00סס
Within Groups 518 1363.8585 2.6329
Total 519 1593.3769
The statistics above show that the probability that the urban and rural schools perform differently
on the subtest 3 was found to be high (F probability= 0.0000, F ratio = 87.1722). Therefore there
was a significant difference in student performance on sub test 3 by the students of both districts,
in favour of the urban schools
Table 4.18: Difference in performance between Nairobi and Vihiga Schools on Test Total
One WB!j Analysis of Variance
~ariable Test Total in Nairobi and Vihiga Districts District where school is located
Source D.F Sum of Squares Mean Squares F Ratio F Probability
Between Groups .1 1139.6593 1139.659 74.7305 .00סס
Within Groups 518 7899.6287 15.2502
Total 519 9039.288
The statistics above show that the probability that the urban and rural schools perform differently
on the test total was found to be high (F probability= 0.00סס, F ratio = 74.7305). Therefore there
was a significant difference in student performance on test total by the students of both districts,
in favour of the urban schools.
162
4.2.2.3: Students' Performance on the LCT Materials
Below is a presentation of the measures of centra tendency CIld vaiability for the subtests, each
of which tested listening to different materia types. This sectioo is intended to shaN if students
performed differently depending on the listening material or task.
Table 4.19: Measures of Central tendency and Variability for the Subtest Materials in both
Districts
Test Mean 6 Variance Kurtosis Skewness Range Min Max N
1 (DialoQue) 3.71 1.52 2.30 0.22 0.38 9.00 0 9 520
2 (Anecdote) 3.76 2.53 5.43 -0.58 0.53 10.00 0 10 520
3 (NevIlS 4.27 1.75 3.07 -0.18 0.25 9.00 0 9 520
Summary)
The data showed that the students generally found all the three I.istening ccmprehension
materials and tasks not easy to listen to as seen in the low mean of 3.91. The data further
revealed that the students performed better on subtest three with a mean of 4.27 out of a
possible 10 marks. Subtest three tested students' ability to listen for specifics and selected
significant details from listening to a news summary. This score, however, was still below
average. The students performed poorest on sub test 1, with a mean score of 3.71 out of a
possible 10 marks. This subtest tested students' ability to listen for topic, thought or main idea
and·interpret a speakers' tone and intention, by listening to a conversation/dialogue. Subtest two
was also not well perfamed, as the mean score was 3.76, well below average. This subtest
tested students' ability to draw inferences, deduce meanings of unfamiliar words, predid
outcomes and paraphrase what they listen to. The material used for this test was an CM7eCdote.
4.2.2.4: The t-tests for paired samples (Relationship between the sub tests)
The t-tests for pared sanples were done (using the SPSS Version 10) to see if there was a
relatiooship in the students' performance scores 00 the different test materials and sub skills
represented by different sub tests (the t test is used to test for the significance of the difference
between meats; it helps to determine whether two groups are or are not probably representative
163
samples of the same pq>Ulation). The oorrelation coefficients ald level of significa1C8 (which
was determined at 0.05 CX' 95% confidence level) of the relationship are reported here a1d the
datals regarding the values of the number of pars, the paired means, oorrelation coefficients,
standard deviation, paired differences, the t-value a1d the 2-tal significance ae shown in tables
4.20, 4.21 and 4.22 below. The interoorrelations between subtests 1, 2, 3 and test total Cl'e
further shOwYnin Appendix 11.
a) The Relationship between Subtest 1 and others
Table 4.20: Relationship between Sub Test 1 and others
Sub test 1 and 2
Variable No of pairs r Mean Mn Oiff s SO Oiff t-value 2-tail sig
3.7077
ST 1 0.318 -0.0490 1.518 2.342 -0.48 0.633520
ST2 3.7567 2.330
Sub Test 1 and 3
Variable No of pairs r Mean Mn Diff s SO Oiff t-value 2-tail sig
-6.12
ST 1 520 3.7077 -0.5577 1.518
ST3 0.197 42654 1.752 2.079 0.000
Sub test 1 and Test Total
Variable Noot pairs r Mean Mn Oiff s SO Oiff t-value 2-tail sig
3.7077 -53.22
ST1 0.624 1.518 3.437 0.000
TT 520 4.1730 -0.8.0221 4.173
The table above demoostrates that there was an insignificant oorrelation between sub test 1 and
sub test 2, (r = 0.318) with a 2 -tail significCllce of 0.633 CIld a t-vaue of -0.48. This meait that
the mat9ials C:ild skills were neXindependent of each other ald they also build 00 each other.
The student who performs well or poorly 00 subtest 1 is likely to do the same 00 sub test 2.
There was a very small but significant carelation between sub test 1 and 3 (r = 0.197, t-value = -
6.12 and 2-tcil significance of 0.(00). This means that students' perfama'lce 00 skills in subtest1
164
and 3 differed signifiCClltly CIld that the materials and skills were independent of each othEl". It
may aso imply that the skills ere hierarchical and they also build 00 each other. The student who
is proficient on the skills in subtest 1 may not necessarily do the same 00 skills in sub test 3.
There was a high and significant correlation in performance on subtest 1 and the test total (r =
0.624, t = -53.22 and 2-tal significCllce = 0.000). This meant that students differed significantly in
their performance on subtest 1 and the test total. Therefore, performance on the skills in sub test
1 was not affected by the performance on whole LeT; they are independent of each other.
b) The Relationship between subtest 2 and others
Tabte 4.21: Relationship between Subtest 2 and 3
Subtest 2 and 3
Variable No of pairs r Mean Mn Diff e SDDiff t-value 2-tail sia
3.7567
ST2 520 0.406 -0.5087 2.330 2.277 -5.10 0.000
ST3 4.2654 1.752
Subtest 2 and test total
Variable No of pairs r Mean Mn Diff s SDDiff t-value 2-tail sia
3.7567
ST2 520 0.844 ?330 2.534 -71.74 0.000
IT 11.7298 7.9731 4.173
There was a rather weak but significant relationship between sub test 2 and 3 (r =. 406, t-value =
-5.10 aid 2-tail significance = 0.000). Students differed significantly in the way they performed on
the two subtests. Therefae, the two sub tests were independent of each other; success or not in
subtest 2 did not depend on subtest 3 and the reverse is true.
A very high CIld significant relationship was found between sub test 2 and the test total (r = .844,
t value = -71.74 and 2-tail significance = 0.000). The students did not differ in the way they
performed on sub test 2 aid test total. Their perfcrmance on the skills in subtest 2 was very
165
similar to their peformaice 00 the whde LeT. It meant that performance 00 the total LeT built
00 proficiency in sub test 2. A student who performed well 00 sub test 2 was likely to perform well
on the test total.
c} The Relationship between sub test 3 and the test total
Table 4.22: Relationship between sub test 3 and test total
Sub test 3 and test total
Variable No of pairs r Mean Mn Oiff SO SO Oiff t-value 2-tail sig
4.2654
ST3 520 0.718 -.7.4644 1.752 3.159 -53.88 0.000
rr 11.7298 4.173
There was a very high correlation between subtest 3 and the test total (r = .718, t value = -53.88
and 2-tail significance = 0.000). Students did not differ in the way they perform on sub test 3 and
test total. This meant that the skills in subtest 3 and the whole LeT depend 00 each other.
Performance on sub test 3 and test total affect each other. Performance on all the listening
comprehension sub skills buifd on the pertormance on the sub skills in sub test 3.
Generally, there was a difference in performance on the subtests (representing sub skills); hence
they were independent of each other. Hcmever, performance on the sub skills compared to the
test total yielded high correlation coefficients, with subtest 2 having the highest correlation with
the test total. This meant that one who passes on the sub skills in subtest 1, 2 or 3 must also be
competent at the whde test 1:lldooe who passes one subtest may not necessarily be competent
at the other, for exanple, one who is good on subtest 3 need not be oompetent at 1 and 2. A
student who is good on lower sub skills (listening for gist, specifics, topic, details CJld main ideas)
as in sub test 2 and 3 should also get to the level of higher listening skills (drawing inferences,
deducing meanings of unfamifiar words, predicting outoomes and paraphrasing) as in subtest 1.
166
These results showed that students were best at listening to news (subtest 3), whose subject
was an aea of their interest a1d within their experience. They, on the other hand, found it hard to
follow a ronversatioo (sub test 1). This weakness was also seen in the poor performance on the
anecdote (sub test 2), whidl also hed a brief conversation. Although in both districts the students
failed 00 the listening comprehensioo test, it is notable that in both districts, the students
performed almost equally on the sarne materials. A summary of the results discussed above is
presented in Table 4.23 and Figure 4.6 below.
Table 4.23: Students' Performance Test Materials in Nairobi and Vihiga districts
DISTRICT Subtest 1 Subtest2 Subtest3 Test Total
NaiOOi 3.99 4.30 4.91 13.21
Vihiga 3.46 3.29 3.68 10.36
Average 3.71 3.76 4.11 11.73
Fig. 4.6: Students' performance test materials in Nairobi and Vihiga districts
Mean Perfonnance in Subtests by Dis1rict
14 -
12 -
co --8 10 -
CI)
c 8CD ~co:ii
~ 6 ~
II) .--"0t5 4 -; ' -e = ~
lr~~
'""
2 I-- .:». ,'''><. f~.ti~·· i-:5 ~\:~ ~!i ~~ '-0 "<,;0; '::;) ~;Jt ~ .X{ ;:.
Nairobi Vihiga Average
Tests by District
Ic:J Subtest 1 [] Subtest 2 0 Subtest 3 OT est Total I
The perfamance of the students oil the subtests and test total according to gender is presented
in the section that follows.
167
4.2.3: Mean Performance on Test total and Subtests by Gender by District
This section presents the performance of students on the test tot~ ~ on the different subtests
in the different districts according to gender. The first section shows the performance by gender
in Vihiga CIld the next section presents the same for Nairobi. The mean performance of the male
and female students was done sepCl'ately. This was done by picking out all the boys and all the
girls from the mixed schools in addition to those from single sex schools. This was done for each
district. The data is presented in means and standard deviations on all the three subtests and
test total for the various schools. The ranking of each school is also shown.
4.2.3.1: Performance In Means on Test total by Gender in Vihiga
The girls were represented in 8 schools and formed a total population of 165, while boys were
represented in 7 schools and formed 160 out of the total population for Vihiga district of 325 (a
ratio of 1:1). Tables 4.24, 4.25 and 4.26 give a general view of how the boys and girls in Vihiga
district performed on the LeT.
Comparison of Giris' and Boys' Performance on the LeT Test total in Vihiga
Below is a comparison of performance by gender on the test total in Vihiga. This is shown in
means, standard deviations CIld ranks.
Table 4.24: Mean Performance and Standard Deviations on Test total by Gender in Vihiga
BoYS (n= 160) Girls (n= 165)
School Type N Mean SD Rank School Type N Mean SO Rank
R1-MDB 28 10.32 2.92 4 R1-MDB 9 10.56 1.51 3
R2-MD 13 10.08 5.24 5 R2-MD 17 8.41 2.69 8
R3-MD 13 8.62 2.06 7 R3-MD 8 6.75 2.76 4
R4-MDB 20 10.70 2.60 3 R4-MDB 13 9.23 3.79 7
R5-MDB 21 10.00 3.13 6 R5-MDB 30 9.40 3.42 6
R8-MDB 20 11.95 3.36 1 R6-GB 28 8.71 2.85 5
R9-88 45 11.60 2.83 2 R7-GB 40 13.26 3.47 1
R8-MDB 20 12.70 2.96 2
Ave 160 10.47 3.16 Ave 165 9.88 2.93
168
The table ci:love indicates that the girls in Vihiga performed very poorly on the test tata (Mem:
9.88 out of maximum 30) conpaed to thEir mae counterparts (Mem: 10. 47 out of maxim
30). Their performance was dismal in all the sub tests, with the average score far below
meai of 11.73. The best-performed sub test (3) had a mean score of a paltry 3.40 out of 10 (!
the girls. Although the boys in Vihiga district also failed the LeT on the test total, they were
better than their femae counterparts. When a comparison of the means of the boys and girl
Vihiga was done, it was observed that there was a significant difference at 0.05 level in
pefornaice with the boys scoring higher than the girls. A detailed discussion and compai
how the boys and girls performed on the different sub tests follC'1NSbelow.
4.2.3.2: Performance by Gender by subtest in Vihiga
While the section above gave a general analysis of how the students performed on the test otal,
this section gives a more specific analysis of how the different gender performed on the various
subtests. Tables 4.25 and 4.26 below summarize the mean, standard deviations variance, range
and rCllks of girls' and boys' scores in different schools in Vihiga on the different subtests.
,..~'I •
169
Girls:
Table 4.25: Performance )y i m I igaon ere I enmg mp
Subtest 1
School Type N Mean SO V';ance Range Rank
R1-MOB 9 3.56 0.88 0.78 3 3
R2-MO 17 2.82 1.24 1.53 4 8
R3-MO 8 3.13 1.64 2.70 4 4
R4-MDB 13 2.92 1.04 1.08 4 7
R5-MOB 30 3.10 2.01 4.03 5 6
R6-GB 28 3.11 1.87 3.51 5 5
R7-GB 40 4.50 1.72 2.97 7 1
R8-MDB 20 3.75 1.33 1.78 6 2
165 3.36 1.47 3.30 4.75
Subtest 2
R1-MDB 9 3.67 1.41 2.00 4 3
R2-MO 17 2.12 1.45 2.11 5 7
. R3-MO 8 1.38 0.92 0.84 3 8
R4-MDB 13 3.15 2.03 4.14 7 4
R5-MDB 30 2.63 2.01 4.03 8 5
R6-GB 28 2.39 1.87 3.51 8 6
R7-GB 40 4.86 2.23 4.96 9 1
R8-MDB 20 4.70 1.87 3.48 7 2
165 3.11 1.72 3.14 6.34
Subtest 3
R1-MDB 9 3.33 1.22 1.50 4 5
R2-MD 17 3.47 1.37 1.89 5 4
R3-MD 8 2.25 1.58 2.50 5 8
R4-MDB 13 3.15 1.57 2.47 5 7
R5-MDB 30 3.67 1.79 3.20 6 3
R6-GB 28 3.21 1.10 1.21 4 6
R7-GB 40 3.90 1.39 1.94 6 2
R8-MDB 20 4.25 1.21 1.46 4 1
165 3.40 1.40 2.02 4.88
b G rIs" V"h" diff ntl"st " Co rehensionSubtesls
From Table 4.25 above, it can be seen that the girls performed best on subtest 3 (mean: 3.40)
followed by subtest 1 (meal: 3.36). They were poorest 00 subtest 2, which was based on an
anecdote and tested ability to listen for topic, and main idea and interpreting a speaker's tone
and intentioo. This means that rura schools girts' were strooger in skills that tested fa specifics
and dfia/s. The range of maks was good (except for those schools where the sampled n was
less thal 10) showing good variation in performance scores, The girls also tended to be steady
in their performalce in most cases. For exanple, if they performed poorly or well on one sub
test, they did the same a almost the sane on the others.
170
Boys:
Table 4.26: Performance by Boys in Vihiga on different Listening Comprehension
Subtests
School N Mean SO Vari.,ce Range Rank
Type
Subtest 1
R1-MOB 23 3.57 1.32 1.74 5 3
R2-MO 10 3.31 2.21 4.90 8 5
R3-MO 13 2.38 1.33 1.76 5 7
R4-MDB 18 4.15 1.42 2.03 6 1
R5-MDB 20 3.05 1.53 2.35 5 6
RPrMDB 19 3.95 1.00 1.00 4 2
R9-BB 42 3.56 1.24 1.53 7 4
145 3.42 1.44 2.19 5.71
Subtest 2
R1-MOB 23 2.86 1.58 2.50 5 5
R2-MD 10 3.15 2.27 5.14 8 3
R3-MD 13 2.85 2.27 5-14 8 6
R4-MDB 18 3.15 1.76 3.08 8 3
R5-MDB 20 2.71 1.85 3.41 7 7
RPrMDB 19 3.60 2.35 5.52 8 2
R9-BB 42 3.93 1.59 2.52 6 1
145 3.18 1.95 3.90 7.14
Subtest 3
R1-MDB 23 3.89 1.52 2.32 7 4
R2-MD 10 3.62 1.56 2.42 5 5
R3-MD 13 3.38 1.39 1.92 5 7
R4-MDB 18 3.40 1.54 2.36 6 6
R5-MDB 20 4.24 1.30 1.69 4 2
RPrMDB 19 4.40 1.64 2.67 7 1
R9-BB 42 4.11 1.47 2.15 6 3
145 3.28 1.49 2.22 5.57
From Table 4.26 above, it can be seen that the Vihiga boys performed dismally; with the best
scores (3.42) on subtest 1, which tested ability to draw inferences, deduce meanings of
unfamiliar words, predici outcomes and paraphrase. This was follONed by subtest 3 (mean: 3.28)
foIla.ved by the poorest; subtest 1, which was the lowest (meai; 3.18). They were poorest on
subtest 2, which was based on al anecdote and tested ability to listen for topic, main idea and
interpreting a speaker's tone and intention using students own wads. The boys in Vihiga
pErlormed better thal the girls except on subtest 3 (News summery). The boys appeared
stronger in higher - orda- listening skills, that is, listening for inference, deducing meanings of
unfamiliar words, predici outcomes and patCf)hrase. Their performance on the three sub tests did
not vary Significa1t1ythough as was seen in the discussion on the interrelations on the subtests.
171
The range of marks was good showing good varialOO in performance scores. The same trend
observed about girls' stea:fy performalOOwas seen in boys' pertamance.
4.2.3.3: Performance on Test total by Gender in Nairobi
Below is an a'lalysis of how the boys and girls in NairdJi performed 00 the LeT. Data is shown in
meals and staidad deviations and the ranking of each school type given in Tables 4.'lJ below.
Table 4.27: Measures of Central Tendency and variability on the LCT total by both Girts
d So . N' blan )ys In alro
Boys In=101) Girts (0--94)
School Mean so Varian Range Rank School Mean SO Varian Range Ran
Type ce Type ce k
U1-80 12.39 4.21 17.7 18 2 U2-GD 12.83 3.69 13.62 12 2
~MD 10.37 3.22 10.36 11 4 U3-MD 9.62 2.10 4.42 9 4
U4-MD 11.76 3.14 9.89 12 3 U4-MD 10.54 3.02 9.10 11 3
U5-BB 16.24 3.96 15.7 16 1 U6-GB 16.91 4.14 17.11 18 1
Average 12.69 3.63 13.14 Average 12.48 3.24
The table above illustrates that the boys performed generaHy better than the girls in Nairobi
(Mean: 12.69 conpared to 12.48). However, the girls in single sex (girls- only) schools performed
better thal the boys in single sex (boys- only) schools. But the boys did better on the test total
although this difference was not significant.
It was also observed that the performance of girls learning in mixed schools was significantly
lower than that of boys of the same class. For example, in the one mixed school in Nairobi (U3-
MO), the girls performed poorer (at 0.05 level) than the boys, with tha girls having a mean of
9.62 out of 30 ald the boys a mean of 10.37 cot of 30 on the test total and in U4-MO, girls man
was 10.54 while the boys was 11.76. (See section 4.2.4.6 below 00 paformance in mixed
schools where further analysis of this is given).
172
CompCI"atively, although the results showed that the boys performed better thCl"l the girls in
Nairobi, ttw3rewas no significant difference in the performance CJ'l the test total. This diff£fence
only seemed to occur in the mixed schools, as we shall see later in this chapter section 4.2.4.6(b)
4.2.3.4: Mean Perfonnance by Gender by Subtest In Nairobi
Girls:
Table 4.28: Perfonnance by Girls in Nairobi on different listening Comprehension
Subtests:
Subtest 1
School Type N Mean SO Variance Range Rank
U2-GD 24 3.83 1.27 1.62 5 4
U3-MD 13 3.85 0.80 0.64 3 3
U4-MD 13 4.00 1.35 1.83 5 2
U6-GB 44 4.80 1.64 2.68 6 1
94 4.12 1.27 1.69
Subtest 2
School Type N Mean SO Variance Range Rank
U2-GD 24 4.83 2.53 6.41 9 2
U3-Me 13 2.08 1.26 1.55 4 4
U4-MD 13 2.23 1.24 1.53 5 3
U6-GB 44 5.91 2.11 4.46 8 1
94 3.76 1.79 3.49
Subtest 3
School Type N Mean SO Variance Range Rank
U2-GD 24 4.17 1.74 3.01 7 2
U3-MD 13 3.69 1.18 1.40 4 4
U4-MD 13 4.31 1.55 2.40 6 3
U6-GB 44 6.20 1.71 2.91 7 1
94 4.59 1.55 2.43
Fran Table 4.28 above, it can be observed that the Nairobi girls perfamed best on subtest 3
(mean: 4.59) to/lONed by subtesl 1 (mean: 4.12). They W£fe poorest (3.76) on subtest 2, which
was based on an anecdcie and tested ability to listen for topic, main idea and interpreting a
speaker's tone and intention. The girls appea-ed stronger in skills that tested fa specifics and.....
deta/s (subtest 3). The range of maks was good (except fa those schools wtw3rethe number
sampled was less thCl"l10) showing good variation in performance scores. 'Mile they performed
best (Mean of 4.59 oot of 10) on subtest three, they were foond to be very poor on subtest 2
(Mean= 3.76). Their performCl"lceon subtest 1 and 3 did not differ greatly (Mean 4.12 and 4.59).
173
They were weaker on listening fer topic a7d interpreting speakers' tone and intention, man idea,
inference and predicting outcomes, which Cl"e higher- order listening skills. The stCl"ldCl"d
deviation, varialCe S'ld ra1Qe of maks were good (except for those schools where the sampled
number was less than 10) shONing good variation in performS'lOOscores. One interesting result
was that, while the girls' day school ranked second in performance on sub test 2 arxj 3, they
came last on sub test 1.
Boys:
Table 4.29: Perfonnance by Boys in Nairobi on different Listening Comprehension
Subtests--Subtest 1
SchootType N Mean SO Va-iance Range Rank
U1-BD 23 4.13 1.39 1.94 5 1
U3-MD 19 3.53 1.31 1.71 5 3
U4-MD 21 3.52 1.50 2.26 7 4
US-BB 38 3.92 1.53 2.34 10 2
101 3.75 1.43 2.06
Subtest2
School Type N Mean SO Va-iance Range Rank
U1-BO 23 3,87 2.55 6.48 10 3
U3-MD 19 2.11 1.49 2.21 6 4
U4-MD 21 3.90 2.17 4.69 7 2
US-BB 38 6.00 227 5.14 10 1
101 3.97 2.12 4.63
Subtest3
Schoof Type . N Mean SO Va'iance Range Rank
UJ-BD 23 .4.39 1.1 2.89 6 3
U3-MD 19 4.74 1.45 2.09 6 2
U4-MD 21 4.33 1.32 1.73 4 4
U5-BB 38 6.32 1.44 2.06 5 1
101 4.95 1.23 2.19
Fran Table 4.29 above, it can be observed that the Nairobi boys performed best on subtest 3
(mean: 4.95), which was based on a news summary and tested listening for gist, specifics and
for seleded significant details. This was fdlowed by subtest 2 (Mean: 3.97), which was based on
an anecdcie and tested ability to listen fer topic main idea, and interpret speaker's tone. They
wa-e poorest (3.75) on subtest 1, which was based on a diaogue and tested ability to draw
inferences, infer meC¥lings of unfamiliw words, predict outcomes and paraphrase. The NairOOi
boys appeaed strong in skills that tested for specifics and details, but weak 00 inference skills.
174
The standard deviatioo, variance and range of marks were good (except fa those schools whEJ"e
the sanp/ed n was less than 10) showing good variation in performance scores,
4.2.3.5: Comparison of Mean Performance in Sub tests by Gender in both districts
combined
Table 4.30 and figure 4.7 below sunmarise the paiormmce of girls and boys 00 the leT in the
two districts combined. The mean fa each district on ea:h sub test is given and also that fa the
sample population.
Table 4.30: Comparison between the Mean Performance of Boys and Girls on the LCT in
Nairobi and Vihiga District
BOYS (n= 261) GIRLS(n=259) Sample
Test Nairobi Vihiaa Aver Nairobi Wtiga Ava' Population Av«
Subtest1 3.76 3.42 3.59 4.12 3.36 3.74 3.67
Subtest2 3,tifl 3.18 3.58 3.76 3.11 3.44 3.51
Subtest3 4.95 3.87 4.41 4.59 3.40 4.00 4.20
Test Total 12.69 10.41 11.58 12.47 9.88 11.18 11.38
TotaIn=520
Fig. 4.7: Comparison Between Performance of Girt. and Boys on LeT in both Districts
Mean Performance by Gender on Listening Comprehension Test in Vihiga and Nairobi
14
12
I" 10
!;
u 8CI)scG) 6-c3
CI)
4
2
0
r- r-.- .-r-.-
.- - - r- -;;:;:"!" -~ - .--~-
- ~ I-- I-- . r,l~ f-- f--" .' ~~.' 3 - ,.;,~;~
Nairobi Aver Vihiga Aver ~ population·
avemge
Vihiga
BOYS GIRLS
10subtest 1 subfest 2 0 subtest 3 0 Test Total I
175
Results showed that in both districts, the boys perfooned better than the girls 00 subtests two
and three and in general. Subtest 2 aid 3 tested students' abilities in listening kx tCfJic,main
ideas and interpret specJcer's tone (subtest 2) ~d to listen for specifics and seleded significa7f
dfici/s (subtest 3), based 00 an anecdote and news summary respectively. Only 00 subtest 1,
which tested ability to draw inferences, deduce me81ings of unfamiliar words, predid outcomes
and pcraphrasing, did the girls do better than the boys and this, in Nairobi ooly. Although the
boys did better 00 the listening test in general, the girls seemed to be better on the higher order
listening skills. It was further, observed that urban schods, whether boys CX' girls schools,
performed better than the rural schools. Below is a sommay of the ANOVA that was done to
check on the differences in the performance of the different gender in the two districts.
Analysis of Variance for subtests by Gender in Vihiga and Nairobi
Analysis of variance was done to determine whether there was a significant difference
(in the observed differences in students' performance above) by gender between the rural and
urban schools. This was done for each subtest and test total and is described in Table 4.31
below.
Table 4.31: One Way Analysis of Variance for Mean Performance on subtests and test
total by both Gender in Vihiga and Nairobi Districts
One Way Analysis of Variance BY GENDER
lVariable Sub-Test I in Nairobi and Vihiga Districts
By Variable SEX
Sum of Mean F
Source D.F Squa-es Squares FRatio Probabiily
!Between Groups 1 3.9665 3.9665 1.7243 0.1897
~thin Groups 518 1191.6027 2.3004
~otal 519 1195.5692
One Way Analysis of Variance
lVariable Sub-Test 2 in Nairobi and Vihiga Districts
By Variable SEX
Sumd Mean F F
Source D.F Squares Squares Ratio Probability
Between Groups 1 1.6188 1.6188 0.2978 0.5855
176
Within Groups I 518 I 2815.8576 I 5.436 J JTotal 519 2817.4764
One Way Analysis of Vaiance
lVariable S~ Test 3 ilNairobi ••.•d Vihiga Districts
9t Variable SEX
Mean F
Source D.F Sum of Squ•• jsqu •• F Ratio Probability
Between Groups 1 11.5415 11.5415 3.n95 0.0524
Within Groups 518 1581.8354 3.05337
Total 519 1593.3769
One Way Analysis of Variance
Variable TEST TOTAL in Nairobi ••.•d Vihiga Districts
Bv Variable SEX
Sum of Mean F F
Source D.F Squ.es Squares Ratio Probability
Between Groups 1 0.0178 0.0178 0.001 0.9746
Within Groups 518 9039.2702 17.4503
Total 519 9039.288
Table 4.31: One Way Analysis of Variance for Mean Performance on subtests and test
total by both Gender in Vihiga and Nairobi Districts: (contd)
The F probabilities in the above tables show that (except fa subtest 3 where the F probability =
0.0524) despite the observed differences in the girls' and boys' performance, this difference was
found insignificant at the 0.05 confidence level. The probability that the boys and girls in both
districts performed differently on all the subtests and test total was low (F probability; 0.1897,
0.5855, 0.9745 on subtests 1, 2 and test total respectively). This meant that the boys and girls
did not perfam very differently on subtests 1, 2 and on the test total. Only on sub test 3 was the
differooce in performance significantly different, with an F probability of 0.0524. Although these
statistics imply that gender has no effect on students' listening comprehension skills, it is still
important not to ignore the fact that even in subtests 1, 2 and test tota, rural a urban, the boys
performed better than the girls. The case was worse in the mixed schools where the girls
performed dismally compared to the boys (see section 4.2.4.6). The results therefae,
demonstrate that there was no consistent relationship between girls and boys in perfamance on
LeT scores.
177
4.2.4: Mean Performance on subtests by School Type
Among the 15 sample schods WfKesix different school types, namely; 2 boys boarding (BB), 3
girls boarding (GB), 1 boys day (BO), 1 girls day (GO), 4-mixed day and boarding (MOB), and 4
mixed day (MO). The description of the different schools by codes and types is given in
Appendix 12. The different schools were singled out and the means, standard deviation,
variance and range of their score computed separately. Results of the performance fa' each
school type are presented in the first six sections of this section and the last section is a
consolidatico of the performance of all the school types. A notable phenomenon that was
observed regarding the difference in boys and girls' performance was also found worthy of
analysing. This is done at the end of this sectico.
4.2.4.1: Performance on the LeT in Girls Boarding schools (GB)
Below is a presentation of the means and standard deviations of scores by girls in the three
sampled boarding schools, two rural and coe urban. The data are separately represented for a
distinct analysis of the situation in specific schools.
Table 4.32: Performance on subtests and-test total in Girls Boarding schools
School N Test Mean SO V.iance Ranae
U6-GB 44 1 4.80 1.64 2.68 6
2 5.91 2.11 4.46 8
3 6.20 1.71 2.91 7
Test total 16.91 4.14 17.11 18
R7-GB 40 1 4.50 1.72 2.97 7
2 4.86 2.23 4.96 9
3 3.90 1.39 1.94 6
Test total 13.26 3.47 2.06 13
R6-GB 28 1 3.11 1.87 3.51 5
2 2.39 1.87 3.51. 8
3 3.21 1.10 1.21 4
Test total 8.71 2.85 8.14 11
Average performance for GB:
Subtest 1= 4.14
Subtest 2= 4.39
Subtest 3= 4.44
Test total= 12.96
178
The average score for the girls' boa"ding schads was 12.96. Data shows that girls in the urban
boarding school performed better than those in rural boarding schools on the LeT (16.91
compared to 10.99 respectively). The urban boarding schad performed ci>ove average in
"subtests 2 GIld3 (Mean: 5.91 and 6.20 respectively). This is the score that positively influenced
the mean of this school type. The mean on subtest 2 was negatively influenced by the mean of
the rural school, which was a low performing school.
4.2.4.2: Performance on test in Boys Boarding schools (B8)
The boys boarding school category was represented by two schools; one rural and coe urban.
Table 4.33: Performance on subtests and test total in Boys Boarding schools
School N Test Mean SO Variance Range
U~ 38 1 3.92 1.53 2.34 7
2 6.00 2.27 5.14 10
3 6.32 1.44 2.06 5
Test total 16.24 3.96 15.7 16
R9-BB 45 1 3.56 1.24 1.53 7
2 3.93 1.59 2.52 6
3 4.11 1.47 2.15 6
Test total 11.60 2.83 8.02 12
Average performance for 88:
Subtest 1= 3.74
Subtest 3 = 5.22
Subtest 2= 4.97
Test total = 13.92
The male students performed best on subtest 3 (ooility to listen for selec1ed significa7l details
and specifics, based on a news summary- the lowest level of the three) just like the general
results showed. Just like the urban girls, the urbai boys schad performed signifiCGVltlybetter
than their rural counterparts in boys boa-ding schools art test total (16.24 compared to 11.60)
and on all the subtests. The performance was significaltly different on subtest 2 a1d 3. The
urbat boys' school performed above average on subtests 2 CIld 3 just like the girls in boa-ding.
The urbai male studentswere strooger on listening skills thGlltheir rura counterpa-ts.
" ..,.
179
4.2.4.3: Performance on test in Girts' day schools (GO)
This category was represented by only me schad that was urban (we do not have many run~
single sex day schools).
Table 4.34: Perfonnance on subtests and test total in Girts' Day Schools
School N Test Mean SO v.iance Range
U2-GD 24 1 3.83 1.27 1.62 5
2 4.83 2.53 6.41 9
3 4.17 1.74 3.01 7
Test total 12.83 3.69 13.62 12
The data shows that the girls in a girl's day school just managed to pass the test. Although a day
school, the girls performed better than the boys in the rural boys boarding school (R9-BB), (12.83
compared to 11.60 respectively) on the test total (see Table 4.33 and 4.34 above) shoNing that
the locale may also positively influence listening skills development, in favour of the urban locale..
They were weakest on subtest 1 (based on a play, testing ability to infer/deduce meanings and
paraph~e) and strongest on subtest 2 (based on en anecdde, testing ability to listen for main
idea, topic and interpret speaker's tone). This could be because it is an urban schoo Clld the
students were more exposed.
4.2.4.4: Perforrnan~ on Subtests in Boys Day Schools (BO)
This category was represented by one urban school.
Table 4.35: Performance on test in Boys' Day schools (BO)
School Type N Test Mean SO Variance Range
U1-BD 23 1 4.13 1.39 1.94 5
2 3.87 2.55 6.48 10
3 4.39 1.7 2.89 6
Test total 12.39 4.21 17.7 18
A1thwgh the performance in this urban rural schod was above the LeT mean (11.73), it was not
high. They recorded low scores especially en the second subtest, which was based on an
anecdde and students were expected to respood using their 0Nr1 words. The urban boys day
school performed better than the rural boys' boarding schad on the test total as seen in Table
180
4.35 above (12.39 of 11.60 respectively). This sOONsthat the urbal awironment has a strong
and favourci:>leeffect on students' skill.
4.2.4.5:Perfonnance on subtests in Mixed Day and Boarding schools (MOB)
Data were cotaned fron four schods in this categay; both rural.
Tabl 4 36 Pert:e . . ormanceon In IX! 'BY a n~ sc.School n Test Mean SO V.-ialCe Range
R1-MOB 37 1 3.57 1.32 1.74 5
2 2.86 1.58 2.5 5
3 3.89 1.52 2.32 7
Test total 10.32 2.92 8.52 10
R4-MDB 33 1 4.15 1.42 2.03 6
2 3.15 1.76 3.08 8
3 3.40 1.54 2.36 6
Test total 10.70 2.6 6.75 11
R5-MDB 1 3.05 1.53 2.35 5
51 2 2.71 1.85 3.41 7
3 4.24 1.3 1.69 4
Test total 10 3.13 9.8 11
R8-MDB 40 1 3.95 1 1 4
2 3.6 2.35 5.52 8
3 4.4 1.64 2.67 7
Test total 11.95 3.36 11.31 12
test' M· ad D and Bo rdi hoofs (rural)
Average Performance for MDBschools:
Subtest 1= 3.68
Subtest 2= 3.08
Subtest 3= 3.98
Test total= 10.74
Results showed that mixed day and boarding schools performed dismally (Test total mear
10.74) with the worst performaice recorded on subtest 2 (Mean: 3.08). This is the subtest based
on an aiecdote and where students were expected to respond using their ONn words, sho.ving
their ability to listen fa main idea on tq>ic and interpret the speaker's intmtion. On all the three
subtests, students performed below the mean. This was observed to be particularly poor with a
rneai as low as 2.71. There was no difference in the performance of these schools on the LeT.
181
4.2.4.6: Performance on subtests in Mixed Day Schools (MD)
Data were obtained from four schools in this categay; two urban and two rural.
Table 4.31: Performance on test in Mixed Day schools
School n Test Mean SD Variance Range
U3-MO 32 1 3_53 1.31 1.71 5
2 2.11 1.49 2.21 6
3 4.74 1.45 2.09 6
Test total 10.37 3.22 10.36 11
U4-MD 34 1 3.552 r.s 2.26 7
2 3.9 2.17 4.69 7
3 4.33 1.32 1.73 4
Testlotal 11.76 3.14 9.89 12
R2-MD 30 1 3.31 2.21 4.9 8
2 3.15 2.27 5.14 8
3 3..62 1.56 2.42 5
Testtohi 10,08 5.24 2.74 19
R3-MD 21 1 2.38 1.33 1.76 5
2 2.85 2.27 5.14 8
3 3.38 1.39 1.92 5
Test total 8.62 2.06· ·4.26 7
Average performance for MDschools:
Subtest 1 ~ 3.19
Subtest 2 -3.00
Subtest 3 -4.02
Test total- 10.21
The mixed day scnods exhibited the lowest perfcrmance compared to all the other school types
(test total Mean~ 10.21) with the lowest performance recorded on subtesf 2 (Mean: 3.00) except
for one school-(U4-MD), all the mixed day schods did very poorly on subtest 2. This performance
was far below the mean, The lowest test totals were recorded in this schoo type: means of 10.08
\\ and 8.62 oot of a possible 30 marks from two rural schoofs. Only one mixed day school (U3-MD)
performed above the LeT subtest mean, with a meat of 4.74 CVld00 only ooe subtest (subtest
3). Tbe researcher found it interesting to see if there was a difference in the performa1ce of the
male and female students in mixed schools. Therefore, what follows below are the results of this
analysis.
182
4.2.4.6b: Comparison of Boys and Girls' Performance in Mixed Schools on the LCT.
Table 4.38 and figure 4.8 below shaN the mean perfonnanaJ of boys and girls in mixed schools.
This comparison was dale to find out the way the different gender compare 00 the listening
comprehension test in mixed schools. There were eight mixed schools.
Table 4.38: Mean Performance on the subtests and test total by Girls' and Boys in Mixed
Schools in Vihiga and Nairobi
School Mean on sublest 1 Mean on subtest 2 Mean on subtest 3 Mean on subtest
Total
Bovs Girls Bovs Giis Bovs Girls Bovs Gm
U3-MD 3.53 3.85 2.11 2.08 4.74 3.69 10.37 9.62
U4-MD 3.52 4.00 3.90 2.23 4.33 4.31 11.76 10.54
R1-MOB 3.57 3.56 2.86 3.67 3.89 3.33 10.32 10.56
R2-MD 3.31 2.82 3.15 2.12 3.62 3.47 10.08 8.41
R3-MD 2.28 3.13 2.85 1.38 3.38 2.25 8.62 6.76
R4-MOB 4.15 2.92 3.15 3.15 3.40 3.15 10.70 9.22
R!>-MDB 3.05 3.10 2.71 2.63 4.24 3.67 10.00 9.40
RB-MDB 3.95 3.75 3.60 4.70 4.40 4.25 11.95 12.70
Averaae 3.43 3.39 3.04 2.75 3.88 3.52 10.46 9.65
Number of gB1s= 123, Number of boys = 155
Fig. 4.8: Comparison of Boys and Girls' Mean performance on Subtest 1 in Nairobi and
Vlhiga Mixed schools
Comparison of Boys and Girls' Mean Score on Subtest 1 in Mixed schoooIs in
Nairobi and Vihiga Districts
5.------------------------------------
4+-~=-~~------------~~----~-----
I' 'f!)8 3 +--------------"'"~~."..,,~_-...•.---------en!i 2 -t--------------------------------::E
1+----------------------------------
O+--.---~--~--~-~--~--~--~--~
.~ ~ ~<o .jJ rP ~<o ~<o ~ ~.sr~ ~ ~ ~ <J:.~-~~~
School Type
I-+-Mem on subtest 1 Boys -Mean on subtest 1 Girts I
. EN~AnA UNWERS\ty L\BRARY'
\
'1I
.,
183
The statistics presented in Table 4.38 a1d figures 4.8 above reveal that the boys recorded better
mean scores than the girls (Mean for boys: 3.43; girls: 3.39) Q1 subtest one. In half of the
schools, the boys performed better than the girls and in half of the schools, the girls did better
than the boys. The difference in their performanoo was most apparent in the rural schOOs.
Fig 4.9: Comparison of Boys and Girls' Mean perfonnance on Subtest 2 in Nairobi and
Vihiga Mixed Schools
Comparison of Boys and Girts· Mean Score on Sub test 2 in Mixed Schools in Nairobi
and Vihiga
5~-------------------------------------------
4+-----~~------------------------~r_~~---
j 3
a~2+--A::==:=::::~------'~---.,L--------------
o+--~----~-~----~--~---~-~--~-~
U3-MO U4-UD Rt-MDB R2-MD R3-MD RS-IIDB RS-MDB R8-MDB Average
School Type
I-+-Mean on subtest2 Boys -Mean on subtest 2 Girls I
The statistics in TZ1e 4.38 a1d in Figure 4.9 above indicate that on subtest two, in five out of the
eight mixed sdlooIs, the boys did better than the girls. The difference on the mixed schools'
average score (Mean for boys: 3.04, girls: 2.75) was farly high and in favour of the boys.
184
Fig. 4.10: Comparison of Boys and Girls' Mean perfonnance on Subtest 3 in Nairobi and
Vihiga Mixed Schools
Comparison of Boys and Girls' Mean Score on Subtest 3 inMixed Schools in
Nairobi and Vihiga
5.------------------------------------------------,
i 3+-------------------~~----~~----------------~en
c~ 2+-----------------------------------------------~
1 +-----------------------------------------------~
O+-----r---~----_r----._----r_--~----_r----._--~
U3..••0 U4-MO Rf-MOB R2-MO R3-MD R5-MOB R6--MOB R8-MDB Average
School Type
I-+-Meanon subtest 3 Boys -Mean on subtest 3 Girls I
Fran Table 4.38 and figure 4.10, it is clear that the boys performed better thal the girls in all the
mixed schools, with notable a difference in the mixed schools' average soore (Meal for bats:
3.88; girls: 3.52) on subtest three in favoor of the boys.
185
Fig. 4.11: Comparison of Boys and GIrls' Mean performance on Test total in Nairobi and
Vihiga Mixed Schools
Comparisonof Boys and Girls' Mean Score on Sub test Total in M~ed Schools in
Nairobi and Vihiga
14
12 ».
10 ~ /---- / ~•.. <:-:>> -- •~ 80
~enc18 6~
4
2
0
U3-MO U4-MO R1·MOB R2·MO R3-MO R5-MOB R6-MOB R8-MOB Average
School Type
I-+-Mean on subtest Tolal Boys -Mean on subtest Total Girls I
Results show that the boys performed better than the girts in the mixed schools on the test total
(Mean of 10.46 for boys arxt 9.65 for girts). This difference was most evident in subtests 2 and 3.
All in all, in 6 out of the 8 mixed schools, the male studalts performed better than their female
counterparts. This means that mixed schools negatively affected girls more than boys in
performa1Ce00 listening oomprehensioo skills. And girls in mixed schools perfamed significanUy
differently from those in ooly-girls' schods. Only in two schools (R1-MDB & R8-MDB) did the girls
record a higher room soore than the boys'. These two schools had a boarding facility, but the
influence this may have had on the girls' performance was not explored.
4.2.4.79:.Summary Comparison of Performance by School type on Subtests and on Test
total in both districts
A summary of the performance on the different subtests by the different types of schools is given
below. first by a breakdown of the different schoa types in the two districts independEJltlyin a
summary table, then in hi~ograms showing performance by school type in general. It was fwnd
186
important to check rn hCNIthe diverse school types in the two different districts differed in their
performance on the subtests and test total. The results of this are presented in Table 4.39 and
4.40 ald Rgure4.12 and4.13 below.
Table 4.39: Mean Performance on Subtests by School type and in Urban District (Nairobi)
Mean Performance on subtests by school type in Urban district (Nairobi)
School Type n Test Mean
U3-MO & lJ4..MI) Sub Test 1 3.541
(MIXed Day) 66 Sub test 2 3.005
Sub test 3 4.535
Test Total 11.065
U1~ 23 Sub Test 1 4.13
(Boys day) Sub test 2 3.87
Sub test 3 4.39
Test total 12.39
U2-GD 24 Sub Test 1 3.83
(Go'day) Sub test 2 4.83
Sub test 3 4.17
TesttotaJ 12.83
U5-BB 38 Sub Teet 1 3.92
(Boys Boarding) Sub fest 2 6.00
Sub test 3 6.32
Test total 16.24
lJ6.GB 44 Sub Test 1 4.80
(Girls' Boanfing) Sub test 2 5.91
Sub test 3 6.20
Test total 16.91
Fig. 4.12: Mean performance on Sub tests by School Type in Urban district (Nairobi)
Mean perfoona1ce in sub test by Urban ScftooIs type
18~-------------------------------------- _
16 r----------------------------------t I-----M-
14 r------------------------------J t-----1
; 12i 10 +-----1 1-------1 I--------f I-------t 1-------19l 8 +-----4 1-------1
~ 6+-------1I'1--------f t-----I t--..........--f"'I--I--.-r--n--I
~ +~f"'f.·.Ha---, ...-f""1-:-I:.I-=tt=-",---I. Li--F----..J·· I--ftn--=:.=---f.l-:-I ='~ =: Rf -= :
!j 0; (f) j j j ai 0; j 0; ai 0; j j :sl! > > GI l! ~ ~< < t- o.a .a .a .a D .a D .a ::;:) :::J :::J :::J :::J ;:) .a :::J :::J :::J :::J :::J ~CI) CI) CI) CI) CI) CI) ;:) CI) CI) CI) CI) enen t-
Boys Day Girts'Day Mixed Day Girls'Boarding
School (s)Type
[]Mean
Boys Boarding
187
Results shown in table 4.39 and figure 4.12 above. NairOOi,mixed day schods recorded the
lowest meal scores 00 all the subtests (3.54 00 subtest 1, 3.005 00 subtest 2, and 4.535 00
subtest 3) and 11.065 on the test total. This was followed by the boys' day school, whose
paiorrmme was also weak. The gins' boarding school in NairOOirecorded the best scores 00
the sub tests (4.80 on subtest 1, 5.91 on subtest 2 and 6.20 00 sub test 3) ~d test total (16.91).
They also had the best mean score (4.80) on subtest 1, which; as indicated earlier, was based
on a dialogue ~d tested higher-order listening comprehension skills. Although the boys'
boarding schods did better on subtest 2 compared to the girls' boCi'dingschods (M~ of 6.00
and 5.91 respectively) a,d 3 (Mean of 6.32 and 6.20 respectively), this difference was minimal.
Table 4.40: Mean Performance on Subtests by School Type and in Rural District
Mean Performance in Sub tests by School Type in Rural district (Vihiga)
School Type n Test Mean
Sub Test 1 2.845
R2-MD & R3-MD (Mixed Day) 51 Sub test 2 3.0
Sub test 3 3.5
Ave. Test total 9.35
Sub Test 1 3.805
R6-GB& 68 Sub test 2 3.625
R7-GB (Girls' Boarding) Sub test 3 3.555
Ave. Test total 10.985
Sub Test 1 3.56
R9-BB 45 Sub test 2 3.93
(Boys Boarding) Sub test 3 4.11
Ave. Test total 11.60
Sub Test 1 3.68
RI-MDB. R4-MDB. R5-MDB & Sub test 2 4.0
R8-MOB 161 Sub test 3 3.01
(Mixed Day & Boarding) Ave. Test Total 12.36
,) .I . , t:
188
Fig. 4.13: Mean performance in Sub tests by School Type in Vihiga
Mean Performance in Sub tests by RuJal, Schools Type
14
12
i1:
t: 6i::!i! 4
2 lJ; ~~ k1.,. ~ 1~10
~ N C'?u; u; u;.!! .!! S-oD oD.0 ::::J :::J:::J en enen
. ,~+-------~~.~---------~----------f~ .~'::!I------V" 1-------1. :
[:1' r
+=~rr---;:~-------4tA~~~~-=~ I---~~~)~
t-f.~,t--tl'~'.H-H-ffi-h:,: . ;..::..•.-t~t!'.1-t,';'1-iWL'iI--tL~r-i~ ..~ ~I'>.o-- •.rr
N M Sj j .B
.Q .Q
~::::J ::::Jen en
iii
~
Mixed Day Boys BcsdingMixed Day & Boanfing Girls' Boarding
Type of School (8)
BMean
The results from Table 4.40 a1d figure 4.13 above indicate mean scores, which show that the
mixed day school in the rural district had the l(Mast performalCe (2.845 00 subtest 1, 3.00 in
subtest 2, 3.5 00 subtest 3 and 9.35 on the test total). The best performance on the test total was
that of the mixed day and boarding school, which had a mean of 12.30 a1d 3.68, 3.00 ald 3.50
on subtests 1. 2 and 3 respectively. However, the boys' boarding school, which was' second in
performance very well on subtest 3 with a mean score of 4.11. Table 4.41 a1d figure 4.14 below
provide a general summary of the perfonnmce in different school types on the whole LeT in the
two districts combined.
Table 4.41: Comparison of Performance in means by School Types on Subtests and test
total in both districts combined
SCHOOL TYPE
Girls Boys Girts' BoysOay MixedOay& Mixed
TEST Bo8'dina a_ding Day Bo8'dlng Day
Sub tsst1 4.14 3.74 3.83 4_13 3.68 3.19
Sub test 2 4.35 4.97 4.83 3_87 3.08 3_09
Sub test 3 4.44 5.22 4.17 4.39 3.98 4.02
Test total 12.93 13.93 12.83 12.39 10.74 10.30
189
Fig. 4.14: Comparison of Perfonnance in means by School Type on Subtests and Test
total In both districts combined
Mean petfonnance in Sub tests and Test Total by School Type in both cistricts
14~----------__~-----------------------------
r-12 +----1 1----1
i! 10 +----1 1----1
g 8 +-----1 t----j•••~ 6+----1 1-----, 1------1 1------1 1----1
ID r-:'- ~
~ ~}, I---==fl rl":'; Lf3t~r- H·'·'··· Lr:H.. Lrn."n.:-l{ ni.~. ~nL n ~L'I I I.F1O+L~~~~~~~~~~~~--~~~~~~~~~
,....
t------t t------r-r---------------
t------ir-t----r-r-
l-
I-
I-
Girls' Boarding Boys Beading Girls' Day Boys Day Mixed Day & Mixed Day
BocIlfing
School Type
InSub test 1 Sub lest 2 0 Subtest 3 [JTest total I
Generally, from the above data, it was evident that there was a difference in the performance by
school types. (The significance of these differences is reported later in this sectioo) It was also
apparent that boarding schods performed best followed (mean: 13.93 wt of 30) by the single
sex schools- these two variables; boarding and single sex, seem to undoubtedly positively
influence performance. The boys' boarding sd100I students performed best (mean: 13.93 wt of
30) tdlowed by the students in girls' boarding schools (mean: 12.93 oot of 30). Those in mixed
day schools had the poorest performance (meal: 10.30) followed by those in mixed day and
boarding schools (10.74), a soonario that has been discussed in this section. It appears that
single sex schaas encourage better listening whether the school is day or boarding. It is also
notable that girls in mixed schools in both districts pertonned poorer than the boys on the LeT.
(Whereas girls' test total meal in mixed schools in Nairobi was 10.08, the boys' was 11JJl see
table 4.30, a difference of 0.99 in Vihiga, the mean fa girls in mixed day schools was 9.51 while
boys' was 10.28, a difference of 0.77). In the following section, the results of the ANOVA fa the
various school types are presented.
J90
4.2.4.7b:Analysis of Variance in Performance on Subtests and Test Total by School Type
Analysis of varialce was done to determine whether there was a signifiCCl'ltdifference (in the
observed differences in students' performance above) by school type. This is described in the
tables belON.
Table 4.42: One WayAnalysis in Variance on MeanPerformance on sub tests and test
total b II Sch IT" Vih" d N" biIya 00 Iypes In I Igaan auo I.
By SCHOOl
One w~ Analysis of Variance TYPE
Variable SUB TEST 1 in Nairobi and Vihiga Distric1s
By Variable TYPE Type of School
Analysis of Variance
Source D.F Sum of Squares Mean Squares F Ratio F Probability
Between Groups ~ 62.7880 12.5576 ~.6980 .0000
Within Groups ~14 1132.7813 2.2039
Total ~19 1195.5692
One Way Analysis of Variance By SCHOOL TYPE
~ariable SUB TEST 2 in Nairobi and Vihiga Districts
By Variable TYPE Type of School
Analysis of Variance
F
Source D.F Sum of Squares Mean Squares FRatio Probability
Between Groups 5 428.4656 85.6931 18.4370 0.00סס
Within Groups 514 2389.0108 4.6479
Total 519 2817.4764
One Way Analysis of Variance By SCHOOL TYPE
Variable SUB TEST3 in Nairobi and Vlhiga Districts
By Variable TYPE Type of School
Analysis of Variance
.1
IF Ratio
F
Source D.F Sum of Squares Mean Squares Probability
Between Groups 5 122.2798 ~4.4560 8.5449 0.00סס
Within Groups ~14 1471.0971 2.8621
Irotal 519 1593.3769
One W~ Analysis of Variance By SCHOOL TYPE
Variable TEST TOTAL in Nairobi and Vihiga Districts
By Variable TYPE Type of School
Analysis of Variance
F
Source D.F Sum of Sauares Mean Squares Ratio Probability
Between Groups 51395.1207 279.0241 18.7618 0.00סס
Within Groups 514 7644.1673 14.8719
Total 519 9039.2880
191
The above statistics from ANOVA give a generaized compaisoo of performance of many groups
(schools). From the data in the tables above, it can be noted from the F probability that the
differences in the performance of different school types on the subtests and the test tota may
have been due to chance but significant at the 0.05 level. On sub test 1, there was a signifiCa1t
difference in performance by schad type in favoor of bo~ding schools and single sex schads (F
probability = .00סס and F ratio of 5.6980). The same scenaio was observed on subtests 2 and 3
and the test total. It can therefore be reported that peformaice on the listening comprehension
sub skills was highly influenced by the type of schod as seen in this and the earlier discussion
above.
4.2.4.7c: The t- tests for paired samples on Performance by School type on Subtests and
Test total
Further analysis was done to compare and determine the perfcxmance on the sub tests by pairs
of various school types using the t-tests for paired samples. Some were foond to be significant,
others were not. Because of the several pairs of schools invdved in the comp~isons, only the
results of some of the pairs of comparison of various school types found to correlate significantly
are reported below in table 4.43, and the tables shOWingthe computed values for those
relationships that were not found to be significant shown in Appendix 13. In Table 4.43, the
correlations, means, t - values and the significance of the same are indicated.
192
Table 4.43: Comparison of Perfonnance on the Different Sub tests by Different School
Types
No of Mean
v.;abIe Pairs r Mean SO Differencet-value df ~ISi Comment
Subtest 1
lWeak negative
GB ~.2883 1.765 signifuant
MD 111 1-0.110 3.3694 1.489 ~.9189 13.90 110 0.000 relationship
GB ~.1667 1.404 ~mal significant
GO ~4 -0.324 3.8333 1.274 1.333 13.00 ~ KUlO6 relationship
GB 14·2883 1.765 ISmai significant
MOB 111 ~.268 3.4234 1.372 /0.8649 14.74 110 ~.OOO relationship
Subtest 2
GO 14·8333 2.531 Smal significant
MO ~4 ~.329 2.4583 1.351 ~375 4.76 ~ 0.000 relationship
Aknostno
GB 4.6532 1.512 relationship but
MO 111 -0.043 2.6937 1.848 1.9595 6.49 110 0.000 signiflCallt
GB 6.6667 1.736 Weak signifICant
GO 24 ~.162 4.8333 2,531 1.8333 2.73 ~3 0.012 relationship
BB 6.7826 [2.235 Smal signifICant
SO 23 0.297 3.8696 2.546 12.9130 14.91 ~ 0.000 relationship
Farly strong and
BB ~.8810 2.164 significant
MOB ~ ~.473 2.8571 1.701 ~0238 ~.17 83 ~.OOO relationship
lAJthough no
relationship,
GB 4.6532 12·512 was
MOB 111 0.010 2.8018 1.726 1.8514 ~.43 110 ~.OOO significant
Strong and
GO 14·8333 12-531 !Significant
MOB 124 /0.714 3.6250 1.527 1.2083 ~.30 123 ~.OO3 elations hip
SubteSt 3
High 8
GB 7.500 0.780 ~ignificant
GO ~4 Kl.578 14.1667 1.736 ~.3333 11.38 ~ 0.000 elationship
Almost none
~nd negative,BB 7.2609 /0.964 significant
SO 23 -0.065 4.3913 1.699 12.8696 6.86 ~ 0.000 relationshipBB 5.0952 1.821 Sma. signitican
MOB ~ 0.259 3.5238 1.501 1.5714 7.07 83 /0.000 relationship
GB ~.6486 1.948 [Weak signitican
MOB 111 0.219 3.6757 1.502 0.9730 14.69 110 0.000 relationship
The results fron the table above show that the girls' boarding schools performed significantly
differently from the mixed day schools rn subtest 1. There was a weak CIld negative but
significant correlati<Xl(r = -0.110) at .05 level in favour of the girls' boarding schools, meaning
that they varied rn their canpetence <Xlthe skills of drawing inferences, inferring meanings of
unfcmilicr words, predicting outcomes and paraphrasing. On the sane test, girls' boarding
193
schools showed a very small and negative but significalt correlatioo with the girls' day schools
(r= -0.324) at 0.05 level in favoor of the girls' boarding schools. Girls' boarding schaas and
mixed day and boarding schools showed a small but significant correlation (r = 0.268) at 0.05
level in favour of the famer.
On subtest two, performance also varied by school type. The girls' day schools, for example,
when compared with the mixed day schools, showed a significant (at 0.05 level) but small
correlation (r = 0.329). On the same test, a comparisoo between girls' boarding and mixed day
schools indicated a minimal negative but significant correlation (r = 0.043) in favour of the girls'
day schools. A comparison of performance by boys' boarding schools and boys' day schools on
this subtest showed a small (r = 0.297) but significant correlation in favour of the boys' boarding
schools. There was a fairly strong and significant correlation (r = 0.473) in the performance of
boys' boarding and mixed day and boarding on subtest 2, in favoor of boy's boarding schools. It
was not however foond out whether the boarding students in the same mixed day and boarding
(MOB) schools performed better than their day counterparts of the same schools-or if the day
students influenced the schools low scores. There was almost none, but significant (at .05 level)
correlation (r = 0.010) between performance of girls' boarding and mixed day ~ boarding
schools in favour of the former, on this subtest. A very strong and significant correlation was also
found in the performance of girls' day and mixed day and boarding schods in favoor of the girls'
day schools. Uke in an earlier comparison, it was not estciJlished whether the day or boarding
students in the mixed day and boarding schools influenced these scores. Results showed that
single sex schools had better listening proficiency than the mixed schools.
On subtest three, there was a signifiCa'lt correlatioo (r = 0.578) at 0.05 level in the perfamance
of girls' boarding and girls day schools in favour of the latter. There was also a significant but
194
weak correlation (r = 0.259) in the performance of boys' boarding and mixed day CIld boarding
schools on the same test in favour of the former. An even weaker relationship (r = -0.065) existed
among the boys' boarding and boys' day schools. in favour of the former on sub test 3. On the
same sub test. the correlation among girls' boarding schools atd mixed day and boarding
schools was found to be significCllt but low (r = 0.219).
Generally therefore. there were glaring differences in the performance of boarding schools and
day schools and between mixed schools and single schools on the listening comprehensiontest.
The boarding schools for instance performed significantly better thCll the day schools, and the
single sex schools performed significantly better than the mixed schools on the entire LCT.
Generally. there was a significant relationship between girls' boarding and girls' day schools on
all the listening comprehension subtests and there was no significa1t relationship between boys'
boarding and girls' boarding schools in performance on all the LCTs. Students therefore
displayed varied competencies on the various sub skills of listening comprehension.
Other observations were noted about high but insignificant correlations among different schools'
performance. The tables showing the- computed values for these relationships ~e shown in
Appendix 13. The following section presents results from questionnaires with the teachers of
English
4.3: Findings from the Questionnaire
The questionnaire was used to check for bio data and teachers' views about various issues
pertaining.. to the teaching of the listening skills in general and listening comprehension in
paiicular. Questions aso sought to find out from teachers. the nature of the listening
comprehension practicesl exercises used (if Cily) in their form three classes Cild the syllabus
195
coverage of this skill. The questionnaire also shed light on the factors affecting the listening
comprehension cDility of learners and the teaching of listening. Teachers' views were mealt to
support the test data presented above. Data from this instrument WfXe presented throogh
desaiptive statistics. The nineteen questionnaire items were talied and coded (for open- ended
questions) for presentation throogh frequenCj distribution and percentage tables. The first
section of the questionnaire sought background information of the respondent aid the second
section sought information on the teaching of listening comprehensionin English.
Further insights were obtained from interviews with the heads of English in the sample schools
and the K.l.E head of English. These are presented in this section immediately after the
presentation of the questionnaire findings.
4.3.1 Teachers' background information
Age: Age was found to be important because it also has a bearing on a teacher's experience
and possibly, performance. It was found that most of the teachfXs WfXeaged between 26 and 35
years with 45.71% of this number in Vihiga and 45.67% in Nairobi.
Teacher Qualifications: It was also found that most of the teachers of English in Nairobi
(66.67%) had Bachelor of Education qualifications, while only 42.86% of the teachers in Vihiga
had the same. A relatively large percentage (37.14%) of teachers in Vihiga had a Diploma in
Education, while in Nairooi, 33.3JOk of the teachers had a Diploma in Education hdders.
Significant to the study was the fact that some of the teachers (17.14% or 6 out of 35) teaching
English in Vihiga district were untrained. This may contribute to teachfXs' performance in
teaching English and by extension, listening comprehension.
196
/--../
Teaching Subjects trained for: It was d:>servedthat the m~ority of teachers currently teaching
English in both districts trained to teach English I~guage ~d literature in English (62.86 % a 14
out of 21and 66.67% a 21 out of 35 in Vihiga ~d Nairobi respectively). In Vihiga disbict, 37.14%
or 13 out of 35 of the teachers trained for Uterature in English ~d another subject, other than
English, while 33.33% or 7 out of 21 of the teachers in Nairobi trained for Uterature in English
and another subject. Such subjects included eRE, History, Physical Educatioo, Kiswcilili and
Geography.
Teaching Experience: It was found that most of the teachers in Vihiga district had taught for
between 0-5 ye<rs (45.71%) and 10-15 years (31.43%), while those in Naircbi had their most
teaching experience between 5 and 15 years (66.90). If long service had a be~ng on a
teacher's experience then, Narooi had the more experienced teachers, compared to Vihiga. The
fact that students in Vihiga district performed poorer than Nairobi students could be attributed to
this Iack of experienced teachers.
Involvement in Syllabus Development and Review: None of the teachers in both districts in
the sample schools had fNer been involved in the exercise. This was a pointer to teachers'
contribution to what they teach in schools. They simply implemented curriculum
recommendations.
4.3.2 Information on the Teaching of Listening Comprehension in English
Sectioo B of the questionnaire looked at the sample teachers' responses on the teaching of
listening comprehension in English. It was found that 17 out of 35 teachers (48.57%) and 10 out
of 21 (47.62%) in Vihiga and Nairobi respectively spent aboot 10 minutes on listening exercises.
Most of the students appeared to enjoy English lessons according to the teachers in both
districts.
197
The researcher also sought opinion on whether the syllabus of English gave enough emphasis
on listening canprehension exercises. Most te<rl1ers (62.86% a 22 out of 35 and 80.95% 19 oot
of 21 in Vihiga and Nairobi respectively) thought that little emphasis was giverl to listening
exercises. However. a significant number (13 out of 35 a 'Sl.14%) from Vihiga thought that there
was enough emphasis.
On the rating of students' quality of classroom listening in general. the majority of teachers in
both districts rated them as 'modesf (62.86% or 22 out of 35 and 66.67% or 22 out of 35 in
Vihiga and Nairobi respectively). A significant number of teachers in Vihiga district (9 out of 35)
rated their students' quality of listening "/imitecf. while a significa1t number of teachers in Nairobi
(5 out of 21) rated theirs to be "competenr.
4.3.2.1: Factors that teachers think affect Students' Listening Ability
The factors teachers observed to affect students' listening ability in both districts in the sample
schools were fairly similar. Responses on open- ended questions were summarized. coded and
grouped into seven response categories from the most cited to the least cited: Students' attitude
and disposition. Language, Physical, Teadler's approach and methods, Content! listening
material, others. No canments. Table 4.44 beiONshows a summary of the factors that affect the
listening ability of students according to the sample teachers from the two districts. The
explanation given by the teachers about the above factors is given after the table.
198
Table 4.44: Factors that teachers perceive to affect Students' Listening Ability
Category Category No. of Vihiga teachers No. d Nairobi Total %
code mentioning category teachers mentioning
category
1 Students attitude and 23 18 41 73.21
disposition
2 lan!Wage 16 8 24 42.86
3 Physical 9 4 13 23.21
4 Teachers' approach and 3 7 10 17.86
method
5 ContenV listening 8 1 9 16.07
Materials
6 Other 10 7 17 30.36
7 No comments 2 3 5 8.93
N=56
Students' attitude and disposition
Most of the teachers (41 out of 56 or 73.21%) cited this as a major factor that affects students'
listening abitity. It was noted that students lacked total concentration and general interest in
learning-their attention span was said to be also very short. Their classroom attention was mostly
characterised by absent-mindedness and lack of seriousness during reading and listening
comprehension classes. Daydreaming, dozing and boredom were common during such lessons
possibly due to home and personal problems. Many students were also said to display a lot of
impatience even during the short listening exercises.
It was also observed that a few students seemed to have hearing problems due to 'drsability and
temporal illness. The teachers also observed that the number of times the students got involved
in listening exercises was limited, therefore, they lacked the necessary exposure and practice
especially in speaking arid listening to continuous flow of English language speech.
Language:
Teachers (16 out of 35 in Vihiga and 8 out of 21 in Nairobi district) reported of their students'
limited vocabuhry, problems in spelling, and little exposure to the spoken lW1guage.Most of the
students in the Vihiga sample schools were said to speak in their vernacular most of the time.
Teachers in the sample schools in Nairobi also mentioned the above factors in addition to
199
pronundciion proo/ems and poor command of the English language (poor proficiency in English).
The above factors were said to have a bearing on learners' listening ci:>ility in the ta-get
language.
Physical:
This refers to externa factors that affect students' listening ability. A few (13 out of 56) teachers
reported that some classes in sane sample schools were not separated with a ceiling; therefore,
noise from one classroom affected the learning (and therefore, listening) session of another. In
some, students sat fa- from the teacher aid therefore did not 'hea' well. For those schools near
the road, moving vehides distracted listening exercises- this was more so in Vihiga (Nairobi
students seemed to be used to it). Students' listening seemed also to be influenced by
interruptions by visitors to the school.
Teacher's Method Approach:
A few (10 out of 56) respondents showed that sane teachers had no ability to arouse students'
interest especially in listening (they assumed that students listened automatically). Some
teachers aso had a tendency to give long, boring lessons without regard to students' ctfenfion
span in listening- these same teachers spoke in a monotone that did not attract active listening.
It was also observed that the teachers' own language was prohibitive to good listening; they
sometimes used higher levels of vocabulary and their speeds of speaking and reading were
sometimes too fast or too slow for the average student. Some teachers' pronl.H1ciationwas too
sophisticcied or overly influenced by mother tongue (hence difficult to decode).
ContentJ listening materials:
It was noted by 9 out of 56 (16.07%) of the teachers that students' attitude was dependent on the
topic and content. A had passage, whose vocabulary WtE difficult aid canplex and content was
200
baing and removed from student's experiooces did not attract students' listening. They tended to
'switch otr if the topic was uninteresting and they didn't comprehend it.
Other Factors:
Other factas that teachers found to have a negative effect 00 students' listening were lack of
teaching aids such as audiocassettes that student would listen to and practice listening. Some of
the teachers in the Nairobi sample who commented on this issue said that the time allocated to
listening exercises was inadequcie. There were very few listening comprehension exercises in
the textbook in use. More emphasis was placed on silent reading rather than on listening
comprehension. A notable factor was also that students Wfre slow in writing what they listened
to, hence dragging the lesson (the teachers therefore gci impciient with listening activities), This
also went hand in hand with the students' inability to comprehend fellow students' pronunciciion
during listening exercises. Although two respondents from Nairobi said that their students were
competent listeners, this was not caroborated by the test results.
4.3.2.2: Topic areas that appeared to involve more students' listening ability
Table 4.45 below shows the rating done by teachers in the sanple schools on topics that
appeared to involve most student listening ability.
Table 4.45: Teachers' Rating of topics that involved students' listening Ability most
No. of Vihiga teachers choosing r No. of Nairobi teachers choosing
topic topic
Topic Frequency Percentage Rank FreQuencv Percentage Rank
Pronunciation drib 19 54.29 5 15 71.43 1
Poetry 21 60 2 13 61.90 2
Reading prose passage 27 77.14 1 12 57.14 3
Oral cri forms 20 57.14 3 9 42.86 4
Grammatical structures 6 17.14 8 5 23.81 5
Vocabulary 8 22.86 6 5 23.81 5
The play 8 22.86 6 5 23.81 5
Summary 21 60 2 4 19.05 8
Can position 1 2.86 9 2 9.52 9
R
201
Fran the table above, it was coserved that in both districts, pronLf1Ciatioo, reCKiing prose
passages and podry topics appeared to enlist student's listening most. Ora art forms seemed to
be more popular with the rural (Vihiga) students. They were therefore more likely to enjoy the
listening material referred to in the oonteot analysis on the gods and the reference to oral arts
(see sectioo 4.1.2 above 00 • A Prayer by Muntu ald his children for Odomankoma's
protection"). Grammatical structure, vocabulary, the play a1d compositioo did not seem to appeal
to students of both districts, except for summary that was significantly and distinctly appealing to
Vihiga students (60% or 21 out of 35 of Vihiga and 19.05% or 4 oet of 21 in Nairobi). The
compositioo seemed to be most unpopular for students to listen to.
4.3.2.3: Activities Teachers do to Sustain Listening In the Classroom
It was also foond important to know what teachers did with regard to their knowledge about what
areas really elicited students' listening most (from the preceding item). Responses to what
teachers did to sustain listening in class were solicited through an open-ended question and
these were many and varied. They were listed, summarized and categorized from all the 56
respondents from the 2 districts and rated according to their frequency of occurrence. Only three
respondents had no conrnents. In total, 119' responses were received and were assigned to 9
categories. These are summarized in Table 4.46 below.
Table 4.46: Things Teachers do to Sustain Listening In the Classroom
Category No of teachers suggesting Percentage
activity Cn= 56)
a Student activities 36 64.29
b IAppeafing topics 14 25
c Voice variation 14 25
d Teacherfriendship 14 25
e Non-verbal cues 13 23.21
f] Questions 9 16.07
g Methods 6 10.71
h Others 13 23.21
ij No comments 3 5.36
202
Of the nine categaies, three were identified as major, namely; teacher-oriented (T.O), student-
oriented (S.O) and content and method oriented (C.M.O). It was foond that while teachers said
they mooe efforts to use student adivities, they also involved themselves in strategies that w«e
mainly teacher oriented, that is, use of verbal ct7d noo- verbcJ cues and voice variatioo,
friendship and questions. Although, many teachers (36 art of 56 or 64.29% of the respoodents)
said they used many student involvement exercises! activities, teacher-oriented ootivities
seemed to reign. Below is a detailed discussion of the ootivitiesltasks that the 56 sample
teachers said they did.
a) Students' involvement in activities (Student Oriented)
Many teachers from both districts (36 out of 56 or 64.29%) said that they encouragedstudents'
active participation throogh ootivities such as reading exercises where they were randomly
assigned to read as others listened, follaNed by discussion. Story telling and dialoguing as
students answered questions in written after a listening exercise were also suggested. They also
engaged in vocabulCN}'exercises where students picked out difficult words from an episode
listened to: pronunciation skills, spelling exercises and didciion. Other ootivities suggested were
assigning students topics to research on and present verbally in dass through short, oral
competitions. In general, teachers said that writing, speaking, listening and reading were all
usually interchanged in a classroom discourse, and most of them, awareness of active listening
was created among students.
b) Appeal! relevance of topic. (Content and Method Oriented)
Teachers said that they used items! topics that were interesting to learners. These were usually
relatively easy and captivating, brief, contemporary and relevant to students' lives. They
suggested that listening materials should contain manageable vocabulcry fa students' levels,
and that they should be introduced to them in a familiar manner, that is, what they can associate
with, for example, telephone, conversations between classmates, anecdotes. Only the Vihiga
fj- iv
~ • f
203
district teachers suggested orcJ literature, which tallies with what the same teachers said was
one of the tq>ics that elicited most listening from their students.
c) Voice variation and verbal cues (Teacher oriented)
Teachers said that they did variation in pitch of voice; tone, peoe and loudness of voice so that
students could cope and interest can be created. Clcrity of voice and expressive reading on the
pert of the teachers were also called for. It was also found that teachers used such verbal cues
as "listen', "look here', "I expect you to" and repetition and asked students to be ready with the
book and pen a1d called out the nanes of the less attentive students.
Teacher Friendship (Teacher Oriented)
It was reported that the teachers tried to be friendly and also listened to their students; that is, by
giving an example of good listening. They created a conducive atmosphere fcr listening;
motivated learners verbally, and helped them improve their attitude towards English and listening
skills. The teachers also created aid held light-hearted jokes during discussion when attention
spal started to dwindle. Use of comic effects in stories that were relevant and interesting was
also suggested.
Use of non-verbal cues (Teacher Oriented)
Teachers' personal demeanour was deemed vital: - moving around the class as reading goes on,
use of gestures, facial expressions maintaining eye contact, pausing, banging the table and
moving dose to students were some of the best ways used to sustain listening.
Questioning (Teacher Oriented)
Teachers said they used mainly oral questions through probing and dictating. Such questions
were answered after reading prose passages.
Methods (Teacher Oriented)
The use of group work, demonstration, stay telling, arld group presentations were sane of the
suggested methods of sustaining listening. It was further suggested that use of teaching ads
204
such as pictures, audio progrcmmes and television woold be useful.
Others (Teacher Oriented)
Other things done included a change in physicci oonditions of the classes such as
soundproofing; or during listening comprehension lessons, the teacher tTKJiedclass to the school
hril away from noise! distractions. The teachers also said they attached most importance on the
excmination (which did not test listening skills). Class control, silence, and reward for good
achievement were also seen to also encourage listening.
4.3.2.4: Teachers' Suggestions on Ways of Improving Students' Listening Comprehension
Several ways were suggested for improving listening comprehension proficiency. These were
collated, summarized and categorized with their frequency of occurrence. There were two non-
responses from the 56 respondents from both districts. From table 4.47 below, it can be
observed that less than half of the teachers (22 out of 56 or 39.29%) suggested more student
involvement. Although this corroborated what teachers said they did to sustain listening in class,
it also showed that there was inconsistency in teachers' perception as what they did to sustain
attention in listening was mainly teacher-orientoo (from the previous item discussed above). They
suggested that this could be followed by more use of media -which is little used- (37.5%), chCJ1ge
of methods (33.39%) and provision of more time (30.36%).
Table 4.47: Ways Suggested by Teachers on Improving Listening Comprehension
Category No suggesting category Percentage
(n=56)-
a Practice and student exercises 22 39.29
b Media use 21 37.5
c Methodoloqy 19 33.93
d More tine 17 30.36
e Better istening content 14 25
fl Examination 9 16".07
Q lMQUage ooicv 6 10.71
.h Other 5 8.93
i) No response 2 3.57
The above categories are discussed below.
205
a) Practice and more Student Exercises
The teachers suggested that there should be more inferadive listening where students listen to
each other and the teacher to listen to them too as they speak. There should be more student-
involved exercises that are leerner centred aid students encouraged to take their own notes.
Students could also be trained through inferring meanings from spoken words in teachers' or
peers' sentences, listening comprehension passages and practising correct pronunciation
constantly through debcies, speech drills and speech competitions.
b) Media use.
Most teachers suggested use of a variety of resources such as audio-media(radio programmes,
tape recordings, recorded passages, news etc.), publications of books on listening
comprehension, use of flashy print media for example, features in newspapers which are
interesting, audio-visual aids such as video and Television, whiclt.shouId cover all aspects of
English as a subject.
c) Methodology.
Teachers suggested improvement on methods currently used by most teachers. They were of
the view that a variation was needed for instance through story telling in dass, listening
comprehension competitions rewarding winners, role playing by students guided by the teacher,
simplified questioning and note taking. It was also suggested that the teacher could give a
speech followed by questioos to the class. Frequent dass discussions aimed at sdiciting
listening were also suggested.
d) Time.
It was suggested that listening comprehensioo exercises be done more frequently through
al1098lionof more time to especially literature lessons to allow more reading aloud of poemsetc.
There was also the suggestion for the need to sepCl'ate language and literature fa fair
distribution of time. To create more time, it was suggested that some of the content in English
20f>
IOO5oosbe reduced (sum as study skills) in ader to aeate time for listening oomprehension
during some lessons. Ustening oomprehension topics, it was suggested, shoold appear in every
unit of the course book.
e) Better listening Content
It was noted that relevant and interesting passages that can promote listening be chosen.
Teachers recommended starting with simple and short passages in form one and two, and
develop to longer, complex ones in form 3 and 4. Content familiar to students, such as their cmn
compositions and written factual material was recommended for use too.
t) Assessment and Examination.
Only a few teachers (9 out of 56 or 16.07%) se« a need to include listening comprehension in
the national examinations and even school tests and examinations.
g) language Use.
Teachers suggested that students needed to be encouraged on the ooreot use of English
through discussion as a good way of improving listening comprehension. Learners needed to be
more and more exposed to spoken language even in the classroom situatioo.
h) Others.
A ffm (5 out of 56) teachers suggested that they needed to be trained specially ta. teaching the
listening skills since they Wele never trained in listening in the same way it was done with the
othel language skills. This could be done through seminars.
It is worth noting that most of what teachers said they actually did to help sustain listening in their
classes corroborated what they suggested as ways of improving listening comprehension.
207
4.3.2.5: Sources of listening tasks used to develop Students listening comprehension
skills.
Table 4.48 belC7NshC7NSthe sources of listooing tasks used by teachers of English language
lessons.
Table 4.48: Sources of Listening Tasks used by Teachers in the Two Districts
Tasks Vihiga (n=3!~ Nairobi (1F21
Frequency Parcentage Rank Frequency percentage Rank
Language Course book 30 87.71 1 19 90.48 1
Literature set-books 15 42.86 4 14 66.67 2
Other subjects 3 8.57 5 4 19.05 5
Studen1s' conversations 16 45.71 3 11 52.38 4
Tecdler's speech 18 51.43 2 13 61.90 3
It is evident from the tabfe above that the main source of listening tasks for the majority (30 out of
35 [87.71%] and 19 out of 21 [90.48%) in Vihiga and Nairobi respectively) of teachers was the
Integrcied English Book course book, The teacher's spoken discourse, literature set books and
students' conversations were also used to a large extent. The fact that literature set books were
seen to be a good source of listening tasks by a good number of teachers is contradictory data
because the same teachers recommended elsewhere that the teaching of language and
literature should be done separately. Other subjects in the curriculum were not used by most
teachers as possible resources for developing listening comprehension (only 7 out of 56 or
27.62% indicated that they used them) - an indiccior that language was not used across the
curriculum a1d teachers were not creciive enough to get plenty of listening material but over
relied on the course book.
The suggested sources do not tally with what the teachers suggested they preferred to do in
ord~ to improve the listening oomprehension skills of students. They said they used the
language course book, yet on an earlier item (section 4.3.2.4 - Teacher's suggestions on ways
of improving students listening oomprehension), they did not make ••••y rneotkn of the use of
-./--
208
textbooks - a oontradictioo. Many tead1ers (27 out of 56) however said their major source of
listening tasks was students' conversations, which was in line with what they suggested should
be done to improve listening canprehension.
4.3.2.6: Type of Materials used by Teachers to Assess Studenfs Listening
Comprehension Ability (other than the written passage)
Table 4.49 below shows the type of materias used by teachers to assess their students' listening
comprehension abilities other than the suggested written passages. Teachers revealed that
mostly used poems to test listening comprehension (20 out of 35 or 57.14% in Vihiga and 16 out
of 21 or 76.19% in Narool). Stories, conversations and speech drills were almost equally rated.
Use of stories was not popular with the Nairobi teachers, as they rated them lowest, probably, a
pointer to their learners' preferences..
Table 4.49: Types of Materials Used to Assess the Listening Comprehension Ability of
Students
Listening materials Vihiga (n= 35) Nairobi (n = 21)
Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage
Poems 20 57.14 16 76.19
Stories 19 54.29 11 52.38
Conversations 18 51.43 15 71.43
Speech drills 16 45.71 12 57.14
Others 6 17.14 3 14.29
Other materials used by the teachers were songs that featured in the Sunday Young Nation
neYIspaper (Nairobi teachers), use of educative films, recorded tapes, student impromptu
speeches, news items from neYIspaperor radio bulletins, dialogues extracted from plays, riddles
and tongue twisters. They also analysed advertisements on radio and television after listening
and they also had students read their compositions in class as others listened.
209
4.3.2.7: Rating of Skills Considered Most Important for Students' Academic
Communicative Ability.
The resea-cher also sooght to know what skills the teachers of English in the two districts
thought were most important for developing students' academic communicative ability. The ranks
of the skills were found by rerording the number of tecdlers who rated eech skill as 1, 2, 3 or 4
and then the mean position for each skill calculated. This was done for both districts separately.
Table 4.50 below shows the teacher's responses.
Table 4.50: Rating of the Skills considered Most Important for Students' Academic
Communicative Ability by teachers
Vihiga Nairobi
No of teachers rating skill as position (n--35) No of teachers rating skill as position (n=21)
Skill 1 2 3 4 Rank 1 2 3 4 Rank
Reading 5 9 14 6 3 2 4 11 4 3
Writing 0 6 5 21 4 0 0 7 13 4
Listening 14 5 11 4 2 9 8 1 1 1
Speaking 14 13 3 2 1 9 7 1 2 2
No Response 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1
There were three non- responses. The listening and speaking skills were ranked by the teachers
as most important for developing students' academic communicative ability. While only half of the
teachers in Vihiga found the listening skill important, the majority (17 out of 21) of the Nairobi
teachers rated it very highly. Less than half (14 out of 35) of the Vihiga teachers rated the
speaking skills very highly. The writing skill was ranked last. This shows awareness by teachers,
about the importance of the listening skill, especially in helping to crllieve what the syllabus of
English for seconday schad stipulates. This finding oontradicts teachers' own assertion that they
taught the English language skills heavily relying on the course book, which was found to be
inadequate in providing for the listening skills. The teachers themselves also confessed to using
mainly the speech drills from the sad course book (see communicative activities below); an
indicator that in as much as they recognised the importance of the listening skill, they did nothing
to augment it.
UL
210
4.3.2.8: Evidence of Students' listening difficulty
Teachers from the sanple schools were asked to show evidence that students had difficulties in
listening. They were required to respond to four options and give any aher evidence they
observed. The results are shown in Table 4.51 below.
Table 4.51: Evidence of students'listening difficulty
Indicator Vihiga Nairobi
No. of teachers rating indicator as: No. of teachers rating indicator as:
1 2 3 4 Ave. rank 1 2 3 4 Ave.
rank
Fa~ingon a text 7 5 0 20 3 1 6 3 9
Fa~ingon oral questions 15 8 6 4 1 9 3 2 0 2
Type of student questions 5 15 8 6 2 5 8 5 2 1
Students' comments 7 4 19 3 4 0 3 9 8 4
From the table above, failing on oral questions seemed to be the greatest indicator that students
had difficulty in listening (15 (42.86%) and 9 (42.860k)of the Vihiga and Nairobi teachers,
respectively indicated so). This was followed by the type of questions students asked. In both
districts, students' comments were the least indicator, showing that students' direct involvement
in classroom tcik was actually limited to asking and answering questions. This showed that
communicative activities in class did not involve conversation. This fact was supported by earlier
responses (sections 4.3.2.5 and 4.3.2.6) where teachers indicated that they. rarely used
conversciions as an activity to develop listening skills. The materials they manly depended on
were the course books, poems and stories (see section 4.3.2.6). No wonder teachers suggested
more student involvement and practice as ways of improving Ustening Comprehension (section
4.3.2.3). On an earlier question (section 4.3.2.2), it was olea that activities that called upon
students' conversation were rated poorly in the activities teachers thought involved more student
listening ability (aal art tams, the play etc). It was observed that students tended to pick the
wrong words fron a teacher's speech probably due to pea pronunciation or students' (]Nn
pronunciations and listening skills and therefore, this limited their charoes of engaging in fruitful
discoorse with the teacher in the classroom.
211
4.3.2.9: Measures taken by Teachers against the Difficulties experienced in Listening by
students
The respooses of the 56 teachers fran the sample schools in the two districts were rated
acoording to their frequency of being mentioned. In total, 124 respooses were received and were
put in five categories, that is, Communicative Activities, Evaluatioo, Remediall Repetition,
Teachers Motivation, and Others. There were nine non- responses (3 from Nairooi and 6 fran
Vihiga). Table 4.52 below shows the measures taken by the teachers to ensure that students had
no difficulty in listening.
Table 4.52: Measures taken by teachers against the difficulties in Listening by Students in
Vihiga and Nairobi
Category F~uen~ Percentage %
Communicative Activities 40 71.43
Teachers' Motivation 36 64.29
Evaluation 19 39.29
Remedial 15 26.76
Others 14 25.00
No Response 9 16.71
N=56
Communicative Activities
The majority (40 out of 56 or 71.43%) of the teachers in the sample schools generally confirmed
that they tried to make listening activities interesting through reading cioud of passages, plays,
and poems and through speech work (pronunciation). Other activities mentioned include
debates, guided open discussions (for self expression) and C17sWeringquestions either ora/ly or
in written. The students were allowed to choose their own topics for discussion CI'ldfor talking to
one CI'lother about. This enabled them to consult one another and therefore ensure proper
corwersciional skills and to censure their own listening abilities. Some teachers said they tool<
their students for discussions with neighbouring schools where students got the opportunity to
talk aboot various issues in English Language and Uterature. Some used audio media such as
radio and tape recorders but confessed that this was however done to a very limited extent.
212
Otherwise most teachers confessed to using only the speech drills kxnd in the Integrated
English Language coorse book, which were very few as seen ci>ovein Table 4.50.
Motivation by Teachers
This included drawing and sustaining the attention of students. Most teachers (64.29% or 36 out
of 56) indicated that they gave students cues to listen carefully, be attentive and encouraged
learners to speak up even when they had proolems with their pronunciation. Some teachers said
they made students aware of haN important listening was by encouraging a competitive spirit
and avoiding extraneous activities in class that would interfere with students' ability to listen with
understanding. The teachers held that they also inspired self-confidence by giving the students
positive comments and discouraging those who laughed at peers who made proounciation
mistakes. They also thought that they paid extra attention to ·victims· by finding out their
problems and oorrecting them.
Evaluation
Over thirty-nine percent of the teachers indicated that they used various evaluation procedures to
eliminate difficulties in listening COIllprehension. These were on-going classroom activities and
tests. The former included posing a number of questions to prompt a discussion that elicits
listening. The teachers also encouraged students to ask questions during and after lessons and
these were also answered by the teacher. Oral probing questions to be answered orally in class
were also used by the teacher. Only one of these teachers said that she occasionally gave oral
tests. Repetition of words, phrases and exercises was done several times to ensure proper
listening.
Remedial
A fem of the teachers (15 out of 56 or 26.76%) reported that they engaged in thorough revision
after tests to increase the students' level of listening. The teacl1ers also said they re-cid work that
was already covered in a lesson and tad< necessary steps depending 00 the comments fnm
213
students. They also made sure that the topic was fully grasped before moving to the next
material in ader to ensure that students had no difficulty in listening. The teachers mentioned no
specific remedia activity that would promote listening skills.
Other Measures
Other measures cited by the teachers included provision of more time for listening so that
students coold listen more and therefore better. Only 2 out of 56 teachers, a negligible number,
said they also trained students to listen selectively and actively, emphasizing the importance of
careful listening. They reported that they also trained them to read aloud as others listened~A
number (10 out of 56 a 17.85%) of the teachers strongly indicated that teachers' own
pronunciciion and general speech needed to be clear and articulate to make the subject matfeF;.;-;
understood.
4.3.2.10: What should be done about the future of the Listening Comprehension Skill?
Responses to this question were sought through a closed- ended item where teachers in the
sample schools indicated in order of importance, suggestions about the future of the skill of
listening comprehension, that is, the way faward. The number of teachers ranking each of the
actions on a 5-point scale (1-5) in descending order of importance was worked out. Those who
ranked an action 1 showed they rated it as the most important while those who ranked it 5 found
the action least important regarding the future of the listening comprehension skills. Table 4.53
below is a summary showing the "moor to the "Ieasr important actions to be taken, according to
the teachers in the sample schods.
214
Table 4.53: Rating of actions to be taken about the future of the Listening Comprehension
Skill
Vihiga (n=35) Nairobi (n=21)
No of teachers ranking action as: No of teachers ranking action as:
Action 1 2 3 4 5 Rank 1 2 3 4 5 Rank
More istening Freq. 12 11 6 3 1 11 4 2 2 1 1
comprehension % 34.3 31.4 17.1 8.6 2.9 52.3 19.1 9.5 9.5 4.8exercises in the 1
syllabus
More time for Freq. 7 4 12 5 0 3 9 6 2 0 2
listening % 20 11.4 34.3 14.3 0 3 14.3 42.9 28.6 9.5 0comprehension
~ taught only Freq. 0 0 3 8 24 1 1 2 5 11 5
by teachers of % 0 0 8.6 22.9 68.6 4.8 4.8 9.5 23.8 52.4English 5
Be taught Freq. 9 8 8 4 5 4 2 4 5 3 3
across the % 25.7 22.9 22.9 11.4 14.3 2 19.1 9.5 19.1 23.8 14.3curriculum
Be tested in Freq. 5 4 7 12 6 1 4 5 5 3 4
national % 14.3 11.5 20 34.3 17.1 4 4.8 19.1 23.8 23.8 14.3examination
No response 2
Table 4.53 above, shoNs that the majority of teachers from the sanple schools in both districts
strongly felt that the syllabus should have more listening comprehension exercises (ranked 1st in
both districts). Many teachers in the sample schools in Vihiga thought it should be taught across
the curriculum (ranked 2nd) while those in Nairobi thought more time should be allocated to it
(ranked 2nd). The least rated action was that of having listening skills taught only by teachers in
English - an indication of teachers' acceptance that English must be taught across the
curriculum. The teachers' ralking supports their earlier responses regarding things that should
be done to sustain listening in class and ways of improving listening comprehension. Teachers'
responses on whether listening comprehension should be taught by teachers of English only and
that it should be taught across the curriculum and examined in national examinations, were
probed through the interview with hems of the department of English in the schools and head of
the English panel at (K./.E), with a view to establishing any current efforts made in this regard
and also to corrobaate the issues. This is reported below.
215
4.4: Insights from Interviews with School Heads of English and Head of
English Subject (Secondary division) at the Kenya Institute of Education
In order to verify and validate factors Clld ooservations influencing the pattemltrends obtained
through the content analysis, test Clld questionnaire, the researchEr'interviewed eight heads of
departments of English in the sample public secoodary schools in Nairobi and Vihiga. The head
of English, Secondary division at the K.I.E was interviewed for purposes of validating the syllabus
related observations made in the content analysis and to verify or otherwise the English
LCI1Quageteachers' questionnare responses. The interviews were also intended to throw light on
the syllabus of English for secondary school regarding a variety of factors in English Language
Teaching (E.L.T) and particula1y, regarding the teaching of listening skills. The heads of
departments were purposively sampled to represent teachers from the top, middle and the
bottom schools in terms of the school's academic performance. Hence a H.O.D from; t~ boys,
top girls, average girls, average boys, average mixed, bottom mixed, bottom girls aid bottom
boys schools wcyosampled. This was an information gathering directive interview, using both
closed and open-ended (probing) items.
4.4.1: In-service Teacher Development
The HODs interviewed had teaching experience of between 11 and 15 years. More than half (5
out of 8) of these teachers indicated that they rarely attended seminars and workshops organized
by the Ministry of Educatioo. It was observed by the HODs in both districts that
seminars/workshq>s were commooly held only in the early nineties on the onset of the 8-4-4
system, especially supported by the British Council and run by the K.l.E, but these have become
increasingly rare. In Vihiga, two of the teachers said they frequently attended seminars facilitated
by the office of the Provincial Director of Education (pDE) and in Nairobi, only one teacher
indicated so. Most of these seminars were mainly on the teaching of IitEr'arygenres such as the
216
novel, "the teaching of drama (The Burdens), and "teaching the shat story; The 'Mnner and the
Other Stories Others were on "The Teadling of English", "Prepa-ing Students for English
Examinations', "Evaluation ald Teaching Skills'. It was ha.vever noted that there was a lot of
duplication of the topics, rendering some of the few serninas moootonous ald baing.
More thal half (S oot of 8) of the HODs claimed that they were not made ~a-e of some of these
workshops-they attended one or at most, two in a year. The key explalation was that
information did not reach them e~y enough and that there was lack of motivation frcm their
head teachers, This view of HODs corroborated that of the English language teachers on their
poor or minimal involvement in syllabus design and development. This was further confirmed by
the KIE head of English who reported that promotion of professionat development for teachers
was done throogh seminars and workshops, which were held once when there was a curriculum
change- as a curriculum requirement that must be fulfilled. Here, teachers were made to interact
with the new syllabi and trained on how to use them. She added that in -service training was also
done once every three years to discuss literature set books. They also held workshops once a
year in every zone to discuss areas teachers foend difficult (these were decided by teachers
themselves). The English Language Teaching (ELT) zones then were 6: Mombasa, Central, Rift
valley, Eastern, Western and Nyanza, Nairobi and North Eastern.
4.4.2: Areas that best promote Listening Comprehension in English
The table below shows the areas that HODs in both districts felt best-promoted listening
comprehension in English.
217
Table 4.54: Areas HODs thought best promote listening comprehension in English
Nea Number of tecdters ildicating a-ea
Naiobi (n-3) Viliga (n=5)
Poetry 2 1
Conversations 1 2
Stories 2 4
Speech drills 1 0
Spontaneous talk 0 2
Drama 2 2
Other (e.Q.oral literature) 0 2
From the above table, it can be noted that speech drills were coosidered by the HODs be least
significant in promoting the listening canprehension skill. They gave the reasoothat the students
found it childish, suited fa- primay school. The HODs from Nairobi teachers even thought that
speech drills were best for rural schools, as urban students had no pronunciation problems.The
Vihiga HODs thought their students really needed these exercises because most of their
pronunciation was improper. They also opined that confidence in pronunciation and listening
exercises, had to do with the individual studenfs personality. It was observed that the syllabus
designers on their part plCllned fa- speech drills in the syllabus and course books ooly up to form
two. This then made students to forget about the importance of speech drills.
According to the HODs, students in both districts, .andespecially in Vihiga, found poetry difficult
and did not understand its ICilguage (unless the poem was on the area of their interest such as
love). The Vihiga students WfKesaid not to enjoy poetry and it was therefa-e seen by teachers to
have the least effect on improving listening comprehmsion training.
Heads of department from Nairobi saw drama as a good way of promoting listening
comprehension and that the students even brought in their C1Nn plays and skits Cl1dlistened
better. However, those from Vihiga thought drama was removed from real life as teachers
dominated the lessoos and thus hcmpered good listening.
218
In both districts. HODs indicated that stories were best in developing listening comprEilensioo.
but it was observed that if not well used/controlled. students would see them as a pastime and
gradually introduce this in the dassroom. They also observed that students also seemed to enjoy
listening to stories but did not like giving their own. They preferred listening to speoong.
Heads of department corroborated teachers' ranking of the listening and speaking skills as most
important in promoting students' communicative ability. Just like the teachers who found poetry.
reading of prose passages. oral art forms and proounciation drills to highly invdve students'
listening ability. the HODs thought poetry, drama and story telling were the best areas for
promoting listening comprehension. All in all. teachers. HODs and the KIE head of Secoodc:ry
English were in agreement that stories and passages were the best way to promote listening
comprehension skills. This is also reflected in the students' performance on the test- they
performed best on the story- type materials (the news summary and anecdote).
The KIE head of English shed more light on this when she commented that although reading and
writing were given greater emphasis in the syllabus than speaking and listening, it was assumed
that teachers would develop the speaking and listening skills systematically. 'She further
observed that equal importance was attached to the two skills in the syllabus but sehods tended
to ignore them. This was a contradiction to the findings from the content analysis of the course
book (written and guided by KIE) in use, which revealed that the coverage for listening skill was
very unfavourable.
On why listening comprehension was given less coverage in the Integrcied English course book,
the KIE head of English said one major reason was that it was not exanined; and that it was
219
assumed that teachers woold treat it the same way as reading canprehension. Ha.vever, this
was not the case on the ground.
4.4.3: Major Factors Affecting the Listening Ability of Students in English
The heads of English identified factors that influenced listening ability and these were
categorized as fdlows (in order of intensity): Lmguage proficiency, Noise, Interest/attitude of
students, Mental ability, Material type, Teacher skills, Time, and the Syllabus.
a) Language proficiency seemed to affect the listening ability of the students most as observed
by teachers in both districts. In Vihiga, the HODs reported that student intake to form one was
eighty five percent from the district, (i.e. speakers of the same local dialect) hence these students
were not used to speaking English daily and so did not even understand it well enough for them
to communicate in it with confidence. These students tended to speak and decode what they
heard in English, in their mother tongue, not English and this had a negative effect on what they
wrote and listened to. They were also thought to be impatient with the language and were not
keen listeners/readers. The teachers reported that learners did not even use the libray facility
even where there was one; hence, it was difficult to acquire the fluency they needed in listening
to spoken discourse. It was also observed that their grammar was poor; they had limited
vocabulay and were not therefore free and confident in spoken English, opting fa ·Sheng'. The
Nairobi students were said to speak in ·Sheng' and slang heavily, so they also listened in
·Sheng' or slang and some foond it hard to comprehend correct spd<en English.
b) Noise was another facta identified by teachers in both districts. In NairOOi,environmental
noise played a major rde in those schools situated near busy roads, the market em jua kali'
industries. In some schools, rain affected the students' hearing as the dassrooms had txxr or no
ceilings. Internal factors sud1 as poor sleep (poor sleeping conditions) and no motivation affected
listening. In Vihiga, the HODs cited poor home cooditioos. According to the teachers and HODs,
220
the time of the lesson also affected listening, fa example, in the afternoon immediately befrrs
and after lunch, students tended to prefer doing more interesting things such as aa literaturea
drama.
c) Interest and attitude of students was also seen as a factor affecting listening. Only Nairobi
teachers cited this problem. There was the problem of absent-mindedness and a general lack of
interest as a result of adolescents presumably thinking of more interesting things.
d) Mental ability: It was observed by all (5) the Vihiga HODs that on entry to form one, most
students had no exposure to conscious listening activities. The Nairobi ones (2 out of 3) also
added that some students had very low concentration span. This situation was made worse by
the fact that some students were admitted to form one with very low marks and had very low
proficiency in English in general.
e) Teacher skills: this was cited only by the HODs in Vihiga. The uncommunicativenatureof the
teacher was seen as a major factor. Sometimes, when the teacher of English was too harsh,
used big words, and pronounoed poorly with a heavy mother tongue influence, listening was
compromised and this would be monotonous and boring. The teachers therefore recommended
the use of other sources fa listening_suchas radio and lectures.
f) Time: This was again cited only in Vihiga. It was said that the time spent on English and by
extension, listening, was inadequate. This was seen to be too short to train students in nstening,
hence, lack of practice.
g) Syllabus; this was cited only in Vihiga. It was observed that listening skills were not catered
for by the K.I.E. There was no emphasis even for it to be examined, so students did not take it
seriously.
The teachers in their questionnaire responses also identified most of the above factors. Both the
teachers CIld HDDs were in agreement about such factas as I~guage, student attitude and
221
interest, teacher capacity, learners' general English ICI1guageproficiency and materici type as
major factors influencing listening ability. Others identified were students' mentci ability, time and
noise. The above were reiterated by the KIE head who cited, among others, the factas thought
to affect the listening abilities of secondary school students as:
• Poor proounciatioo fron those who read the passages (both teachers and students) -
emanating from mother tongue influence
• Lack of concentratioo by learners . "\i. -,
• Too much ·acclimatization to bookish readi~g- in all the other subjects.
4.4.4: Opinions on how often Teachers engaged Students in Communicative Listening
Exercises
According to the HODs, the teachers of English rarely engaged students in communicative
listening exercises. They only took a few minutes for speed! work in forms 1 and 2. It was
observed that students were mainly interested in test and examination marks, not in
communicative speaking. Students were also not free to speak anyhow because teachers
insisted on good grammar, which the students feared, they were not confident in. The HODs
revealed that students and teachers also found listening activities a waste of time, as it was not
p~ of the main examinatioo. Otherwise, it was noted that communicative exercises were good
for speech work and would widen students' imaginative composition skills and listening skills.
The HODs observed that group work was used to make students speak and listen to one another
in discussion, yet this was only done for a few minutes.
The HODs' responses were in line with what teachers thought were ways in which to sustain
listening in classroom. The teachers suggested mainly the use of student centred activities in
addition to teacher- negotiated ones as discussed in the earlier part of this section. In response
to how best to pronote listening comprehension skills in secondary school students, the KIE
222
head of English suggested that the teaching of listening canprehension be re-emphasised;
teadlers be in service trained CI1dlearn to choose appropriate passages that lend themselves to
good listening.
4.4.5: The Practical Role of Listening Comprehension Skills in Students' English
language Proficiency
On the practical role of listening comprehension skills in student's English language proficiency,
the heads of English unanimously agreed that listening played a major role. It was found that
students not only comprehended well but also could answer questions well what they had
listened to and they also in turn, learned to speak and spell well. Proper leaming of listening skills
in English therefore ensured general language skills or competencies development, and that
language learning began with listening. They were also of the opinion that students needed to
understand what they listened to first before responding by speaking or writing-they needed to
decode or produce what has been listened to. They further suggested that listening
comprehension competencies could be used to teach other language skills and were good for
developing canpetencies in pronunciation skills. The KIE head of English was of the same
opinion with the HODs and observed that good listening skills sharpened both listening and
speaking skills and enhanced faster reading in addition to improving students' writing (for
example in note taking), spelling and dictation.
4.4.6: How to Cope with Problems of listening Comprehension among Students
The heads of English reveaed that teachers of English tried to make students read storybod(s,
newspaper articles and narratives aloud in dass in order to learn pronunciation. They aso
suggested that teachers also needed to draw the students' attention by giving them interesting
stories from their experiences; and using television episodes that the students liked. They could
also use strategies like attracting students' attention, with the teacher himlherself sheming
223
interest in the lessen, The HODs indicated that a lot of conversations among students should be
encouraged in order to develop confidence ald therefore communicativeness in and outside
classroom situations. Reading interesting atides ald other avalable materials such as poems,
recaded neNS, and oral literature should alsO be done. Students could also be made to
dramatize what they listened to. Strict rules for speaking English all days WfXealso suggestedto
be put in ptace (but even then, the students still spoke slang md ·Sheng}.
The HODs' response was very similar to what the 56 teachers suggested regarding ways of
improving listening comprehension. As mentioned earlier, they mainly suggested more of student
involvement, use of appropriate media, change in teaching methods and better listening content.
They also strongly felt that there was need for inclusion of more listening exerdses in the course
books in addition to providing more time to teaching listening comprehension across the
curriculum as some solutions to problems in teaching listening skills. In agreement with their
sentiments, the KIE heed of English addressed the issue of how to structure a listening
comprehension lesson in order to cope with problems of listening comprehension in class. She
suggested that the teacher starts with short simple interesting passages, which lend themselves
to easy listening. The teacher should also read clearly and at the pace the learners yoold follow,
or choose a good reader. Reading to a small number of learners and using recorded passages
would also alleviate listening problems. Other listening exercises such as sharpening learners'
ability in phoneme disaiminatioo should be intensified.
4.4.7: The types of Exercises Students appear to enjoy most during English lessons.
Table 4.55 below shows, in order of preference, the type of exercises students appear to enjoy
most during English lessons. This was found by getting the number of heads of English who
indicated against a given area or exercise, whether or not students enjoyed it.
224
Table 4.55: Types of exercises students enjoy during English lessons
Type of exercise Nairobi (n=3) no. of teachers Vihiga (n=5) no. of teachers
responding responding
Reading comprehensiln Passages 1 4
Listenil ensioo 1 0
Pronunciation drils 0 0
Grammar 2 3
V &Spe/ing 0 0
Composition 2 1
Summary 2 1
Drama 3 2
Oral art forms 1 4
Poetry 0 1
Oral (novel &class readers) - 2
From the above table it is evident that in the HODs opinion that most of the students of Vihiga
sample schods enjoyed mostly the oral art forms Clld reading comprehension, follOlNedby
grammar, drama and the novel (apart from gramm~, the sentiments of the HODs echo what
teachers identified in their responses as areas which involved students' listening ability most).
The HODs in Nairobi w~e of the opinion that students enjoyed Drane, Summary and
Composition exercises most. Apparently, in both districts, the HODs observed that students did
not to enjoy the pronunciciion, listening comprehension, end {JOfiry and vocabulay Jessoos,
possibly because they found them difficult and boring. HODs observed that students were not
competent in listening (and yet these are the areas that use mainly, the listening skill)
The sanple HODs from Nairobi noted that although the students appeared to enjoy reading and
acting drama in class, they did not do well in the same exaninatioos. The same applied to
summary. The students also seemed to enjoy compositioo lessons, probcj)JybecaJse they wrote
them out of class. In Vihiga district, most of the heads of English thought students enjoyed
mostly, the reooing comprehension passages, even if the CIlswering of the questioos may have
be a problem. The students were also said to enjoy crana, but w~e not competent in answering
questioos 00 the sane. This was an observatioo also rnaie on students' perfamCllCe 00 subtest
2, which they appeared to enjoy listening to but failed to respood to the given tasks correctly. The
225
same applied to the novel. Unlike Nairobi sample students, most of the Vihiga students appeared
to enjoy aal art fams.
As was observed earlier, especially by the heads of English, Vihiga, most students feared and
were shy to be laughed at when they made errors in pronunciation. The students did not even
take pronunciation exercises seriously. This apparent relationship between oral and aural skills
and proficiency in LeT will be discussed in chapter five.
There was varied response in some views. For example, while the Nairobi teachers said that
students enjoyed pronunciation drills and poetry most, the Vihiga teachers mentioned oral art
forms, stories and so on and the HODs did not feel the same.
It can be noted that the sources of listening tasks that the teachers who responded to the
questionnaire used to develop students' listening skills were mainly the language course book
and teachers' emn speech. This agreed very well with what the teachers and HODs suggested to
be their sources of listening tasks: reading comprehension passages, drama and oral arl forms
(alt were drawn from the language course books; literature set books and the teachers' speech).
4.4.8: The Quality of Preparation of Students in English by the end of Secondary School
There were different opinions on this. In Nairobi, the HODs interviewed mainly thought that the
preparation of students was adequate -they said that the students could communicate well in
English but hem they used the language after school was not knemn. They said that the syllabus
was also adequate in terms of its coverage of the English language skills. One of the three heads
of English felt that the students were inadequately prepared in that, they could not even address
teachers in fluent English; tl]eir language was laced with ·Sheng'.
226
In Vihiga district, all the HODs interviewed, unanimously pointed out that the preparation given to
students by the end of form foor was inadequate. They observed that some students left school
when they w~e not proficient and this could be traced to their background in primary school
(some students carne to form one when poor in English). The progress of these students was
theretae very slow. In addition to this, the students only managed to cram concepts but did not
internalise the expressive use of language. It was observed that the students would rather
communicate with people in Kiswahili, 'Sheng' or the mother tongue because they associated
English with a certain class of people. By the time they left form 4, they were only of average
proficiency. Some teachers attributed this situation to the ignoring of teaching communicative
exercises, listening comprehension and speech work by some teachers, They recommended that
more time should be spent on speech work and that listening should not be treated as a minor
skill in the syllabus. Furthermore, listening and speaking should be incorporated in all exercises.
4.4.9: Adequacy of Time allocation for English
Some heads of English interviewed thought that the time allocated to English was not enough
especially with the Integrated English syllabus. They were of the opinion that merging English
language and literature had deprived, especially literature of ample lime. This made teachers to
concentrate only on what they thought was important for the KCSE examination. It was observed
that the teacher of English was expected to identify class readers for form one and two literature,
do all the communicative activities and look for poetry for all the classes, which was not ea$f
within the time given (4 years). With a few copies of readers and anthologies, teaching had to
move at a slow pace, hence need for more time. In the view of the KIE head of English, the time
allocation in forms one and two was unfair (6 lessons a week) becaise that was the stage wh~e
227
they needed to lay a stroog foundation in all areas of language learning. For the upper classes,
she thought 8 lessons were adequate.
Two cut of the eight HODs thought the time allocated to English lessons was adequate,
especially if all teachers becane serioos and if there were also more teoohers. They also
observed that the integratioo of English Language and Literature helped the teacher to kill two
birds with one stone, for example, using oral poetry to teach aal skills.
4.4.10: What language Skills need be emphasized in Teaching English?
Many of the HODs thought all the four skills of English complemented each other. Listening and
speaking skills were seen as the communicative aspects of language and that they enabled
students' self-expression, thus helping the teacher to know their weaknesses, strengths and
trends of thought. They felt that it was only when one understood or comprehended what is
spoken that he/she will respond by either reading a writing what they listened to well. They
insisted that students needed to be more accustomed to speaking in English and be listened to
more in it, for the development of fluency (a main goal of the Integrated English syllabus).
4.4.11: Constraints in the Teaching of E gUsh in Secondary Schools
On an open-ended question responses were sought from the heads of English to find out the
factors that affected performance in English and the constraints faced in its teaching. These
responses were categorized into seven. Table 4.56 below shows the frequency of occurrence of
the factors that affected perfamance in English.
228
Table 4.56: Constraints that Heads of English departments felt were experienced in the teaching of
English
ConstraintlFactor Freq of mention of Freq of mention of constraint
constraint (Vihiga: n--5): (Nairobi: n=3):
No. No.
Lack of exposure/practice 7 3
Mother-talguei "Sheng" inftJence 5 -
Teaching approach 3 3
Student Attitude 4 1
Materials and resources 1 2
Engish Language & Literature integration 1 -
Lack of assessment 1 -
Table 4.56 above shows that the greatest facta that HODs thought influenced poor perfamance
in English was the lack of exposure and pradice of the four ICllguage skills. They also observed
that most students did not do a lot of practice, particularly in speaking and reading. The students
did not read extensively and thErefore, their vocabulary was limited and lacked Icnguagelwords
of expression. They did not converse among themselves in English and when they did, theyon/y
strained to impress the teacher. The students did not also do a lot of practice in writing and did
not write freely. HODs also observed that their students' writing skills began to change negatively
in secondary school, for instance, they (deliberately or not?) began to change the spelling of
words they even knew in primary school, such as, writing (wri/ting) and girl (gf!). Lack of
supportive activities for language such as drama andjournalism clubs was seen as also retarding
performance in English. The HODs in both districts attributed this poor exposure and practice to
the students' backgrounds and prkr academic proficiency.
All the HODs further observed that the mother tongue and ·Sheng" a negative influence on
English speaking and therefae listening but this was confined to Vihiga district. Aa:ording to
them, the initia policy on English was prohibitive. The mothEr tongue cr language of the
catchment area being used as the medium of instruction on the onset of schooling (std1-3) had a
negative inffuence on larlguage proficiency later en It was argued that the rules that governed
the mother tongue remained fixated in the learners' mind and may not be easy to get rid of and
229
make students get used to English. In urban areas, slang and "Sheng- had a negative influence
on the acquisition of speadng and listening canpetencies.
Many (5 out of 8) heads of English cited inappropriate teaching approaches as a major factor.
Some did not teach some aspects of English language ald only concentrated on linguistic and
technical aspects such as "gerunds' rather thal teach functional aspects such as listening to
instructions, listening for taking notes, wrfling diCYiesand recipes, and using the technical
structures in usual speech. In some schools, it was reported, a few teachers were untrained or
they were poorly prepared in the pre-service courses. Such teachers also, did not go out of their
way to enrich students' learning materials and experiences. It was also observed that many
teachers did not use English well, and that there was little support from other teachers across the
curriculum.
Students' attitudes were also seen as affecting performance in English. They were found to be
timid, lacked confidence and thought that those who spoke English were prood. In Nairobi, in
particular, the students were reported to have a "know-it-already" attitude to English. There was
an expressed 'fear' that Kiswahili was quickly taking over English, as students seemed to
consider it easier than English. The HODs wondered whether Kiswahili could be made optional
or penalties could be introduced for "languageoffenders."
Another factor cited by the heeds of English in both districts was lack of books and supportive
language materials and resources. In the case of Nairobi, although the KIE is in the locality, not
many schools made use of the available resources there. In addition to the above, some of the
classes, it was noted, were too large for the available materials CJ1dfor the teachers to do their
work efficiently. Students shared books and this was said to affect their concentration for
230
listening. Lack of books that are necessary for extensive reading also hampered students' desire
to learn good English, which is signifiCCllt for effective listening in.
Other factors aid constraints cited by the HODs were the integration of English Language and
Literature, and lack of assessment in speaking and listening skills. It was observed that some
students may do well in literature, but not in language and some may do well in language and not
in Uterature. The teachers recommended that the syllabus should be revised CVldprinciples of
examinations revised, so that students are tested in all the four language skills and literature.
Students did not put emphasis on speaking and listening to EngHsh well because they were
aware that these would not be examined.
The KIE head of English cited some of the constraints mentioned by the HODs above. For
example, she observed that most teaching was done for examinations, some teachers were
poorly trained and were not conversant with the syllabus demands and there was lack of reading
materials. Teachers were not regularly in ~service trained, they lacked professional guidance by
the inspectorate (now directorate of quality assurance and standards) and students were
therefore exposed to poor ide models in language use.
4.4.12: Issuesl Problems in TeachingiL-eaming of English that need to be addressed
The issues or problems that need to be addressed according to the heads of English interviewed
were summed up as: the syllabus, teacher training, integration, personnel, remuneration,
performa7ce, avalability of materials and communicciion habits.
It was noted that the syllabus for English was very wide after the merging of the language and
literature. In addition, most teachers did not kncm how to interpret the syllabus. Each genre of
English needed to be apportioned adequate emphasis in the syllabus, yfJ. this had not been
231
done. Most affected in the syllabus was poetry-the teachers were reported to be unaware of how
to choose poems for their classes and to teach them. Some did na know/ w~e not preparedon
how to teach poetry.
The HODs noted that many teachers (in Vihiga) were not trained formally to teach English at the
university-"they ooly learnt English". They recommended refresher courses for the teachers, and
priority should be given to sending more teachers of English to schools. Many of the teachers, it
was observed, were not also trained on how to integrate secfkns of English so that they looked
as one and became more interesting.
Concern was also raised over general and increasing poor results in English in the KCSE
examinations. The HODs linked student performance in reading comprehension to poor listening
comprehension skills. Th~e was need, they asserted, for doing listening comprehension hand in
hand with reading comprehension right from primary school.
Finally a major issue in the teaching of English today was identified as the acquisition of good
communication habits among students. The issue was, wheth~ the technical/linguistic aspects
of language could be de-emphasized, so that more emphasis is placed on fluency rather than
accuracy.
Observations of Interviewees on why the above are major issues
It was generally accepted by HODs that most problems experienced in secondary school
emanated from the primary schad and that there was a missing link between the three stages of
learning English: in primary school, secoodary school and the university. They argued fa a need
to link primary and secondary school English and review of the treining of ICI7guageteachers at
the training institutions. Many HODs insisted that reading and listening comprehension were not
232
well develq:>ed in students and this may be what led to the poor perform~ in literature in
national exaninatioos. HODs were of the impressioo that teachers tended to coocentrate on
teadling of set books only, at the expense of communicative aspects of English; hence, the
lowered grades of English. This has a bearing 00 students' listening proficiency.
Suggestions on how to address the above Issues
The HODs interviewed from both districts recommended the following:
i. A split in the Integrated English syllabus with more time given to language.
ii. The primary school syllabus should emphasise basic language skills and structures such
as sentences, so that secoodary school teachers just pick up from there.
iii. Adequate pre-service and in-service training for secondary school teachers was said to
be necessary.
iv. Need for teacher involvement in syllabus design and examination preparation.
v. Do away with terminal examinations from schools and instead, use real life examples and
cater for children of all backgrounds.
vi. Need to develop listening comprehension in primary school.
vii. Need for staff balancing, with more teachers for English, each teaching literature and
language separately.
viii. Supply learning materials such as audiotapes and encourage students to use them.
Grammar texts should be diversified and use texts like GOAL and Practic<i English in
addition to using the library materials. Over reliance on KIE texts should also be
discooraged. In literature, the teacher could have a variety of choice of novels, not just
one; more story books and encourage reading a lot.
ix. Enforce a school language policy where the use of 'Sheng" aid mother tongue
unnecessarily in school is discouraged.
233
X. Need for research especially on integrating the linguistic aspects with the practical
aspects (functional) of the lalguage.
4.4.13: Reasons for the decline in Perfonnance in English in national examinations in
English in the sample schools
With regCl'dto the decline in performance in English, the HODs in both districts then mostly cited
inappropriate teaching approaches. They also observed that in most cases, there was lack of a
team-teaching spirit. Teachers of other subjects were also blamed for speaking in Swahili or
·Sheng" to students and hence students had no role models. Some teachers were reported not
to like teaching some areas of English-such as poetry and concentrated only on the areas they
liked, thus making students develop a negative attitude to English.
Some language teachers (especially in Vihiga) Wefe reported to be untrained or newly employed,
hence not experienced while the trained teachers are also few. Two out of three HODs in Nairobi
complained that they got too many teaching practice teachers, bringing too many changes of
teachers in one class in a year. Teacher's morale was also reported to be low with small salaries,
so they Wefe not fully dedicated to their work.
In many schools in Nairobi, HODs stated that many students used ·Sheng'· heavily outside the
classroom, and they also read very little. They did not practise speaking English. They also noted
that English being a second language, students had to grapple with vaious language
. competencies first, then literature, which is a difficult task in the Integrated English approach(this
problem was cited mainly by the heads of English in Vihiga). Coupled with the above issue was
the fact that some schods admitted students to form aie with very low KCSE marks. Such
students were also, often poor in English.
234
Yet a consistent reason for low pefoonaice according to the HODs was the integration of
language and literature. With the integratioo, both language and liter,aturewere given a rCJNdeaI-
there was too much to be done in a short time and within limited facilities and materials. Hence, it
was noted, that students were not prepared well enoogh to answer literature questioos,
especially, regarding the up to date techniques of dealing with specifics and new issues in
language and literature.
In her observations on performance in English in national examinations, the KIE head identified
factors such as: lack of practice in reading, lack of quality writing practice, lack of practice in oral
skills and failure to teach the syllabus content exhaustively. She further observed that
preparation for examinations dominated teaching ci the expense of language skills acquisition.
The rush to prepare for examinations made learners fail because they were not given proper
grounding in content.
4.4.14: Improvement Strategies Recommended by HODs for the next five years (in view of
the standards of English).
In addition to the points mentioned above, the following improvement strategies were suggested:
i. Equipping poor schools with the necessary facilities and materials for teaching language,
for example, audio aids to use for training in listening comprehension as in the case of
the Test of English as a Foreign Language(TOEFL) examination preparation.
ii. Frequently organizing seminars to train teachers on vaious teaching methods especially
on how to cope in a school with no facilities. This would be an oppatunity for teachers to
discuss problems afflicting the teaching of English and views on how to solve the
problems. A call for the revival of more of the British Cooncil seminars was made. The
Ministry of Education-organized courses would greatly help chCllge teachers' approaches
and attitudes.
235
iii. New approaches to cootinuous assessment CIld examination. Fatnightly tests on
canmunication were suggested for continuous assessment, which shoold form part of the
finci grade of the student. Such tests would cov~ oral examinations and fLly impromptu
oral or written tests; so that English is real and live. The English examination paper
should not be so technical (testing linguistic knowledge). Ustening fLld speaking skills
should also be included in the syllabus aid be tested in the final examinations as is done
in foreign language testing. The literature examination should cover many pap~s and
sections, on various texts, so as to give the students greater exposure and practice.
When marking the literature tests and examinations, attention should be paid to language
skills (this should be done across the curriculum).
iv. Make language compulsory and literature optional, and once language has been
perfected, the literature can be developed.
v. Need for practice in all the four language skills. More reading and strategies of convincing
students to read beyond the classroom are needed. Students need to be encouragedto
write and speak a lot, through many functional exercises such as giving reports of their
house meetings, book review reports etc. in spoken and written language. Students may
also be encouraged to set their own questions, exchange them; be invdved in marking
their own compositions and group discussions (that is, interactive language learning).
vi. Address the problem of students' attitude to English. The HODs did not h<mev~ suggest
haw this could be done.
vii. The university and other teacher preparatory institutions should insist on a high grade in
English for tecdler trainees.
viii. Reward students with tokens such as books and badges as a motivation to improving the
standards of English. This should be rotational.
236
On her part, in view of the current standards of English, the KIE head of English recommended
the folla.ving strategies:
• Intense in - servicing of teachers.
• Revising of the sylloous (this has already been done).
• Improved pre service training of teachers.
• Availing adequate reading materials to learners.
• Availing a large variety of teachers' reference materials.
• Encouraging more and freer use of English in and out of school.
• Improved methods of English language teaching (ELT).
4.5: Further insights from the Interview with the Head of the English Panel
Secondary Division at Kenya Institute of Education (K.I.E)
Some general information regarding the syllabus E:nglish of (1992) in use, students' listening
proficiency and possible interventions for improvement in the performance in English in general
and listening skills in particular was sought from the KIE head of English. Below is a presentation
of her views.
a) Basis of the English Syllabus for Secondary Schoof
According to the KIE head of English, Secondary division, the syllabus of English was partly
based on the direct language teaching approach and partly on the communicative approach. This
syllabus, she said, had both local and foreign influences but had been appropriately
conceptualised.
b) Skills of listening that were considered most important
The KIE head was of the opinion that overall comprehensioo should be given most anphasis
because at secondary school level, learners should be able to listen and comprehend a
237
considerable chunk of prose (as in literature). Phonetics and spedfic grammCl'elements wwld
be best fa primary school.
c) Teaching/Learning Materials at KIE for Teaching English Language and Literary Skills
Teachers' hClldbooks. radio progrCl'ns. readers. video cassettes CIld students' course books
were available for teaching writing skills. reading skills and for the play. short story. the novel.
poetry and ora literature: For listening and speaking skills, handbooks, radio programs a1dvideo
cassettes are available. For the play, the teacher's handbook, a variety of written plays, films,
video programme, videocassettes on set books and from the drana festival were available. For
the short story, there was the teacher's handbod<, a large variety of published short stories, radio
programs, and videocassettes on retold or dramatized stories. Novels from all parts of the world,
teacher's handbook, radio programmes, dramatized stories on videocassettes were available for
teaching the novel. Radio programmes, teachers' handbook, poetry anthdogies, videocassettes
of recitations were available for tecdling poetry. For teaching oral literature, the teacher's
handbook, published oral literature, radio programmes, videocassettes and taped cdlected
stories were also available. The head of English panel hewever, also showed concern on
whether schods could afford some or all of these available materials.
d) Opinions on Differences between Rural and Urban Students on Listening
Comprehension Performance
The heed English, Secondary division at KIE observed that urban students picked up and
follONed discourse in listening comprehension fasterlbetter than rural students because of
exposure mainly due to electronic media exposure. This was proven by this research which
found that the urban students performed significantly better thCll their rural counterpCl'ts.
On whether the then syllabus of English catered for the rural/urban disparities, the respa1dent
said that this was done by selecting materials from all regioos and by simplifying/explainingareas
that were not easily understandable.
238
To explain the dispaities in English language natiooal perfoonance in examinations, it was
observed that good teaching provided good results and this did not happen in all schools.
Availability of facilities, books, cassettes and other teaching aids helped produce improved
results. Poor teaching mainly by teachers who are not trained mainly in ELT coold also be a
factor. Lack of in service training of teachers and lack of good model language users also
created disparities.
e) Major weaknesses/strengths in the teaching of Integrated English
The major weaknesses identified by the KIE head of English were lack of in service training of
teachers of English, teachers were not trained in both literature and language and the negative
attitude to the approach of teaching by teachers. Another weakness was cited as lack of enough
reference materials. The combination of marks for literature and language was said to be
disastrous since performance in literature had been very poor (corroborated by teachers in the
interview). The main strength of teaching of Integrated English was the fact that using language
to teach literature and vice versa enriched language acquisition and made teachers to use
language across the curriculum.
f) Plans of Revising /Improving the Syllabus
Following research reports from 1991, 1995, and 1999 by KIE personnel, issues raised by the
public and in schools indicated that there was a need for the syllabi to be revised as often as
possible due to the dynamism of language. The reviewing of the syllabus was dooe as had been
earlier recommended by all the respondents in this research.
Chapter SumrNiry
This chapter has presented results frrm the research instruments. The cootent analysis revealed
that the Integrcied English Book did not provide sufficient materials, activities and tasks for
tead1ing listening. The listening canprehension exercises were not only inadequately
incorporated in the textbook but were also in~propriate CIld the teachers lacked guidance and
direction on how to teach and assess the listening skills. The second section presented the
results of the test. The test was found to be of moderate difficulty, with subtest one, which was
based on the play and tested ability to draw inferences, infer meanings of unfamilia- words,
predict outcomes and paraphrase, having the highest difficulty index. It was on these sub skills
that students also performed poorest. The form three students were found to be weak in all the
listening sub skills or competencies in which they were tested. In both rural and urban settings,
students' listening comprehension proficiency levels were found to be modest or average,with a
meal score of 11.73 out of a possible 30. This means that could just manage to get along in
listening in English. Comparisons and tests done on students' performance on the test by locale,
school type and gender showed that urban students performed significantly better than their rural
counterpats and that single sex and boarding environments were most conducive to listening in
English. Although differences were observed between girls' and boys' performance on the LCT,
this difference was not significant except in the mixed schools. Finally, this chapter was enriched
with insights from the questionnaire and interview, which revealed among other things, that
although teachers and heads of department underscored the importance of the listening skills,
they were not enthusiastic about teaching and testing the same. They were not trained both at
pre-service and in-service level to teach listening skills. Teachers' 0011- commitment gave rise to
the interview with the head of English at KIE, whose input was impatant in confirming teachers
views and what other factors could affect students' performance in listening comprehension. A
discussion of the main findings of this study fdlows in the next chapter.
CHAPTER FIVE
DISCUSSION OF THE MAIN FINDINGS
5.0: Introduction
This chapter provides a discussion of the main findings of the study in view of the stated
objectives. Section 5.1 provides the main findings aboot the provision, quality and suitability of
listening materials and tasks form three students were exposed to in the recommended English
Language oourse book in use. Section 5.2 presents the findings on students' listening
comprehension proficiency levels while section 5.3 discusses the factors that were reported to
affect students' listening comprehension proficierlCf. Some insights and issues aboot the
development of the tecdling aid assessment of the listening skills are also outlined in sections
5.4 and 5.5 respectively.
5.1: Objective 1 and 2: Analysis of the Listening Materials and Tasks in the
Integrated English Course Book used in form three and determining the
provision and quality of the materials and exposure by form three learners to
the listening skill
5.1.1: Coverage of the listening skill
Analysis of the Integrated English course book in use revealed that the coverage of listening
skills and listening comprehension materials was inedequate, In fact, it was negligible (1.63%)
coverage compared to other language skills. Available materials were too brief to help learners
develop meaningful listening competencies and proficiencies in listening canprehension skills.
The percentage disbibution of the foor language skills in the Integrtied English book 3 was foond
to be very imbalanced, with only 9.52% of 21 units for listening and 1.45% of 133 sections
dedicated to listening and 0.99% of 252 pages for the same. Yet the skills of reading and writing
had the lion's share of coocentration, tal<ing 100% of the coverage in the Integrated English
language oourse book and Grammar taking over 00%. ReaJing comj:J"ehensionalone tock
241
42.75% of the sections in the course book. The materials for listening comprehensionwere not
spread out over the school sessions - they were only in one section of one unit in the 1st term
and one section of the Jrd term. The time spent on deliberate teaching of listening
comprehension was only 2 out of a possible 36 weeks, representing 7.69% of the time spent on
teaching English in a y~. Considering that it takes about Yz a lesson to teach one short (1/2
page) listening section (out of 6 loog sections) in a school term, this translated to a total of ooly
one lesson (40-80 minutes) a yea-! This imbalance showed lack of devotion by the syllabus
designers to the listening skill compared to other skills. Yet as was found from the interview with
the KIE head of secondary English panel, it was expected that the curriculum designer had
provided the teacher with adequate material from which to automatically design listening lessons.
5.1.2: Adequacy of Listening materials
Through the content analysis, it was found that the recommended secondary school course book
for English for students and the Teacher's guide book were lacking in materials and coverageof
the listening comprehensioo skill, relegating it to the bottom positioo and taking it for granted.
The coverage favoured other skills (espooially reading)- this situation was not just observed in
the form three course and Teacher's guide book (which was the most hit), but also in the form's
1, 2 and 4 Integrated English course books in which the total coverage of listening
comprehension was found to be less than 5.77% of the total number of pages in the whde series
of the Integrated English books. The quantity and quality of coverage was therefore found to be
very unfavourable to the development of the listening skills. Students had little exposure to
. listening exercises, considering that in form Ole, only three (1.21%) pages of listening
comprehension exercises were used, 5 Yz(2.53%) pages in form 2 and 3.08 (1.05%) in form 4.
This would obviously make students disinterested in listening skills, a possible factor contributing
to the observed low listening comprehensioo proficiency of form three students.
242
It was flI1her 00served tha the listening cxxlIpehalSial e1Basesi cdivities were net mty
inadequ3e in anotJ1l but am i~opri3e. One d the two materias On lI1it 16) was net ..,
suita>Ie fa listening. The (JJeStions meaued tip.- levels d listening Onterpretalim a1d
infererm), to the material itsaf was rm-aJthentic fa listering a1d the themes were f~
removed fran students' interests. a1d so, students WErenot likely to listen to it spontalEWSly.
The crnwacters in the text 'MI"e f~ removed; the items ald events in the diaxxne were rot
relevmt fa YOlI1Q peepe. The listeners were also nd invdved in my a:tivity. Otherwise. the
vocabUay load in the lI1it 4 material was suita>le fa fam Urea sIudents who flaj p"estJ11aJ1y
mastered language in terms rJ grarTllllCI,Plood~ CI1dvocabulary md so all they hemto do
was 9'~e with the listening tasks ald ca.dd infer memings from <n1fextualclues. This 00 the
other hald, was healthy fa good listElling.
The Jistering material in unit 4 used authentic spoken Engfish whose cootmt was fClTliliarCIld
relevmi to the age fa which it was meant. The ICDJUagemd interest levels of the listering
materials were favoura,re fa fam three. The language used in this mit was suitct>lefa tam
three with a balmce between oompoond, canplex and simple sentence structlJ'es a1d
reasonct>leyocabday. It was also cI the interest /evel of fam three leaners. Several listering
COI'Jl)t'ehension oompetencesl.ulities were measured. It may therefae be noted that there was
inaiequacy ald /a:k of drectioo in the listming material.
5.1.3: language use 81d register
The Imguage use in the few aal sectioos ava/cille. thaJgh ea;y. was the one a studa1t
gmerally reads in a book - not authentic spoken I~. One of the materials (in mil 16) was
nd relevant to the fam bee-age levS, interests and the values exp-essed in it were f~
IlIl1OY9dfrom )'OlJ1Q sbxfents' experieooes. Fa EIICaIllPe.young people d age 16- 17 wooId
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prefer the less serious register. The language did not cootain natura features such as pause
phenanena and syntactical continuity. It was abstract CI1d therefore, not appropriate as a
listening material, especially because of its literary language, which is best studied/read
interpretatively, but not for listening only. The theme was fel' removed from students' interests, a
situation that may not alla.v for spontCl1900S listening, which is desirable for learning. Ha.vever,
one of the materials (Unit 4) contained authentic spoken English whose cootent was familiar and
relevant to the age for which it was meant. It also used language appropriately with a balance
between compound, complex and simple sentence structures and reasonable vocabulary.
5.1.4: Tasks and activities
These materials had some strong points about them - they were found to cootain adequate and
suitable vocabulary load for form three students who had presumably mastered the English
language in terms of grammar, phonology and vocabulary. The tasks in both materials measured
several listening canprehension sub skills or canpetencies. Students at this level, were
expected to listen and infer meanings from contextual clues; predict outcomes; deted mood;
read to what is heard; make generalization and attributes and recognize the functions of
intonation to signal information structure. In unit 4 for instance, allowed for listeners to be
involved in activities such as following up directions; making a list or using a map- to ensure that
proper listening took place. It can be safely concluded so because form three students are used
to taking instructions and folla.ving directions presumably accumulated from their past
"
experience. However, in the material for unit 16, the listeners were not involved in any activity.
5.1.5: Instructions for the teacher Ideveloping listening skills using other materials
It was also found that in addition to the minimum provision of exercises that would be useful for
listening comprehension, there was lack of direction for the teacher on ha.v to use these
'.- •• \1.,.,.. 11l1I,,~n(\ ITV I •.on" rUIl
244
materials. It seems that it was expected that teachers would use their discretion to mci<e use of
the provided exercises to train students in the listening skills. The reading and speaking
exercises would easily provide opportunities for listening practice, but these were not coosciously
brought out as listening activities CIld instructions to the teacher were lacking. These could well
have been used deliberately to train students in listening, but the unmotivated teacher would not
go out of their way to use them. It should not be assumed by the curriculum designers that the
teachers would use these exercises even when there were no guidelines and instructions for this.
Generally, listening skills were found to be inadequately incorporated in the syllabus and
insufficiently covered by the then secoodary school course books of Integrated English. Yet the
questionnaire results shcmed that most teachers (90.48%) confessed that they relied heavily on
the Integrated English Book. The question then is, if the books in use are inappropriate, then how
can teachers rely on them? It means that they also did not know what to do to help learners
develop listening comprehension skills. However, through the interview, there was a noticeable
gap between the views of teachers and the Head of English at KIE views on the interpretation of
materials in the course book. The latter asserted that teachers were expected to interpret the text
correctly and teach listening skills despite the lack of direction. This dissonance and mismatch in
focus and emphasis created a gap that needs to be filled. These findings are like Swanson's
(1986), where he surveyed 18 textbooks and found that only 82 out of 3704 pages mentioned
listening. Karanga (1984) also found that the Kenyan syllabus for English was inadequate and
vague on the oral skills. In the next section, the results of the LeT are presented. The present
findings of the research shed light on the effects of the above scenario (inclusion and emphasis
of the listening skills in the course book) on leaners' listening comprehension competencies.
245
5.2: Objective 3: Students' Listening Comprehension Competencies and
Proficiency Levels
5.2.1: The Difficulty of the LeT
The test was found to be of average difficulty (0.587 for Narobi and 0.633 fa Vihiga). This index
of difficulty acceptable (an index of 0.20 - 0.80 is considered to be of medium difficulty). ~
performed poorest in Subtest 1 with a mean of 3.71 out of possible 10 rnaks and they did best
on Subtest 3 with a mean of 4.27 out of 10 marks, but generally, they failed on the test with a
mean of 3.91 on the test total. It was also observed that Vihiga district students found the test
total harder than the Nairobi district students. This meant that from the start, the Nairobi students
would perform better on the test total than their Vihiga counterparts. Subtest three (which was
based on a news item and testing listening for gist, specifics and selected significant details) was
found on average, the easiest, while subtest one (which was based on a dialogue and testing
students competencies in drawing inference, deducing meanings of unfamiliar words, predicting
outcomes and paraphrasing) the most difficult. This latter test also demanded of the learners to
express themselves using their own words on two items unlike subtest three, which had purely
multiple-choice items.
One feature worth noting was that the Vihiga students found subtest two (based on an anecdote
and testing the ability to listen for topic, main ideas and interpret speakers' tone and intention)
most difficult. Why? Observations from the material on which this test was based showed that it
was quite easy fa cr.y learner to identify with. However, it was noted that the type of questions
given on this subtest required of a learner to explain the answers briefly using their own words
just like in pat of subtest one. It was also possible that some words in the text like 'fidget',
'amateur', 'rasping' may have posed a semantic challenge to the learners who may not have
good vocct>ulary cornmeid. The theme aid scenes were aso removed from rural leaners'
experience: "A music and words' "evening of songs and poetry".
246
Performance by the rural schoo students on subtests 1 and 2. which hed sane items that
demanded expression in the English ICI1guage.was significantly lower. at 0.05 level thoo that of
the urban students. A lea-ner whose English vocabulary and syntax is not so well established
may not fair well in self-expression. It appears that there is a relationship between question or
task type or question structure and the response performance. It is possible therefore. that the
rural learners (in Vihiga) lacked the language through which they could express their answers. It
is important to note here. that during actual test ooministration. the students showed that they
were enjoying the anecdote. It is a pasdox then that they did not answer the questions easily.
The challenge may have also been in writing dcwn the answers. The disparity between students'
perceived enjoyment and failure on this test might also originate in lack of general English
language proficiency (phonology. vocabulary and writing skills).
Both the rural and urban schools students found the subtest based on the news summCJY
(subtest 3) easier to respond to possibly because of the topic - a stampede at the stadium where
a group of young people were giving a concert - a topic they could easily identify with. In
listening. it seems that the attention span and interpretation is greater for narrative than for
conversation and for familiar interesting stories; which has implications for teaching. The data
also suggest that multiple- choice items facilitate ESL students' listening comprehension of
spoken material.
Both rural and urban students found the play hardest to respond to. This showed that learners
were not used to listening to dialogues in class. CI1indication that teachers did not utilise this skill
well where it is needed such as in the play when studying drama in literature. Uke in subtest two.
pat of the questions in subtest one demanded learners' response using 0Nn words. a task that
247
may have proved very difficult too. This subtest tested higher a-der listening
competencies/abilities, which a learner needs in listening to lectures (tq>ic, main idea and
interpreting teacher's thoughts). They also needed to be competent in these listening sub skills in
order to interpret prose, poetry and any other literature they read. These findings confirm Min
D.G's (1996) findings, which showed that students SC<X"edbetter overall on explicit items than on
inferential items. Earlier on, Kirigia (1991) had also found that class 8 pupils found it difficult to
comprehend statements with new and difficult words.
5.2.2: Students' Competencies and Proficiency in the Subtests and Test total
Results showed that the levels of students' listening comprehension in English were generally
below average - they were found to have between poor and very poor proficiency in ability to
draw inferences, deduce meaning of unfamiliar words, predict outcomes and paraphrase(subtest
one). Of great concern was the fact that almost all the students (89.6%) lacked the required
proficiency on subtest one. The same scenario prevailed on subtest two and even on subtest
three where 76.17% and 89.61% respectively of the students SC<X"edbelow the averageof 11.73
out of 30.
All in all, a very worrying scenario on the whole LeT was found, where more than half of the total
sample population (54.4%) of the students were found to be poor and very poor on the tests -
they could just barely get by in listening comprehension. A paltry 11.15% (58 out of 520) of the
total student sample was found to be proficient. This is a very small number; a situation that
needs attention - it seemed very clear then that the inadequate provision and attention paid to
listening skills in the syll<i:>usmight contribute to these very low levels of listening oomprehension
proficiency. In the findings of Muthwii et aI. (2002), it was also found that leaners had problems
in listening in ESL, and this was further confirmed by more findings by the ELN (2004: Report6)
248
project findings where pupils in class 3 CIld six were found to be posses belcm minimum
competence in listening and writing skills.
5.2.3: Comparison of Performance on the Subtests and Test total by Students in Rural and
Urban Locales
The results from the test revealed that on all the three subtests and the test total, Nairobi district
performed significantly better than Vihiga district, with a higher mean score of 13.21 out of 30
compared to Vihiga with 10.36 on the test total. This is a situation that requires intervention. It is
worth noting that a sizeable number of teeohers in Vihiga were found to be either untrained or
trained to teach literature plus another subject that was not English. Most of the teachers here
were found to have less experience than those of Nairobi. Secondly, of the sampled Vihiga
schools had large representation of mixed schools, which were also found to negatively influence
proficiency in listening. However, it was also evident that even the high performing boarding
schools in Vihiga did not do well as the Nairobi schools of the same calibre, on the LCT. This
finding corroborates other research findings. For example, Cha (1988) in his research, found a
variation in English proficiency from one district to another, while the ELN project findings (2004)
also indicated rural -urban disparities in performance on listening and writing skills, favouring the
urban schools.
5.2.4: Performance of Individual Schools (In Means and Standard Deviations) on the LCT
The school that performed best was an urban girls' boCl'dingschod, with a test total mean of
17.091 out of 30, followed by another urban, but boys' boCI'dingschool with 16.080.The too rural
school, a girls' boarding school, only came third, with a test total mean of 13.26. The poorest
performing school was a rural mixed day school, with a mean score of 8.15 out of 30 on the test
total. Two other rural schools, mixed day, scored poorly with means of 8.71 aid 8.97. This
249
dispaity in performance of the individual schools may be a reflection of disparities in a1locatiooof
resoorces.
On the individua subtests, the sane pattern was observed, where, the boa-ding schools did
better. For example, the urban girls' boarding schools had the highest mean score on subtests 1
and 3 (4.860 and 6.301 out of 10 respectively) and the urban boys' boarding school had the
highest mean score on subtest 2 (5.970 out of 10), while the urban mixed day schad had the
poorest scores on all three subtests (3.650, 2.094 and 4.010 out of 10 on subtest 1, 2 and 3
respectively). In the rural district, a girls' boarding school had the highest scores on subtests 1
and 2 (4.50 and 4.86 respectively) and a mixed day school recorded the lowest mean scores on
all three subtests (2.80,2.35 and 3.00 on subtest 1, 2 and 3 respectively).
An analysis of variance on the performance of the various schools from the two districts showed
that the probability that the schools performed differently on the three subtests was high (F
probability of 0.0001 on 8T1; 0.0000 on 8T2 and 8T3). This showed that the different schools
performed differently on all the subtests, but in favour of urban and boarding schools.
5.2.5: On the Relationship between Students' Performance in the Different LeT Materials
I
Results suggest that the nature of the spoken text used influences listening comprehension
competencies. The students displayed better performance on listening to continuous prose than
on listening to dialogue.. It was also observed that the urbat boys were more comfortable with or
stronger on the lower order listening skills while their female counterparts had a slight edge over
them on sub skills that tested higher order listening comprehension skills. Further, the rural boys
were better on all the subtests than the girls. Results from the t-tests for paired samples on the
correlation of the performance of students on the three subtests revealed that generally, there
250
was a difference in performance 00 the sub skills represented by the subtests, meaning that the
development of the listening sub skills was independent fa each sub skill. It means the students'
performance 00 ecdt sub skill did not guarantee that helshe would perform similarly on another
sub skill. For instance, a student who is good on the lower sub skills of listening for gist, specifics,
topic or details as in subtest two and three may not be competent in subtest one which
demanded higher ader listening sub skills. From the values of the means and correlations, it
looks like proficiency on subtest 3 is prerequisite for subtest 2 and proficiency for subtest 2 is
prerequisite for subtest 1, in terms of cognitive demands. However, it was observed that there
were high correlation coefficients (r = 0.624; 0.844; 0.718 respectively) between subtests 1, 2
and 3 and test total. This finding has implications for teaching. It would be expected that the
teacher could use methodology that helps learners be competent in all the listening sub skills,
especially the higher-order ones (listening for main ideas, interpreting tone and intention, draw
inferenoes, infer meaningsof unfamiliar words and predict outcomes).
The findings indicate that test type and task type are a factor in listening comprehension. This
\implies that a student who performed well on subtests would show overall competenceas a good
listener. This finding confirms Takahashi's (1993) finding that the nature of a test influences
comprehension and recall. However, earlier 00, Beme (1992) found that text type was not
significant in second language listening comprehension, an issue that requires for further
investigation.
5.2.6: Mean Performance on the Subtests and Test Total by Gender by District
a) Results showed that the male students performed significantly better than their female
counterparts on all the subtests and the test tota (with a mean of 10.46 for males and 9.46 for
females 00 the test total) in Vihiga District. This was an interesting finding considering that past
251
and reviewed researches (Fa example, Cha's (1988) investigation of English Ustening micro-
skills on Korean students which foond that the female students' proficiency scores w~e
significantly higher than those of their male counterpats on most of the micro skills) have shC7Nn
that girls perform better than boys in English Language. The question is why the boys in Vihiga
were better in listening comprehension than the girls. 'Mat could be the explalation about the
diff~ence in the way girls md boys applied their listening comprehensionstrategies?
b) The scenario in Nairobi was a bit different from Vihiga. While the boys performedbetter than
the girls on subtests two and three and on the test total, the girls on the other hand performed
significantly better at the 0.05 level than the boys on subtest one. This was the test based on a
play and tested the higher order competencies of drawing inferences, inferring meanings of
unfamiliar words, predicting outcomes and paraphrasing. It would appear then that the urban
girls were stronger on following conversations and on higher order listening comprehension
skills. Notable in Nairobi was also the fact that while the girls were weakest on the ability to listen
for topic, main idea and interpret tone and intention based on an anecdote (subtest two) on the
other hand the boys were weakest on the abilities of drawing inferences, inferring meanings of
. unfamiliar words, predicting outcomes and paraphrasing (subtest one) which are higher listening
comprehension skills. This has implications for pedagogy in terms of choice of a mix of listening
materials to cater for a variety of students from different backgrounds.
c) It was, however, foond that although the results from ANOVA showed that the boys performed
better tha'l the girls, this difference was not signifiCa'lt at the 0.05 level. The differences only
seemed to be significant in the rural and mixed schods and not in Nairobi. However even if the
difference was not found to be significant in Ncirobi, it is impa1ant to note that the girls' poor
performance on the LCT cannot be ignored - they were weaker, except that those in Nairobi
252
seemed better on the higher order listening canprehension skills. These findings are like those
of several other researchers like Wilkinson et aI. (1974), Cdner (1987), Remark (1990) and
Costello (1991) who found that gender had no significant effect on the ability to actively listen.
And just like in the present study, performCllce by gender also depended on other variables. For
example, in the present research, female students in the rural district had significClltly poorer
scores than the male students.
5.2.~: Mean Performance on the Subtests by School Type
a) It came out clearly from the data that there was a marked/significant difference at 0.05 level in
the performance by the learners on the subtests by school type. Two main variables that appear
to have a positive impact on listening canprehension proficiency seem to the boarding and
single sex school environments. It appears that the single sex environment is even a better
environment for listening canprehension proficiency because, as it was noted, single sex
schools performed better than the rest, whether they were day or boarding schools. This was
seen clearly from the comparisons and t - tests of different pairs of schools in the two districts,
on the whole LCT. Generally, it was observed that many of the schools performed significantly
differently. They recorded high and significant correlations (r = > 0.600) with others. For example,
both the girls' boarding and the boys' boarding schools performed significantly differently on the
LCT from the day schools, in favour of the boarding schools. The boys'- only sdlools aid the
girls' - only schools performed better than the mixed schools. On the other hand, there was no
significant difference in the performance of boys' boarding and girls' boarding sdlools on the
whole LCT, showing that students in these schools performed the same and therefore shows that
the boarding environment had a greater influence on performance on the LCT than gender. This
was further confirmed in the fact that there was a significant difference in the performance on all
the subtests between girls' boarding schools Clld girls' day schools in favour of the former.
IV TT
253
Observations were also made regarding relationships that although found to be either weak or
negative and insignifica1t, deserved mention. Fa instalce, on all the three subtests, it was noted
that day sehods did not differ fron one another significantly on their perfamance (which was
found to be very poor: test total meal fa boys' day = 12.96 and girls' day = 12.83) on all subtests
regardless of whether the school was single sex or mixed. This meant that the day school
environment had a Vf?r/ strong and negative effect on proficiency in listening comprehension.
This could be attributed to several factors, for example, many day schools recruit some of the
poorest KCPE performers and they are also not as favoured with governmentgrants (that would
help boost their resources) as the boarding schools
b) The mixed day schools exhibited the lowest performance. This showed that the best
leamingllistening comprehension environment should therefore be free fron such distractions
like those that day schools experience. Unfortunately most day schools are found in incondusive
environments and their facilities are usually not the best (compared to those of boarding
schools). Disparities in terms of facilities and resources in the schools could affect performance
on listening. This negatively affects the listening comprehensionproficiency of learners.
c) Very interesting findings were observed fron the results of the peformaice of different school
types on the LCT on subtests aid test total. One of the findings was that the girls in urban
boarding schools (Nairobi) performed better than those in rural boarding schods (Vihiga)
whether the rural school was girls' only or boys' only (mean of 16.91 for girls aid 10.99 for boys
out of the possible 30 marks respectively) confirming that the urban locale had positive effects on
listening comprehension. The reasons could be that the urban students might be more exposed
to spd<en discourse·through a variety of media compared to their rural counterparts. The strong
positive influence of urbal schools was evident in the fact that the only urbal girls day and boys
254
day schools even performed better thal the well- above average (sane of the best) boarding
schools in the rural aea.
d) It is noteworthy that the female students in mixed day schools performed significaltly (at 0.05
level) poorer than their male counterparts in similar schools. On all the three subtests, the rnaes
in these sohods performed better thai the females. This difference was particularly significant in
subtests two and three and the test total. Only on subtest one did the girls in Nairobi perform
better than the boys, confirming girls' superiority over boys on the dialogue, which tested the
higher~orderlistening comprehension abilities. Further results indicated that the girls'- only day
schools performed better than the boys'- only day schools. For example, U2- GO had a mean of
12.833 oot of 30 while U1- BD had 12.440. This is an area that needs further investigation. It
then appears that a mixed sohod setting also negatively affects girls more than the boys'
performance on listening skills.
5.3: Objective 4: To Identify Factors that Influence the Listening
Comprehension Proficiency Levels of Learners in Secondary Schools
The general factors identified were the teacher/methodology based, student based,
environmental based, text based and specific listening factors. From the content analysisdone of
the form three course book in use of teachrng of English in secondary schools, the results of the
test that the form three students were subjected to, and the insights from the teachers' and
HODs questionnaire and interviews, it was possible to identify the factors that influence the
listening proficiency levels of students who were studied. There was aso need for interview from
head of English KIE who also gave suggestions on what could be done regarding these factors.
Most of the information corroba'ated the information from teachers aid shed light on the factors
that affect the teaching of listening comprehension to secooday school students ald what is
being done about it. Major f<dors that came cot dearly were the inadequateattention paid to the
255.;
teactling of listening skills in terms of methodology, tecrlling matedas and lack of assessment
provision.
5.3.1: Background Information on the Teachers as Implementers ofthe Syllabus
Background information was collected on the professional levels and experienceof the teachers
of English. Any secondary schoolteacher should be a person with adequatetraining at University
degree or diploma level. He/she should be well versed in secondary school English Language
teaching methodology so that he/she can demonstrate with confidence to the students what is
expected. In particular, the English Language teacher should be well versed with all the four
skills of English Language; that is, he/she should be able to speak fluently, listen well, write well
and read well in addition to good grammar and vocabulary so that he/she should communicate
with learners at the desired levels. A classroom teacher is the strategic person who can, in an
understandingway, show real concern and make listening instruction interesting, challenging and
purposeful for learners.
An inherent limitation in teaching of English in secondary schools was found to lie in the training
and recruitment/posting of teachers, which was sometimes done without regard for their
suitability to teach English Language. Emphasis would therefore need to be re-oriented to the
needs of the secondaryschool learner of English.
In the context of teaching subjects the teachers trained for, it was found that only 62.86% and
66.67% of the teachers in Vihiga and Narooi respectively were treined to teach English
Language and Uterature, while in Vihiga, 14.26% of them were actually untrained and the rest
were actually not English language trained. A requirement that fulfils the demand for an
integrated approach to the teaching of English is that the tecrller must be very well versed in
256
both Language and literature skills through pre-seoice (and orl in-service) training. Thus, there is
need to train teachers specificaly for the tecd1ing of the four skills and especially, the listening
skills which they have not been trained in before.
From the interviews, it was found that seminars ald workshops on the teaching of English Wfre
very rare. Many (five out of eight) of the HODs interviewed said they were not even a,!,are of
them. The HODs further revealed that they attended workshops on literature teaching only once
in two years. Teachers in both districts were said to make their own efforts to organise in-service
seminars and symposia, but these were mainly on literature topics only. It is important to note
that teachers' efforts needed to be augmented from both KIE and the Directorate of Quality
Assurance and Standards of the Ministry of Education if there had to be any marked
improvement. An important finding here was that there was lack of efforts towards teachers'
professional development. The views of HODs corroborated those of English Language
teachers, who said they had poor or minimal involvement in syllabus design and development.
The KIE head of English (secondary) confirmed that workshops on professional development for
teachers were held only once when there was a curriculum change as a curriculum requirement
to be fulfilled. She also noted that in-service training was done once every three years to discuss
literature set books in ELT zones. This apparent concentration on literature was done at the
expense of English Language, an area where teachers also had a lot of teachingdifficulties. The
teaching of listening canpetencies, which has been taken for granted, is an aea that should be
addressed in such workshops, but this opportunity was not availed. This is a maja factor that
influenced the teaching of listening and listening conpreheoslon skills. The above findings
corroborate those of other researches such as that of Barakat (1985), who found that English
language teachers Wfre inadequately trained to serve as language models in the TEFL
257
classroom. Ncrnach (1990), in his research also famd that tecrllers w~e inadequately prepared
to teach the new programme for English. Uke in the present reseaoh, Omdlo (1990) and
Mogaka (2001) also observed that teachers still relied heavily on inappropriate techniques for
teaching. The ELN Project (2004) also revealed that learners were not taught to listen to and for
oral presentations.
5.3.2: Listening Materials in the Course Book
The non-provision of materials in the course book was foond to be a major factor influencing the
teaching and learning of listening comprehension skills (62.86% and 80.95% of teachers in
Vihiga and Nairobi respectively confirmed that no emphasis was given to teaching the listening
skills). The non-provision of guidelines for the teacher in this course book to teach listening skills
even where the materials were provided was another factor as earlier stated.
One main finding that came out from the interviews was that the listening skills were given less
coverage in the syllabus because they were not examined both at schoot level and in the national
examinations. The KIE head of English curriculum reiterated that it was assumed that teachers
would treat listening skills in the same way with reading comprehension. But withoot guidance on
this, it would be expecting too much from the teacher who, we learnt has not been put throogh
any professional development courses in the teaching of English.
5.3.3: Factors identified from the Test
From the test, the major factors that seemed to influence students' listening comprehension
proficiency were:
• The type of listening materials - continuous prose appeared to be more favourable
to listening thCJ1dialogue
258
• The type of listening tasks- those tasks that demanded of the lea-ner to express their
answers using their own words posed a bigger chalenge to the learners.
• The kind of listening competencies expected of the listener - students found sub
skills that were of higher order such as inference and predicting outcomes difficult.
• The locale - the urban locale seemed to be more favourable for listening
comprehension competencies.
• The school type - boarding and single sex school environments favoured listening
comprehension competencies.
Some of the factors identified by the present study are confirmed by past studies; for example,
Marloy (1983) observed that inadequate vocabulary and lack of English conversation training
were some of the causes of difficult listening comprehension. Verghese (1990) also observed
that ability to listen for meaning was hampered by inability to maintain attention, while Bachman
(2002) found that task characteristics affect listening proficiency. Cha (1988) in the research
referred to earlier, found a variation in English proficiency from one district to another, while the
ELN (2004) prqect findings indicated rural -urban disparities in performance on listening and
writing skills, favouring the urban schools.
5.3.4: Insights from Teachers and HODs about Teaching Methods, Materials,
Students' Preferences and Assessment
In their questionnaire responses to what they thought affected students' listening ability, the
teachers cited among others, students' attitude and disposition; language; physical aspects; the
teachers approach and methods and listening matericis or content.
a) Most of the teachers observed that students' classroom attention was mostly chaacterised by
lack of seriousness during listening and listening comprehension classes - many students' were
said to display a lot of impatience even during the short listening exercises. As observed by the
259
teachers and also through the CIlalysisof content done of the Integraled English book in use, this
problem could be attributed to the fact that the number of times the students got involved in
listening exercises was limited - they lacked the necessary exposure and practice especially in
speaking and listening to cootinuous fla.v of English Language speech. Just like teoohers, the
HODs cited students' attitudes as affecting the performance in English Languagein general. This
obvioosly had a spill over effect on the English language listening comprehensionproficiency of
students. This observation has implications for teachers' choice of methods for classroom
teaching.
b) Regarding language, it was foond that the learners' listening comprehension ability was
influenced by their limited vocabulary, little exposure to nalural spoken English Language and
pronundalion problems. Teachers also observed that students were not free to speak anyhow
since teachers insisted on use of good grammar. Suffice is to say, a poor command of the
English Language cannot guarantee good listening comprehension in the same. This factor was
also observed from the test, where the students were found to fail on the subtests (1 and 2),
which expected them to express what they listened to, in their own words. Many of them also
failed on the items that tested vocabulary (see difficulty indices in section 4.2.1). It was also
observed during the actual test administration that some students were unable to complete the
test.
c) One major factor that clearly impacted on the students' listening comprehensionwas the fact
that, in their methodology, teachers confessed that they did not make CI'Iydelibercie efforts to
consdously teach students how to listen and particularly to listen with comprehension. They
assumed that students listened automatically. A tendency by teachers to give long, sanetimes
boring lessons without regard to students' attention spat in listening, was found unfriendly to the
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development of listening comprehension skills. The disparities between tecd1ers' own English
language competence and that of the student wr:re also found to be prooibitive to good listening.
The tecd1ers' language is usually of higher levels of vOC<bulary;the pronunciation sanetimes
too sophisticated or overly influenced by the mother tongue for the average student.
d) Anothr:r f~tor was the insufficient materials and resources for teaching English, which had a
negative effect of teaching of listening skills. For example, many schools were reported not to
have radios, audio players, and other audio based materials and sources of a variety of listening
materials.
e) It was also found that students' attitude and response to listening exercises dependedon the
topic and content of the listening material. As may be expected, hard passages or discourses,
whose vocabulary was difficult and complex, whose content familiarity was far removed from
students' experiences negatively influenced listening comprehension.
f) On the type of exercises students apparently enjoyed most during English lessons, it was
reported by teachers and HODs alike that students seemed to enjoy more of the orci art fonns,
reading comprehension, grammar, drama and the novel. However, it was noted with concern that
most students in both districts did not seem to enjoy the pronunciation, speech drills, listening
comprehension and poetry lessons, which are ~vities that involve development of listening
skills where they are used most. This is a pointer that learnr:rs did not enjoy learning listening
skills. Could the problem be the teechers' appro~h? students' attitude? This observation tells a
lot about teachers' versus students' perception of the importance of listening materials and tasks.
It was also noted that although students appeaed to enjoy the said ~tivities, they did not
perform well in tests and examinations on the same. This was also observed, when, during test
261
administration, mCllY students in all the schools, but one, appecI"edto enjoy listening to the
anecdote CIld dialogue, but performed dismally in the responses CJ1 test items on these
materials. There was an appaeot mismatch between what students appear to enjoy and their
competence on the same.
Also notable was the fact that students in both districts were reported to possess poor vocabula-y
and reading culture. The poor performance on the listening comprehension research test as seen
on their rneai score (11.73 out of 30) showing limited proficiency in listening comprehension
skills may be attributed to this kind of scenario. This apparent relationship between semantic
competencies, and performance in listening comprehension needs to be explored in research. It
was found that students particularly those in the rural locale found the items that tested
competence in inferring meanings of words very difficult (with a difficulty index of less than 0.2).
Many were also unable to complete the subtest in whose materials, were more than two
unfamiliar words. This is a major factor that would affect listening comprehensionproficiency.
g) On the sources of listening tasks used to develop students' listening comprehension skills,
most (90.48% for Nairobi 87.71% for Vihiga) of the teachers confessed that they relied heavily on
the English Lcr1guage course book. A large percentage (61.90% for Nairobi CIld 51.43% for
Vihiga) said they also used teachers' own speech and 66.67% for Nairobi and 42.86% for Vihiga
relied on literature set books. The apparent inability to use the speech work tasks in the course
book practically and relate them to listening is also a panter to teachers' lack of initiative and has
negative effects CJ1 spoken language too. This revelation has implications for teaching. It shows
that teachers actually did not use student - oriented, student-negotiated tasks, a panter to why
students may not show keen interest in participating in listening comprehension exercises. The
students were likely to be bored, as there was no variety. This also shows that listening skills
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were taken fa granted becarse the English la1guage course book that the teachers heavily
relied 00 as has been noted did not even have sufficient tasks for developing the listening
comprehensiooskills.
The fact that other subjects were not used by most of the teachers as possible resources for
developing listening comprehensioo was an indicator that English languagewas not used across
the curriculum. This corroborates what teachers revealed on the ranking of teaching listening
across the curriculum; they ranked it amoog the least. It also indicates that teachers were not
creative enough to get plenty of listening materials, but were wholly dependent of the course
books.
h) On assessment, most of the teachers (76.19% in Nairobi and 57.14% in Vihiga) were found to
use poems mainly to assess learners' listening comprehension. A good percentage (61.9Q01o in
Nairobi and 51.43% in Vihiga) used conversations also. Although these materials were mainly
teacher-oriented, they were relevant to students' interests. May be the teachers needed to be
more creative. It was also observed by teachers that students did not really want to be assessed
in listening skills, did not take listening tasks seriously and were more interested in marks rather
than communicative speaking and listening activities as these were not examinable and
therefore, a waste of time.
i) The HODs reported that students did not do a lot of practice particularly in speaking and
listening. The fact that the students did not converse among themselves in English was a
setback to the development of listening skills in English because then, they lacked their most
immediate source fran which to listen in English. It is desirable that for one to develop these
skills in the target language they must be highly exposed to it. Kenyan students in general, lack
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sources of spd<en English language from home, as most of their parents ae semi-literate or
illiterate in it. The students' only exposure to the spoken English therefore are the teachers and
the peers, since we learnt that they lacked a variety of other supportive sources such as drama
clubs, audio media and other communications activities.
j) The HODs also cited the heavy use of mother tongue (the case of Vihiga district) and 'Sheng'
or slang (in the case of Nairobi) as having a strong negative influence on spoken skills and
therefore listening comprehension.
k) The interviews with the HODs and head of the secoodary English section at KIE revealed that
other factors affecting listening ability of students in English were, physical noise, attitude, mental
ability, listening materials type, time and poor pronunciation and reading skills by those who read
aloud in the listening materials to the leamers. Problems with poor involvement and knowledge of
the syllabus; lack of general teaching materials; integration of the teaching of language and
literature, lack of professional teacher training and development and lack of models in English
language rendition. These had adverse effects on the development of listening skills in general
and listenIng comprehension skills in particular. Most of the observations made by HODs above
confirm Marloy (1983) and Verghese (1990) already referred to in the section above.
5.4: Further Insights on what can be done to improve the Teaching and
Assessment of the Listening Skills
The above factors affecting the students' listening comprehension raised the question of hON the
same ca1 be improved in schools in order to make it more beneficial. Further insights to this
were got from the interviews with HODs and the KIE head of secondary English curriculum.
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5.4.1: Materials for teaching listening skills
The HODs observed that there was need to use materials that most attrected students' listening
skills; those whose cootent was of the t~get leaners' level. Among these were proper
pronunciciion drills, poetry, prose p~ages and ora crt forms. It is important to note here that
although students were said to find pronunciation drills boring, childish and monotonous,
teachers still found it a very impatant way of training them to listen profitably. The suggestion
about the use of prose passages, poetry and oral literature reveals that teachers found that
students found it easier to listen to continuoos discoorse rather than conversations/dialogue.This
is a fact corroborated by findings from the test in this research, which showed that students foond
it more challenging to listen and respond to questions00 the dialogue.
5.4.2: W¥ of Sustaining Listening
On their part, te~hers mentioned several activities they did to sustain listening in the classroom.
What came out clearly was that although teachers said they made efforts to use students'
activities, they mainly involved themselves in strategies that were mainly teacher- oriented. For
example, they said they used reading exercises followed by discussion and story telling, creating
a friendly atmosphere; using verbal and non-verbal cues, questioning by probing; group work;
demonstrations; group presentation and story telling. All these were not strictly student -
negotiated sotivifies, yet it is known that for students to enjoy any task, these should to large
extent, be student-oriented, student- negotiated. A notable response from the rural based
teachers was that they mainly used orci literature materials to enlist listening by learners.
Apparently urban teachers did not find oral literature materials good enoogh for the purpose.
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5.4.3: W. of improving Students' Listening Proficiency
It was foond that less than half of the teachers (22 out of 56 or 39.29%) suggested more
students' active involvement in listening tasks, yet this is the best way in which students' listening
proficiency would be improved. Although this corroborated what teachers said they did to sustain
listening in class (above), it also showed that there was lack of consistency in their perception as
what they did to sustain attention in listening was mainly teacher- oriented. This suggests teacher
non-commitment to improving the improving Ideveloping the listening skills. This means that the
teacher should be helped first through initial pre-service and in-service training. Since teachers
do not emphasise student activities, the way forward would be to sensitise them on what
students prefer (students' preferences) so that they can use this to guide their choice of activities.
The teachers (37.5%) further suggested the use of media such as radio programmes, tape
recording of passages, news and print media in teaching listening comprehension. Yet, as it had
been pointed out earlier in the section, schools lack the necessary materials and resources. Less
than half of the teachers (33.39%) suggested improvement of dassroom delivery methods to
include listening comprehension competitions, story telling in class, role playing by students
guided by the teacher, simplified ql.!estioning,note taking and use of speeches followed by
questions. It was also noted that reading proficiency and therefore speech proficiency acquired
through intensive reading of the literary texts could also help improve listening comprehension. It
was also suggested that the content of listening material was very crucial in helping to improve
proficiency in listening comprehension, hence need to stat with simple short materials in junior
classes and develop to longer, complex ones as students advance, using fcrniliar content such
as their own compositions and written factual infamation. It implies that strategies fa improving
students' speal<ing competencies should not be seoaated from those for improving listening.
266
Adding their voice to what the teachers' said 00 how to oooe with problems of listening
comprehension in English. the HODs were also unalimoos 00 the use of continuous prose
materials such as storybooks, newspCfJef artides narratives and interesting stories from
experience and from television (where necessary) ald conversation amoog the students. This
corroborated the teachers' responses on the same.
5.4.4: Measures Taken by Teachers to address Listening Difficulties
On the measures taken against the difficulties in listening by students of Nairobi and Vihiga.
teachers were in agreement that the use of communicative activities and motivation by teachers
was significant in alleviate difficulties in listening by students. This meant using cooversatioos.
discussions and use of audio-media. This they said. despite their own confession, that they used
only the speech-work activities found in the English Language course book to allay difficulties.
This shows that although the teachers were ~are of what needed to be done to alleviate
difficulties in listening. they did not make much effort towards this. a sign of lack of commitment
to going beyond what was provided in the course book.
The teachers' suggestions on the measures they would take to address difficulties in listening
showed that with that kind of lack of motivation, they also needed to be guided by the KIE in what
to do aboot the listening skills throogh the teachers' guide book. But this was also found to be
lacking from the alalysis of the Integrcied English Book (Students' ald Teachers' Book) and
from the admission by KIE head of Secondary English panel. The problem of the lack of attention
given to listening skills therefore was foond to emanate right from the curriculum designer and
needed urgent attention.
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5.4.5: Activities that best promote Students' Listening Comprehension in English as
Perceived by Headsof Department
The Heads of Department were 'categorical that poetry, drc:rna,stories and conservations, were
the best areas that would promote listening canprehension. All in all, teachers, HODs a1d Head
of English (secondary) at KIE were in agreement that use of stories was the best of way to
promote listening comprehension skills. This was also reflected the students' performanceon the
LeT where they performed best on the story type material (the news summary and anecdote),
This revelation has implications for choice of materials for teaching listening skills.
The teachers and HODs said that speech drills were the least significant in promoting listening
comprehension skills as the students found them childish and suitable for primary school
children. Yet these were the most commonly provided in the Integrated English Book! Bearing in
mind that teachers said they heavily relied on the Integrated English course book, for the
listening comprehension lessons, this becomes an issue of concern as it is in these books that
those unpopulCl"speech drills were! This called for a review of the then course books (which has
been done, from the quick analysis of the New Integrated English Books Syllabus). Hence,
listening comprehension skills, which are advanced skills of listening were by and large ignored,
a factor that influenced the proficiency of students in listening comprehension.
5.4.6:Assessment
Only 6 out of 56 (14.52%) teachers interviewed saw the need to include listening comprehension
in the school assessment tests and national examinations. This non-committal attitude could be
probably, due to the inherent fear of examining what is not easily discernable. Teachers felt that
it was not easy to carry out this kind of exc:rninationsconsidering the large student population
against the humble resources and personnel in schools in a developing country such as Kenya.
268
They feaed it was not easy. This may probably be due to the nature of their CM'I1 pre- ~ce
training where they were not taught how to listen CIld teach students how to listen.
The KNEC has made a change in the examination format where oral skills are being examined
but this does not involve an oral examination or listening per sa. Instead, oral aspects of the
English language are tested in a pen and paper format. The new English examination papers
tested for the first time in 2000 integrated elements of oral and performance skills in various
papers. Paper 1, which tested functional skills, in particular, incorporates issues of pronunciation,
stress, rhyme, rhythm, oral delivery, oral aspects of oral literature genres, and telephone
etiquette. But this assessment is not in an oral form. This therefore leaves the problem of
ascertaining students' actual listening competencies and therefore proficiency. The KNEC as of
now would not logistically and financially be able to implement the examining of proficiency in
these skills at national level. However, due to the financial and logistical challenges associated
with this form of assessment, ways and means of other forms of assessment that could be used
are necessary. It is possible to assess listening skills on a one- one basis at the schad level.
Formative assessment should be part and parcel of the process of teaching the listening skills if
the critical gains needed in listening skills development are to be realised. Some of the on-going
techniques of testing achievement in listening comprehension would be through individuaJised
comprehension exercises in a conducive environment, dictation with or without omissions and
rapid note-taking. Use of questions, which require precise answers or questions with truelfaJse
answers or with multiple- choice answers, is also recommended. It is also vital that teachers help
learners develop a positive attitude to the listening skills and seriousness during the listening
comprehension classes.
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5.4.7: Performn:e of Studads in National Examinations,
FlIita' insiitls fran the KIE head of Sea:ntay EJVjsh sOOwedthat the English lquage
exaninatiQ1S cootiooed to be perfamed poa1y at natiooallevef md tfis was mcinIy 00e to la
of practice in aa skills am reacing skills am obsessioo by teachers to pr~ fa exaniruiialB
at the eJCPEIlS8 of dewI~ng at the English 1af9J399 skills. Hence, luners were not well
grOtllded in oontent a1d use of the English lalguage. which they needed to pass exaninalials
a1d cope in life even after schod. Ttis lack d prqJer acxpsitial of English lquage skills had a
direct bearing 00 students' IisterirYJ CXlf11p"ehalsiooproficiency. which was seal fran the results
of the test to be poa (modest)a Vf?r/ poa Oimited)
5A.8: Allocation of More TIme
It was expressed by the HODs that there was still need fa mae time allocation to EllJfish
Imguage lessoos, so that listering skills <l"esjvan more altentim with listering topics appeaing
in fNery mil of the Integnied English course bcxK 'M1ether more time am content wOOdhelp to
improve the teacting of listening skills is still questimable. especially when teachers <l"erot well
prepared and WN<I"eabout their role in developing learners' listening skills; Both the amomt of
listening ald also the quality of listening mcierias and tasks woold guarCJ1teelistening skills
5.4.9: The future of the Teaching of the Liltening Skills I RevIsing and improving of
Syllabus of English
The KIE head of English (seaJlday) pointed all Ihrl the 1992 syflau would be revised a1d
improved. This was dale in 2X)2 and implemmted in 2003. Tflousjl it was not pat of this
research to myse the ZX)2 reccmmended English 1a1QU3J8 COLfse books, it was fam
necessay to mentim sanething ~ the a.rrent syII~ recanmendatioos since this was me
of the interview (JJeStioos posed to the HODs, amcUtJT1 palSlist of English md the teacfs.
270
Suggestioos 00 what should be done 00 the future of the listening skills w~e that the syllabus
should include more listening comprehension exercises (this was ranked first in ader of
importance in both districts) and that more time should be allocated to it. Teachers w~e
generally non- committal about the issue of teadling listening skills aaoss the curriculum as they
ranked it third in order of importance of what needs to be done aboot the future of the listening
skill. This was found unfortunate as all subjects depend on proficiency in the listening skills. It
should be the responsibility of the teacher of English to ensure that learners possess positive
interactive and reactive listening skills in the dassroom and use these to learn other subjects.
Now the revised syllabus indicates a shift in terms of the recommended course books for use,
where, the MaE has recommended up to six titles in the Orange Book for use in schools (the
Orange Book is the MaE document in which recommended instructional materials, which schools
must adhere to, are published). The school Languages departments can now opt to choose one
or two from six different titles as their course book and others for reference or supplementary
use. Some of these titles are New Integrated English Book, Head Start Second&}' English and
Advancing in English.
There is emerging evidence for action for the improvement of the development of the listening
skill. A quick review of these books shows that now there is incorporatioo of the listening skills
more than before. There is also a balance in the distribution of the four Language skills in some
of the course books. But these materials are still new to the teach~ md slhe will still need to be
trained 00 hCJNto use them. Teachers will also need to be given opportunities for sharing their
experiences on the teaching and assessment of the listening skill. There have been seminars
organised by KIE in conjunctioo with publishers on the use of books and methOOo/ogy for
teadling and assessing skills, grammar and literature.
271
It is recommended that the teachers go through ~I the recanmended oourse books for English
and decide on whim one covers the four language skills in a balanced w~ so that they do not
over rely on what they knew- the ad Integrated English Book. The New Integrated English for
example, gives guidelines to the exercises atd ~tivities that require students to listen to each
other as well as to the te~er. The listening exercises are reinforced by tasks that require the
students to practise other related skills. There is also guidance for the teacher on what to do on
some tasks to ensure listening. There is a good attempt at integrating listening with the other
language skills. However, it does not adequately guide the teacher on the strategies for teaching
and assessing the listening skill (except pair and group work). Advancing in English is strong on
the provision of listening skills, both in the student's book and the teacher's guide. In the
teacher's guide, for instance, guidance is given on how to present the spoken material andwhich
listening COOlprehensionskills should be developed using that material. There is also provision
for listening skills in every unit, that is, 100% coverage. However, some of these books are still
silent about the ways in which students can be assessed in the listening skills.
5.5: Other Issues on English Language and Listening Comprehension
Proficiency
5.5.1:The Role of Listening Comprehension Proflclency in English language learning
On the practical role of listening COOlprehensionin students' English Language proficiency, the
HODs una1imously agreed that proper acquisition of listening skills in English ensured general
English language skills develcorneot and that la1guage began with listening. Students need to
understand what they listen to (comprehension) first before responding by speaking or writing.
For this reason, listening comprehension skills need to be given the coverage they deserve by
allocating more time to them as earlier indicated aid including them in all the language lessoos.
The curriculum developer (head of secondary English, KIE) recognised the significant rde of
272
listening skills too. This recognition is an impatant step tcINardsa positive shift in thinking in the
development of listening skills.
5.5.2: Emphasis of English language Skills
With regard to what ICflguageskills need to be emphasised in teaching English, the HODs were
unanimous that all the four language skills complemented one another and therefore needed
equal emphasis. The teachers and HODs also affirmed that their students needed to be
accustomed to speaking in English and listen more in it, for the developmentof fluency, which is
the main goal of the Integrated English syllabus. It was agreed that all the four skills are of equal
importance, yet the listening skill had not received its due emphasis, there was need fcx'change.
5.5.3: Quality of Secondary School Graduates in English
On the quality of preparation of students in English by the end of secondary school, the HODs
averred that by the time students left form four, they were only of average proficiency in English.
This could be the result of poor preparation in English, among them, the lack of development of
students' listening skills by ignoring the teaching of communicative oral exercises, listening
comprehension and speech work.
Chapter Summary
The chapter has provided an overview of the main findings of the study. It has shown that the
provision and adequacy of the listening tasks in the Integrated English Book 3 were WCfltingjust
like the listening proficiency levels of the learners. A number of factors that affect learners'
listening proficiency are outlined and several insights into issues on teaching and assessmentof
these skills brought out. Inferences generated from this chapter will be discussed in chapter 6
273
where appropriate recommendations about the improvement of the listening skills are presented
in additioo to suggestions for further reseam.
CHAPTER SIX
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
6.0: Introduction
The purpose of this study was to establish the IistElling canprehension proficiency levels of form
three students a1d the adequacy of ooverage of listooing maerials CIld tasks in the form three
Integrried English Language coorse book (1992) used in the secondary schools in Kooya. It also
exp/aed the fadas that influence learners' listening oomprehension proficiency levels. This was
done in ader to determine the quality of listening, their ooverage CI1d e><pOSUreby Students to
the listening skills. This ch~ter makes the main coocIusions on the tea::hing md assessment of
listening skills in general and listening comprooension in particular, the quality of te<dlers of
English and the listening comprehension proficiency levels of form three students in the sample
seoondary schools and recommendations from the findings drawn from chapter five in view of the
stated objectives. These are with regard to the nature of the materials used in the teaching and
. assessment of listening skills in general md listening oomprehension in particular, the listening
proficiency levels of fam three students CI1dthe quality of the teachers. Suggestions for further
research are also given.
6.1: Conclusions from the Main Findings of the Study
6.1.1: The Nature of the listening Materials and Tasks
i. Ustening skills were inadequately inrorpaated in the Integrated English Course Book.
The course book lacked in materials and tasks for developing listening skills, relegating
them to an Lrlimportant pooition CIld taking them for granted. No efforts were rnede by
teacha-s to use 3Ily dher sources. This is a situation that needs to chmge.
The callent in the said listening materials WfB also in~ucie in terms of socoe, depth md task
cha-acteristics. For example, there were more of the pronunciation drills than exposure to real
J
275
listening materials and the tasks ncXchallenging. Most of the listening material w~ theoretical,
with no supportive activities and visual materials. The listening material was only in two units.
Any text that should be used to develop listening skills shoold therefae be adequatein spoken
texts for listening and a variety of tasks for the leamer.
ii. There was inadequate provision of copotunifies for the learner to practise the listening
skills. Form three students had minimal exposure to listening exercises in general and
listening comprehensionexercises in particular.
iii. Teachers lacked guidance on how to interpret materials in the course book and lacked
support materials. They apparently looked up to the curriculum develcoer for all
directionslinstructions.
6.1.2: Teacher Quality and Methods
i . Teachers are highly dependant on authorities; the curriculum developer and the
recommendedcourse books.
ii. Teachers in sampled secondary schools lacked direction and professional guidelines
through in-service training on how to acquire and use a variety of listening materials to
develq> the listening comprehension skills of their students. This means that the
curriculum develq>er must provide model examples of good directions - and practices.
The curriculum developers should recommend course books that are detailed and
serve as good complement for the teacher.
iii. Workshops on the teaching of the English language were very rare and so the teachers
did not participate in the curriculum discussioos. Teachers who are not well preparedto
implement any curriculum needs and changesare a disadvantageto the learner.
iv. Some teachers were inadequate in the pre-service traning and had weaknesses in
teaching English although they were aware of what was expected of them. The
276
teachers' own competence and motivation would greatly improve students listening
skills.
6.1.3: Student Listening Comprehension Competencies and Proficiency
i. Most students are used to being spoken to rather than spoken with, so they have not
acquired competencies in interactive listening as seen in the fact that both rural and
urban students found the dialogue (derived from a play) very difficult to listen and
respondto.
ii. The students were found to possess poor to very poor (modest and limited) proficiency
in listening comprehension. Most of them therefore lacked the required proficiency on
the LeT. They couldjust barelyget by in listening comprehension
iii. Most students employ mainly lower order listening skills and therefore boundnot to do a
lot of the critical and evaluative listening. Students were poorest in respondingto higher
order listening abilities, which a learner needs in order to cope with listening for lessons
and lectures and to interpret prose, poetry and literature in general. (These are listening
to draw inferences, infer meaning of unfamiliar words, and predict outcomes and
paraphrasing).
iv. A test's task demands affected performance on listening comprehension - students
found tasks that called for responseby expressionin own words, challenging.
v. A poor understanding of vocabulary negatively affected listening competencies. The
general English language proficiency of a learner affected his/her ability to answer
questionson what they had listened to.
vi. Type of listening materials is a factor in listening comprehension proficiency. The
students listened best to continuous speech rather than dialogue; hence their better
277
peformaioe 00 the subtest based 00 a news summa)' a1d tested sub skills of listening
for gist, specifics and selected significant details.
vii. The urban students appear more exposed to the listening than the rural students. They
performed significantly better than their rural counterparts 00 all the three subtests,
shaNing that the students in the two locales performed differently due to various
dispaities. The schools performed differently in all the subtests but in favour of the urban
schools.
viii. Correlatioos between schools' performance on the different subtests and test total
indicated that there was a significant difference in the way students performed on the
various sub skills, represented by the different subtests. The development of each of the
sub skills of listening comprehension was therefore independent of the rest.
Performance of one sub skill did not affect the performance of the other.
ix. There was no consistent relationship between girls and boys in performance 00 LCT
scores. A little difference was noted between the two genders in terms of performance
on different subtests. The male students of Vihiga district performed significantly better
than their female counterparts in all the subtests and all the whole LCT and the male
students in Nairobi were better than the female students except on subtest 1, hence the
need to pay attention to what affects the female students in listening comprehension.
x. Although in both districts the male students did better than the females, this difference
was not found to be significant except for rural and in mixed schools.
xi. Although they seemed to achieve IaN in listening com prehensi 00 , the female students
appeared to be stronger on listening and responding to conversations and higher order
listening comprehension skills. This has implications fa pedagogy in terms of chace of
materials and mode of delivery for the different gender.
278
xii. There was a significant difference in pefomance on the LeT by school type with
boarding and single sex schools having a positive impact 00 listening oomprehension
proficiency.
xiii. Girls' listening abilities appear to be adversely affected by being in mixed and day
schools. Results fron ANOVA showed that the female students in day schools
performed significantly poorer than their male counterparts in the same schools ..
xiv. Secondary school teachers rated their students as low in their general English
proficiency and listening comprehension proficiency.
6.1.4: The Main Factors affecting Students' Performance in listening Skills
The major factors affecting students' performance in listening comprehension were found to be:
i. The noo-provision of adequate listening materials and resources for listening tasks.
ii. Lack of guidelines for the teacher in pedagogy and lack of provision for assessment.
iii. Type of listening materials and the characteristics of the texts.
iv. Kind of listening competencies expected of the listener.
v. The locale.
vi. The school type.
vii. Students' little exposure to natural/model spoken English Language.
viii. The characteristics of the individual learner.
ix. Students' own general English language proficiency level in terms of lexical ignorance,
syntactic challenges and amoont of backgroond knowledge.
x. Lack of assessment of listening comprehensioo at both classroom and natiooallevel.
xi. Teacher skills and dispositioos.
xii. Students' attitude.
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6.2: The Scope of Generalizations
This reseaeh has acted as a pointer for evaluating sane aspects of teaching and assessing of
listening skills in general and listening oomprehensioo in particulCl", aid analysing their
usefulness in students' performance in English language in gena-al. It has aso tried to point oot
hC7Ninadequately listening skills were attended to and the factors that affected the development
of learners' listening comprehension skills. The findings suggest the need for improvement on the
development of these skills.
Ustening is a highly complex process, which still needs a lot of research in order to be
understood. Althoogh the study was only concerned with the form three students and a small
group of teachers and HODs, the researcher sees this as a contribution to providing information
on the teaching and assessment of the listening skill. So far, little research has been carried out
in this area of Language Education in Kenya.
The findings and conclusions arrived at in this study could have implications for English language
teacher training and development and for classroom strategies in the teaching of listening skills.
In this regard, MOE, KIE KNEe, the universities and secondary schools have a lot to gain from
such a research. The data now available demonstrate that listening competencies needs to be
improved substantially and specific instruction in it should be undertaken. This study should help
create awareness of problems of English language teaching in general and the teaching of the
listening skills in pcrticular. Although this study has not provided absolute and condusive
answers to questions aboot hC7Nto teach and assess listening skills or which skills shoold be
emphasised or not, it has pointed oot very clearly that there are shortcomings in the area of
-,'
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teaching and assessing the listening skills and therefore need further review or change. Hence
the recanmendatioos made here belcm
6.3: Recommendations
The follcming recommendations have been made in the hope that those concerned may consider
them useful and possibly helpful in seeking ways to improve the teaching and assessing of the
listening skills in general and listening comprehension in particular. The possible impact of the
findings and therefore recommendations made here will have far reaching implications for
teacher training; pedagogy, materials development and evaluation both in primary and secondary
schools.
6.3.1: General Recommendations for English Language Teaching ILearning and Listening
Skills in General
6.3.1.1: Need for an integrated effort by the main stakeholders
There is need for an integrated effort on the part of the main stakeholders (the teachers,
curriculum developers, teacher trainers and examiners) in order to achieve efficient teaching and
learning of listening and speaking skills for effective classroom instruction. This can be dooe by
the respective school heads of English sensitising all teachers to use all teaching opportunities to
teach listening skills. For example, apart from the English language teacher, the Science teacher
could also use tasks from Science books to teach sub skills like listening for meaning. Coocerted
efforts are also needed by the universities, KIE and KNEC in the trainiDg and development of
teachers of English, both in pedagogy and assessment techniques in listening skills. They could
jointly or separately organise courses and seminars for this. Such synergy can go a long way in
improving not ooly the listening skills of students, but also English language in general.
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6.3.1.2: Need for English Language Teacher Proficiency
English Language teacher training shoold be rigoroos so the teachers are well versed in the
teaching of all the skills of English language. During training, pre- service teachers should be put
in practice situations where they should be able to spe<i<fluently, write c:rtdread well and listen
well. It is the recommendation of this research that if the English Ic:rtguageteacher should be
able to teach the oral skills of speaking and listening, the language laboratory should be re-
introduced in colleges and universities that train teachers. This woold enable the student teacher
to deliberately learn also how to listen and listen with comprehension in order to pass on the
same skills to the learners. Universities, which train teachers, shoold revise their English
language teacher training programmes, to put more emphasis on practice of listening skills.
Thorough practice would make the teacher and therefore the learners habituate the skill withoot it
being assumedto be developing automatically.
Teachers playa vital role in the implementation of the curriculum. They need to be equipped with
the necessary skills and attitudes to teach and test oral skills. Adopting the teaching and
assessing of the listening skills dictates specialised teacher preparation that is focussed on
enabling them to master the sub skills of listening. Value should therefore be placed in training
teachers in instructional and assessment practices that focus on the ability of learners to perform
specified listening tasks. The lack of specialised teachers in some schools is a disadvantage,as
they may not possess the same skills that they are expected to develop in their learners.
It has been observed that the quality of some teachers of English is wanting. Yet they are
supposed to be role models for their students. Fa the present Integrated approach to the
teaching of English, the teacher must be trained in the teaching of both language and litera)'
skills. Thus, there is need to in-service train teachers who may not have this advantage, in the
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tead1ing of English and particularly the teaching of oral skills for which they were not initially
prepared. In addition to this, there is need for regulCl'CIld frequent refresher training of al English
language tead1ers through workshops so that they keep abreast with what needs to be done
especially in the implementation of teaching the listening skills. Instead of having a wakshop
once in fNery three yea's on syllabus coocerns, it is important that this be done three times a
yeCl'fa HODs a'ld twice fNery year fa teachers.
6.3.1.3: Emphasis on Communicative Activities in the English Syllabus
With the current emphasis of the syllabus on the communicative language teaching approach,
emphasis needs to be re-oriented to the needs of the development of communicative activities
most inherent in the oral skills of speaking and listening. This can be done more by the stress on
classroom activities such as listening to hypothetical telephone cooversations; stories; directions
and instructions; oral literature genres among others. Students' involvement in classroom talk
should not be limited to asking and answering questions. Speaking about the same among peers
and with the teacher about several issues would greatly improve listening abilities. Ideally,
speaking and listening should be deliberately incorporated in exercises in all lessons, for
example grammCl'and composition.
6.3.1.4: Teaching Oral Skills across the Curriculum
Considering that a high proficiency in the English language, and therefore in listening skills is
very crucial in lea'ning across the curriculum, it is important that tead1ers of other subjects also
be in-service trained on aspects of English language such as listening skills so that they support
the English la1guage teacher. Students should also be made to appreciate that work in other
subjects provides opportunities for practising ora English and this should be exploited in full. The
History teacher could for instates, learn hOYIto train and assess learners on how to listen for
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specifics a selected significCllt details fron a Histaica passage. Another good exanple could
be drawn from Chemistry, where the Chemistry teacher may ask students to give an aal report
of what happened in an experiment as others listen and take notes a asked to recount what was
said. This can be done through awa-eness building and sensitisatioo workshops with teachers of
other subjects, spea-headed by the head of the English department.
6.3.1.5:Teaching strategies
For proper and progressive development of the listening skills, the teachers need to expose
learners first through rigorous listening to specific elements of English language (task listening)
such as articulation of sounds, pronunciation, intooation, stress and rhythm in words and
sentences. Ustening to looger structures such as sentences, brief explanations such as
directions and respooding to questioos can follow this. The listening comprehension skills
demand listening to longer spoken discourses such as stories, dialogue or poems and should be
developed alongside the former two so that all the listening skills can be developed
simultaneously as they are mutually related.
6.3.2: Specific Recommendations for the Teaching and Assessment of the listening
Comprehension Skills
6.3.2.1:Classroom Practice I Methodology
Because listening is the basis of all learning, listening habits must be established at early age
(form 1 for seconday schad) as a continuation from primary schad, through consistent practice.
The teacher of English should encourage classroon canmunication by integrating listening
training into lessens from the start, exercising auditory perception by passive listening
canprehension exercises; practise dynamic listening, that is, combine listooing to speech with
visua perception, with writing, reading CI1dmime and so on, so that listening is not dissociated
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from other skills. The te<£her shoold therefae am to develop listening drills first to foster
suroessful positive listening experiences, then develop more advanced listening activities.
It is important that the teacher is given guidance on how to conduct listening lessons. This is in
light of the fed the teaching of listening skills has never been deliberately CI1dcooscioosly been
practised in class. Pre-service English language teachers were never put in training sessions
during their teacher training where they were seen to practise a lesson in teaching the listening
skills like through micro-teaching or teaching practice. Uke it is done for the case of other skills of
English like reading comprehension; writing ccrrposifion or summary during pre-service teacher
training, the same should be done for listening skills- pre-service teachers should be observed
and assessed in how they practise teaching these skills. The in-service teacher also needs to be
in-service trained on the same because they did not have this opportunity in their pre-service
training. It is hoped that the renewed spirit of the introduction of emphasis of the teaching of oral
skills will not suffer the same fate, as those areas that have been introduced in the past and
teachers have not been prepared on how to implement them. There needs to be a relationship
between theory, pdicy and practice when implementing syllabus recommendations.
Some recommended enrichment listening activities for use woold be a variation of stimulus
through story telling in class, listening comprehension conpetitlons, role-playing by students
(guided by the teacher), simplified questioning, note taking, teacher's speech fdlowed by
questions to the class, music, poetry, conversations, gevnes and frequent class discussions.
6.3.2.2: The Course Book and other Resource Books
It is recanmended that since the teacher heavily relies on the English CCXJrsebook, the teachers'
guide book shcold include a variety of listening exercises and tasks that cover discrete elements
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of listening (task listening), structures and longer listening canprehension discourses. Materials
on pronunciation and intonation exercises, directions and instructioos, announcements,debates,
oral literature tarns, poems, stories, conversations, diaogues from books, news and listening to
a list of things, sequences and interviews could be included in the course bock so that the
teacher has a large repertoire of materials to choose from. This is bearing in mind the fact that
there are a variety of learners with different listening strategies and we also have a variety of
listening sub skills to be catered for by each material. In addition, this shoold as much as
possible, be used in real communication. In this way, the individual differences in the learning of
the different listening skills by learners can be taken care of.
School administrations shoold encourage teachers and HODs of languages to acquire a variety
of listening materials by preparing their own, invdving learners in preparing materials and
purchasing others. This would help them to acquire a bank of materials from which to draw a
variety of activities and to cater for the individual learners as much as possible. Such an audio-
visual cdlection would include stories; recorded speeches, talks, songs, poems, factual
passages; extracts from students' compositions; extracts from literature set books and classroom
discourse such as lectures and student-student or teacher-student conversations.
It is good to report here that the revised English syllabuses at primary and secondary levels have
underscored the importance of oral skills for language learning. The syllabuses have further re-
emphasised the integrated approach to the teaching of the four language skills. However it
shoold not be assumed that teachers would use these tasks even when there are no guidelines,
instructions arid refresher courses for this. It is therefore recanmended that teachers' resource
books, which give proper guidelines on the teaching of competencies of the four languageskills,
may be published. Such teacher support materials could be detaled enough; giving the teacher
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guidelines 00 the abilities expected of the learner and the various methods, activities and
resoorces the teacher can use in order to develop the skill. In eddition, such a resource bock
could include infa-mation for the teacher on which activities and tasks can be used to assess
learners' acquisition and mastery of the skill. Above all, such a resource book may provide the
teacher with the indicators to look fa- in a-der to knaN that listening is taking place in class. In-
service training should then follow this on how to use these resources. This would help the
teacher to carry out school- based assessment of the oral skills, particularly, listening.
6.3.2.3: Teaching and Learning materials
Over reliance on the speech drills and pronunciation exercises from the reca-nmended course
book(s) may limit students' scope of practice exercise and therefore exposure. The material used
for example, should come from what students usually listen to in a real life classroom or
communication outside the classroom; not for instance, passages that are meant fa- reading
comprehension a- summary. These are usually written in a language that is basically meant for
reading and re-reading, not for listening.
Listening comprehension materials should be relevant to learner's experiences and age levels,
and the values expressed in them should be within the leaners' scope of experience and
interest. The language, register and topic used should also be of the relevant level. Therefore, for
the frrm three student, the vocabulary used in such material should be of their level; and
reference made to characters, people, events such as weddings, sports md visiting days,
objects, things or places should also be familiar or not too had to imagine Clld therefore over
stretch learners' imagination Reference could be made to people and events from society and
even from the literature set books (with the integrated approach) such as pditica leooers; their
friends, teachers, relatives, or places and objects they knaN. Use of unfamiliCl' references and
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use of complex language is likely to discourage and thwart students' efforts to listen. A friendly
envirooment needs to be enhanced through materials that will stimulate listening. For exanple,
topics 00 fashion, self, places sum as makets, shq>ping rnals, meeting points, friends, fClTlily,
interesting events sum as sports, cultur~ functions aid about celebrities, news on the
entertainment scene sum as: music, movies aid entertainment sports. This should be in addition
to what they must know, for example toolos on health, the environment, schad subjects, rules,
religion, directions, instructioos and behaviour. Learners should also be accustomed to listening
to more of dialogues! conversations with serious practice so that they get used to the skills of
following drama when studying the play in literature and also when drcmatizing events in any
literary text.
It is recommended that materials provided in any students' course book and teacher's guide for
teaching listening comprehension skills should be from authentic spoken language and what they
are likely to listen to in school. Materials that do not use language that contains natural features
of spoken language such as pauses, hesitations, non-verba cues and syntactical continuity
would disadvantage- the listener. Authors and publishers of English language books should
therefore put this into consideratioo by producing listening materials that contain informatioo that
evfY:YKenyan secondary schad learner can easily fdlow and enjoy to listen to.
6.3.2.4: The Development of listening Comprehension skills
Findings of this study show that the performance on the various sub skills is not dependent on
one another. Therefore, a lot of emphasis needs to be placed 00 the gradual developmentof the
listening comprehension competencies such that the lower order listening comprehension sub
skills such as listening for gist, specifics and selected significant details are developed from form
one. This should be done aloogside the higher-order ones such as ability to draw inferences,
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grasp meanings of unknown words, predict oatcones, listen for speakers' thought, tone and
intention and pCl"aphrasing,as the students advance to higher classes, that is, the simpler skills
progressively building into the more complex ones. Formal instructioo in listening should aim
both to present learners with increasingly challenging listening texts and pedagogic tasks and to
induce the learner to resdve points of nan- understanding and misunderst~ding.
It is therefore strongly recommended that the teaching of listening comprehensionskills be done
more rigorously with a lot of conscious and deliberate attention if the listening comprehension
proficiency levels of learners in English have to improve. The listening activities programme in
schools could be specific so that students look forward to them. Mastering the listening
comprehension competencies is only possible through practice, so teachers should not just talk
about these skills but allow pradice opportunities for students.
Since most classes in public secondary schools are usually large, strategies such as group work
could be employed. Here, learners ooild be engaged in discussion after listening to a talk,
informal lecture or explanation. This could then be followed by individual answers to the teacher's
questions. Another beneficial exercise deliberately aimed at developing listening skills would be
to ask students to listen to a talk or lecture and take notes as they listen. The teacher should
check the learner's notes to tell who is listening well, other factors notwithstanding.
6.3.2.5: Listening tasks
The quality of what one is asked to listen to is instrumental in determining how well a listener
attends. It apoeas that form three students would mostly enjoy listening to discourses in
continuous prose such as news and stories. However, even in what they enjoy to listen to, when
it comes to assessment of the same, the questioning techniques ere significant because, as
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repated by the teachers, students' general English language proficiency affected their ability to
answer questions on what they had listened to. Questions asked should promote both literal and
interpretive or critical responses. So the language of the questions and tasks should be
appropriate and the teachers too need to pay attention to learners' acquisition and knowledge of
vocabulary and syntactic structures in order to help them get equipped with the correct granmar
in which to respond to what they have listened to. Instruction that will build a large and
meCllingful aural vocabulary is neededto equip students with a listening vocabulary.
Teachers also need to VCf:ythe tasks so as to meet the needs of a variety of learners as much as
possible. Other types of tasks would be re-ordering what has been listened to, following and
acting upon instructions and diredions, solving a problem, matching words and sentences with
what is seen or written, and sequendng.
Support materials should be provided to accompany listening tasks. This may be in form of
diagrams, illustrations, photographs,grids, maps, objects and real things. This will help learners
focus their attention on the relevant information in the listening text rather than distraction with
potentially confusing infamation. The teachers of English should also go out of their way to
provide additional activities for listening because it must be appreciated that no single course
book may be exhaustive enough to cater for the interests, experiences CIld leCf:ningstyles of
every individualleCf:ner.
6.3.2.6: Listening Materials, Tasks and Gender
The findings of this study revealed that the rural girls performed poorer than the boys. It aso
apoeas that the urbai girls were stronger on foilaNing a dialogue! conversation whose material
was based on boyl girl relationships. The girls for example, did not fair as well as boys when it
290
came to listening and responding to events that happened at a stadium during a concert (in
subtest 2), which highly interested the boys on the other hand. The fact that there was a variation
on perfClTTlance00 the different sub skills of listening comprehension has implications foc
pedagogy in terms of choice of listening materials foc gender and locality. It appears that the girls
would favour different materials from the boys. It is therefore recommended that teachers take
care when choosing the type of listening materials for the different gender atd make deliberate
efforts to help the female students to be more active in listening activities. So, when teachers
choose materials, they should mix all types and genres to cater for the interests of both gender
and children from all localities.
Results showed that the rural learner would be more comfortable, for example, with oral art forms
and stories while the urban learner would fair well with news, dialogues and poetry. It is
recommended that the K.l.E curriculum planner of English needs to guide the classroom teacher
by providing a wide repertoire of materials for teachers to choose from, in order to suit their
specific students.
6.3.2.7:The Teacher's Role in Development of Listening Skills in the Classroom
The teacher should make the physical classroom conditions conducive to good listening; practise
courtesy all the time and prepare interactive listening activities where slhe is also a listener. S/he
should follOlNa normal lesson outline in teaching listening and foliOlNit systematically, with an
objective for each listening experience aid be psychologically alert for symptoms of non-
listening, that is, the teacher should pay attention and have an intention/purpose. The learners
shoold be made to feel free to ask questions without fear or ridicule. During the actual lesson,
specific listening comprehension skills shoold be talght; for exanple: wocd perception,
comprehension of ideas and use of ideas to build understanding. In addition, visual aids could be
291
used to hap students focus attention CI'ld reinforce concepts. Efforts should also be rnede by the
tead1er to provide for individual diffi:rences such as the gifted, talented, siaN or dull children by
grouping them accordingly and giving them the appropriate practice.
The major task of the teacher of English in the mixed school is to help all students, especially the
female ones to practise the listening skills confidently and get ovoc the shyness that may be
contributing to their poor performance compared to their male counterparts in the same schools.
Deliberate efforts have to be made in this regard because their performance was found to be
appalling when they are in mixed schools.
Generally, it is advised that teachers use mainly student-oriented strategies, using materials that
are student-oriented and student-negotiated, but guided by the teacher. The use of media such
as radio, tape recording the students' voices and listening to them, reading positive stories about
girls/women and boys/men from print media and getting motivating resource persons is also
highly recanmended.
It is also recommended that teachers themselves engage in classroom research in their students
language learning; that is, actioo ~iented research to discover for themselves, areas that need
attention in the teaching of the listening skills.
6.3.2.8: Extra time allocation on the timetable
With the increase of the demands on the teachoc of English to teach and assess the oral skills, it
would suffice to allocate more time to English lessons from eight to nine lessons in a week in
order to give listening skills more attention. Alternatively, the current eight lessons coold be
reviewed with a view to equitably distributing the vC¥iouslanguage and literary skills teaching,
292
withoot bias on are or two skills. Then, in 4 - 6 of the lCl1!Juagelessons, the teaching of listening
skills could be integrcied a1d taJght deliberately that is, a specific progrcmme for orcJ skills
(speaking Cl1dlistening). It is hoped that the KIE sylloous designers ta<e cognisance of this need
in a further review of the English language syllabus so that listening skills are actively used in the
classroom ensuring interactive and reactive listening takes place. This demands adequate time
and commitment on the part of the teacher; hence the need fa the capacity building of teachers
as earlier discussed.
6.3.2.9: The English Language Room I Laboratory
It is recanmended that every school make efforts to provide an English language room, either a
temporary or permanent one, to be used for the oral skills lessons. One finding from this study
was that one of the main factors that effected abilities of listening comprehension was physical
noise. So the listening exercises would benefit from a conducive, quiet place that allows for
concentration by learners. Efforts should be made by every school to have a tape recorder from
which audiotapes can be played; and this can be best done CNJay from the regular classroom,
using materials such as hypothetical interviews, stories, conversations and factual information.
This facility would also allow learners to learn at their own pace. Above all, the teachers of
English would need to be trained to handle listening training lessons. Therefore, the teacher
training institutions would themselves have to be equipped with a language laboratory for this
purpose.
6.3.2.10: Revising and Improving the English Syllabus
A brief alalysis of the revised syllabus and the course books was done in order to back up the
discussion of the data frorn the dd syllabus (1992). An initial effort has been observed. After
observing the deficiencies of the dd syllabus, a new develq>ment carne up: The New Integrated
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English LCilguage syllci>us (2002), which is a revised and improved version atd includes more
listening and listening canprehension materials CIld tasks. HONever,a reffectioo on the revised
syllabus objectives indicates that there are no objectives that explicitly tooch 00 the development
of the listening skill. Despite the effats made, there is still a bias for speaking skills as they try to
cater more for oral skills. Further review of the English syllabus objectives is required.
While lauding the major shift in listening content emphasis and improvement, there is a need to
spread oot emphasis on pronunciation, structures and listening materials and tasks and give the
teacher adequate guidance on teaching methods, activities and assessment strategies. The
formats of listening tasks are varied including those in continuous prose; instructions, directions
and debate but the play and dialogue are not catered for. Yet this is where students were foond
to perform poorest. Therefore, authors shoold provide variety when developing listening
materials.
6.3.2.11: Assessment
In order to minimise the costs and challenges in implementing the summative mode of
assessment, school-based assessment (SBA) woold be key to the assessment of listening and
speaking skills. It is recommended that the students be assessed regularly (at least twice per
term) on listening comprehension skills. This can be done as continuous assessment throogh
fortnightly, monthly, end term tests and end year examinations.
The best way to assess oral skills woold be on a one to one basis. This therefore leaves the onus
on the school and therefore the classroom teacher, to embark on a programme where the
languages depaiment organises assessment sessions periodically to test learners' listening
comprehension competencies. One model that could be borrowed from is the Intemational
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General Certificate of SecoodCl)' Education (IGCSE) wha-e speaking a1d listening skills in
English as only tested in the coorsework. This lightens the studenfs workload but increases
teacha- workload. It is recommended that the KNEC reduces the number of written eXCl"nination
papers to two in orda- to lessen teachers' preparation work for heavy exaninalkns.
It is recommended that teachers may be given the rnaidate to examine at the school level and
forward students' marks on listening comprehension skills for inclusion in the total students'
achievement records at the end of form 4 (KCSE). Otherwise, if teachers and students' know that
what they teach and learn is not examinable and does not contribute to the students' final grade,
the recommendations made in this study cannot bear any fruit. SBA scores for such assessment
could be integrated into public examinations in future. However, the following would have to be
streamlined at school level:
• Proper record keeping of SBA scores
• Use of high quality SBA instruments to ensure reliable and valid assessment
• Assessors would have to be trained and a standard format be developed to ensure that
SBA scores are comparable across schools
• Technology is used to bring about efficiency in the use of SBA
• Adequate funding is allocated for the implementation of SBA by schools
All the above should be seen to because the logistics of the management of testing listening
skills summatively by KNEC would be impossible for such a large ca1didature as we have at
KCSE. There would be a challenge on the coordnalkn of examiners and the final reporting of
the scores. This is in addition to the financial challenges of running an oral test. There may also
be the problem of large inter-rater vCl"iabilityor uniformity in test scoring which would affect both
the validity and reliability of the results. Despite these challenges, attempts should be made by
'f 1
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stakeholders to face the challenges as discussed above. This researcher would strongly
recanmend the"use of the present instrument used in this study at school level because it was
subjected to all the cooditions of stCl1d~dizatiooas repa1ed in chapter three.
Most of the findings presented in section 6.1 above are consistent with the findings in the
research literature. This provides evidence to suggest that some of the results reg~ding the
objectives of this study can be successfully replicated. In the last sectioo of this work,
suggestions regarding further research into the area of listening are presented.
6.4: Suggestions for further research
The experience gained through the present research and interaction with students, teachers, and
HODs was an eye-opener to several areas that need delving. This study has uncoveredproblem
areas that require further investigation; hence, the researcher suggests the following:
a. Explore a model of inducting teachers to improve proficiency in listening skills among
students. This will help determine the best methods and resources that can be used to
develop listening skills.
b. 'MJy students perform differently on the various listening competencies: This would
entail finding out the individual differences and therefore different learning/listening
styles of learners in a variety of contexts.
c. A survey 00 how teachers are implementing the teaching of oral skills as stipulated in the
current syllabus.
d. The relatiooship between material type and listening proficiency.
e. A comparison of the effects of the use of non- text support materials and the human
resource in training learners in listening skills.
f. The relatiooship between listening comprehensiooand other languageskills.
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g. A oompaisoo of L1 and 12listening oomprehensioo.
h. The effects of different spd(en text types on Ustening canprehEllsion (fa excmple,
human,audioa video).
i. The relationship between learners' spd(en language proficiency CI1d listening
comprehEllsionproficiency.
j. The relationship between listening test task features/characteristics and test
peforrnaice.
k. An analysis of all the recommended English course books to evaluate the nature of
listening materials provided.
I. An analysis of the KCSE examinationsto see whether what is being tested is useful in
determininglearners' listening proficiency.
m. A replicationof this study on a larger sample.
Chapter Summary
This chapter has provided an overview of the main conclusionsdrawn from the findings of this
study. Relevant recommendations regarding the provision of listening materials, learners'
listening comprehension proficiency levels and the factors affecting the same have been put
forward with the hope that they will be implemented by those concerned. The scope of
generalizatioosindicatesviable areasfor further researchas outlined in section6.3.4.
This research has shown that the then recommended Integrated English Language (1992)
course book lacked in emphasisand variety with regard to the listening skills. Learnerswere also
found to have inadequate opportunities for practice. It has also revealed problems with the
teachers' own views, awareness and classroom practices, which leaves questions about their
own proficiency and experience in teaching listening skills. In effect, leaners' listening
297
proficiency levels wf?Kefoond to range from modest to limited. It was found that locale andschool
type affect listening proficiency and that gender is not a strong factor in listening proficiency.
Urban students performed better than their rural counterparts. These findings have implications
for English language teacher training programmes aid need for further research to gain more
insights into the development of this importalt skill of language.
In conclusion, the researcher would like to point oot that the problem; the objectives and
instruments were effective in guiding the conclusions made in this study. Validation of the
research instruments was arrived at by expert opinion; pilot study and confirmation of findings
from the main instruments by structured interviews. It is therefore hoped that fruitful infamation
will be obtained from this study for the continuing development of the teaching and assessment
of listening skills in general and listening comprehension in particular.
298
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Webster's Dictionary of English.
Wetherby. A. M. & Warren. S.F.(1998) "Introduction to Transitions in Pr&linguistic
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Wilkinson, A. M. (1978). 'Reseam in Ustening Comprehension". Journal of Educational
Research, Madism; Vcl.12. No.2. Mooison.
Wilkinson. A. M. Strata, L. & Dudley. D. (1974) The Quality of listening, Macmilla1.
Basingstoke.
Wilkinson. A. M. Strata. L. & Dudley. D. (1974). citing BrC7Nn.J. J. & Carlson, R. G. (1955).
Brown - Carlson Ustening Comprehension Test. New York: Hawcourt. Brace and World.
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Wilt. M. E (1999) in Taylor, S.E. (1966). Ustening . NEA Division of Publication.
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Web Sites
http://www.asian - elf - joumc*.can/ June-06- hyh.php
http:// www.caJ.org I publid bestest: html]-Janguage testing professionals ci ooline-
http/lwww.ca/.agI)
ERIC DIGEST Number 3Sea-ch page: Usfening: Are We Teoching it, If so. How?
http://lt:I1gue.hyper.chubu. ac. jp/ jaltl pub' tit/971 od/ dunkel. himl. Last modified Oct 19, 1997
317
APPENDICES
Appendix 1:
Content Analysis Grid for Listening Materials and tasks in Integrated English
Language Book 3
Book
Title
Adapted for use from: Hugh Templeton (1977) "A New Techniqu. for Measuring Ustening Comprehension"
English Unguag8 Teaching JoulTIIIl vol. 131.
Reference Notes: to be used with the content analysis grid
1.Tyoe of book
Could be students' book, teachers' book or workbook
2. Type of materials
Authentic? Simulated? Or script?
3. Suitable for
Elementary? Intermediate? Advanced?
4. Type of abilities/subskills
a) Discrimination of sounds (phonemic & supra segmental features) and words
b) UnderstCllding of specific elements (grammatical structures, vocabulary etc).
c) Ustening comprehension of passages ate - canmunication
5. Language level (suitability)
- Vocabulary, (Iaxis) sentences structure (syntax) (complexity/simplicity), linguistic
terms used?
- Register
6. Content relevance and familiarity
- FaniliCl' examples, contexts, age level interests, origin of examples
7. quantity and quality of coverage
- Spread over the terms?
318 "
- Time allocation?
- Provision for communicative listening?
8. Types of topics
- Types? Coocepts? Ideas? Details?
- Length of tasks?
9. Frequencv of tasks OOOJrr8l1OO
- Wee'tdy?Every lesson? Every term?
- Order of presentation! chronologyl sequence
10. Observed trends! patterns
Researcher's comments on the general nature of practice of listening ccrnprehension tasks
Appendix 2a:
Listening Comprehension test for Form Three students: Sub-test One
Introduction
i) This is a listening ccrnprehension test for form three.
ii) You are about to listen to a oonversatioo between Anna (the mother), Marya (Anna's
daughter) and Hlestakov (their male visitor).
ii1) You will listen through once, with special attention to the different speakers.
Now listen to the conversation (2.5 minutes)
ANNA:
I'
MARYA:
ANNA:
HLESTAKOV:
ANNA:
HLESTAKOV:
ANNA:
Tape script
(Enter Anna Andreyevna)
Oh! 'Mlat a scene! (Hfestakov rises) 'Mlat does this mean, Young
madam? What kind of behaviour is this?
Mummy!! .
Leave the room! You hear? And don't let me set eyes on you in here!
(Marya goes out, in tears)
(aside): She's very fetching too, not but at all ((sling on his knees) MadClTle,
you see, I CITIburning with love!
'Mlat? On your knees? Oh! Get up! Please get up! This floor is anything
but clean!
No! On my knees I beg of you, tell me my fate! Is it life or death?
Pardon me, I don't quite understand you! If f CI1l not mistaken, you Cl'e
asking fa my daughter's hand?
319
HLESTAKOV: No. It is you I love! My life is hmging by a thread! If you will nd require
my undying love, then I am unwaihy to wak the earth! With heart
<¥JON, I beg ycv: hand.
ANNA:
HLESTAKOV:
But alow me to mention that I em, in a manner of speaking, maried!
No matter! 'v\'hat ae the foonaities, besides an undying love? We will
fly to some shady dell by a aystal strecm. I ask yoor hand!
[M8I'f8 comes in rtIIning il)
MARYA: Mummy, Daddy says you must Oh! 'Mat a srene!
ANNA: Now what is it? UWe miss Flibberty - gibbert! Dashing about like a
scaded cat! Nobody would ev~ imagine you were eighteEll! You
behave like a child of three! I cart imagine when you'lIleam how a well-
bred young girl should behave! Such a disgraceful manner! 'Mat will
His Excellency think of yoo?
MARYA: (cf/SsoMng il tears) I am sorry, Mummy, I dido't think .
HLESTAKOV: (takilg Marya by the hand). Anna Andreyevna, do not spal our happiness!
Give a mother's blessing on our eternal love!
ANNA: (dump founded) Oh! So it's her, after all?
HLESTAKOV: Speak! Is It life or death?
ANNA: Their now! You see, you little silly, his Excellency was on his knees to
me, just for your sake! And you corne running in like a mad thing! It
woold serve you right if I refused!
MARYA: I won't do it again, Mummy really I won't.
(Adopted from the: Gogo!, N. The Government Inspector. EAEP Ud Naiobi, 1998, p.76 - 77)
iv) Now, you shall listen again to this conversation (tape replayed for 2.5 minutes).
End of the conversatioo
v) NC7Nopen your answer question papers, which have multiple choice and answer
short answ~s questions. In the provided space answ~ the questions that fallONby
ticking (..J) the correct answer and filling in the black space.
vi) You will do this by hearing the signa, "STARr
vii) The wCl"ningto stco will be given by a tap on the desk, two minutes befcre the end.
viii) 'Mlen you finish alswering the questions, put doNn your pal and rase your hand.
ix) The Cflswersheet will be cdlected aft~ 15 minutes.
NOW START
320
Appendix 2b:
Listening Comprehension test for Fonn Three: Subtest 1
Date: .
Your Name: .
Male·: , Female: '" , .
Name of School: , .
Province: .
District: .
Class: .
Stream: .
Questions for Subteit One
Time: 15 Minutes
Instructions
Tick the (..J ) correct answer.
Section A:
1. What does the Hlestakov (the male visitor) mean by "she is fetching too?"
a) She is attractive too ( )
b) She is tricky ( )
c) She is arriving ( )
d) She is productive ( )
2. Whom does 'she" refer to in (1) above?
a) Hleskatov ( )
b) Marya ( )
c) Anna ( )
d) Another girl ( )
3. Explain Hlestakov's words·1 am unworthy to walk the earth".
a) He is embarrassed ( )
b) He feels humiliated ( )
c) He is annoyed ( )
d) He is a sinner ( )
4. Choose the best description of Hlestakov's character from the statement below.
a) He is noisy and foolish ( )
b) He is romantic and caring ( )
/
321
c) He is a flirt, sly liar
d) He is talkative and careful
5. How can you describe Anna's (the mother) behaviour from the oonversation?
a) Nagging ( )
b) Domineering ( )
c) Emotional ( )
d) Rude ( )
6. Where does the event take place?
a) In the garden (
b) At a church (
c) Hlestakov's office \ (
d) A room in Anna's house (
Section B:
Instructions:
Write your answer in the space provided.
7. Is Anna honest when she says that she hopes Hlestakov is asking for Marya's hand?
Explain _
8. What change of events occurs during the oonversation?
TOTAL = 10 marks
Appendix 3a:
Listening Comprehension test for Fonn Three: Subtest 2:
Tape script
Instructions:
i) This is Ustening Comprehension Test for Form Three.
ii) You are going to listen to a short story (an anecdote) about a man's social
experience.
iii) Yau will first listen once.
Now listen to the story (1% minutes)
Narrator. I was at one of those "Music and Wads" evenings at oor local hall. Yoo knON, an
evening of songs and poetry by loca amateurs. There was a woman 00 the stage reajing a
poem. She had such a rasping voice that I turned to the man sitting next to me, and in a whisper,
commented 00 it. He looked at me rather frostily and whispered back: "That is my wife', Not
knCM'ing quite what to do, CIld beginning to fidget, I muttered; 'Oh, I didn't racily meal her voice;
I meant the poem she's reading.' He looked at me agan CI1dhissed, "/ wrote it.' Islumped dONn
322
in my seat and hid my face. It wt£, as near as I coold get to disappearing through a hole in the
floor!
(That is the end of the story).,
(Mapted from: Ki7gsbury, Rand Spratta, AI. (1990). Longma1 Profcimcy Ski/s: Course &ok and Teacher's
Guide. Longma1 Group Ud p.60 a1d 68.)
iv) Ishall narrate agcin GIldyou will listen attentively once again. (Tape replayed
again for 1% minute). End of the story.
v) Now opal your question - answer papers, which have short alswer
questions, and in the provided spaces briefly provide your answers.
vi) You will do this on hearing the signal "STARr.
vii) The warning to stop will be given by a tap on the desk, two minutes before the end.
viii) 'Mlen you finish answering the questions, put down your pen and raise your
hand.
x) The answer sheets will be collected after 20 minutes.
NOW START
Appendix 3b:
Listening Comprehension Test for Form Three: Sub test 2
Questions for Subtest Two
Time: 20min Date: .
Your Name: .
Male: Female: .
Nameof School: '" ..........................•.....................................
Province: .
District: .
Class: .
Stream: ..•.•......•...............................•.••.•.....•............•......•....................
Instructions:
Give brief answers to the following in the space provided.
1. INhere was the speakerl narrator at the time?
" - / ,r
", '- " 'I
323
2. 'MIat was the woman doing?
~e? _
3. 'Mlo was the speaker sitting next to?
4. 'MIat do you think the speaker said to the man?
5. 'MIy did the speaker begin to blush? _
6. How did he try to explain? ----:- _
7. 'MIat did the other man say in reply? _
And how did he say it? _
8. How did the speaker feel? _
'MI~ _
'MIat happened must have happened after this?
9. Explain the meaning of the word, "frostily" as used in the narrative.
10. VVhich of the three characters considered the woman's poem a masterpiece?
Ex~an---- _
(TOTAL = 20 MARKS)
THANK YOU
Appendix 4a:
Listening Comprehension test for Fonn Three: Sub-Test Three
Tape script
Instructions:
ii) This is a Ustening Conprehension Test for Form Three.
iii) You CJ"egoing to listen to a news summary of what happened at a concert by a
British pop group.
Hi) You will first listen through once.
Now listen to the Newssummary
324
Four pecole were killed and more than fifty injured when fClls rushed into a stadium in Chicago
yesterday where the British pop grOl4> "Fantas( were giving a conrert. The incident ooourred
when gates were opened to admit a huge craNd of young people waiting outside the stooium fa
the sae cI UlYeserved seat tickets. P9q)/e were knocked (N9f in the rush and trampled under
foot as the crowd surged faward. The concert later went ahead as p/CIlned with "Fantasy"
unaware of what had happened. A police spd<esmCll said that they had decided to filaN the
concert to proceed in ader to avoid further trouble. There has been criticism of the concert
orgCllizers fa not enStXing that all the tickets wa-e sold in advance. Roy TOOmpS01, leader of
"FCIltas(, said afterwards that the whole group was "shattered" when they heard what had
happened. They are now oonsidaing calling off the rest of thEir United States tour.
(And that is the end of the news summary).
Adapted from: Reasons for UstetJing, De'lid Scalborough, (1988). Cambridge UnivtlSity Press
iv) I shall read again and you will listen attentively 0000 again. (Tape replayed agcin for 2
minutes). End of the news summary.
v) Now coen your question - answer papers, which have multiple choice answer
questions, and in the provided spaces, answer the questioos that fdlows by ticking (...J
) the correct answer.
vi) You will do this on hearing the signal ·START".
vii) The warning to stop will be given by a tap on the desk, two minutes before the end.
viii) When you finish cmwering the questions, put down your pen and raise your hand.
ix) The answer sheets will be collected after 15 minutes.
Appendix 4b:
listening Comprehension test for Form Three: Sub-Test Three
Questions to Sub-Test Three
Time: 15minutes Date: .
Your Narne: '" .
Male: Female: .
Nameof School: .
Province: .
District: .
Class: .
Stream: ..........................................................................•....................
325
Instructions
i) Answer afl questions
iij TICk (..J) the correct answer in the sp~ provided
1. What were the people outside waiting for?
a) Togo and dance (
b) To cause trouble having been denied entry (
c) To sell tickets (
d) To sell the unreserved tid<ets (
2. Why were the organizers of the ooncert being criticised
a) Because they were the cause of the trouble ( )
b) Because they did not sale all the tickets in advance ( )
c) Because they ran out of tickets ( )
d) Because they sold all the tickets too early ( )
3. What was Roy Thompson's role
a) Group leader ( )
b) Policeman ( )
c) "Fantasy" spokesman ( )
d) Crowd puller ( )
4. Do "fantasy" have plans of oontinuing with their tour of the U.S.A?
a) We do not know (
b) Yes (
c) No, they are disappointed (
d) No, they are 'shattered' (
5. The number of people killed and injured was:
a) Fifty ( )
b) Sixty ( )
c) Fifty-four ( )
d) Several ( )
6. The adjective that best describes the mood of the concert group?
a) Popular ( )
b) Shattered ( )
c) Fantasy ( )
d) Ecstatic ( )
7. Why are "Fantasy" oonsidering altering their tour plans?
a) Because the policemen are interfering wnh them ( )
b) Because they are scared of the Americans ( )
c) Because they were upset the way the fans were injured ( )
d) Because their leader advised them to do so ( )
8. When exactfy did the incident take place?
a As soon as the concert started ( )
a) When a huge crowd of young people forced the gates open ( )
b) When the gates were opened ( )
c) Before the British pop-group arrived in the stadium ( )
326
9 Why did the incidenre occur?
a) Because the gates were opened abruptly to oomit huge cro..w ( )
b) Because the crowd surged forward in an attempt to see
members of the pop group ( )
c) Because the unreserved seat tickets ran out ( )
d) Because the group refused to perform ( )
10. What did Roy Thompson say when he heard what hoo happened?
a) That the concert organizers were to blame for the incident )
b) That most of his oolleagues were shattered ( )
c) That they were oonsidering calling off the rest of their United States tour ( )
d) That his group would donate the concert's gate oollections ( )
(Total = 15 Maries)
Appendix 5a:
Difficulty, Discrimination and Elicitation Indices and Point Bi-Serial
Correlation for Subtest One.•For test refinement
ITEM Elicitation Index Difficulty Index Discrimination Point a·serial Remarks
(EI) Index (01) (rplll)
1 0.94 0.14 0.11 0.124 AcceptlRevise
2 0.97 0.14 0.125 0.082 Reject
3 0.92 0.39 -0.60 -0.201 Reject
4 0.97 0.44 0.875 0.573 \CCePt
5 0.92 0.64 0.60 -0.179 ICCePtJRevise
6 0.97 0.03 0.10 0.293 cceot
7 0.97 0.56 0.73 0.480 Accept
8 0.97 0.86 1.00 0.275 Accept
9 0.97 0.47 0.50 0.329 Accept
10 1.00 0.50 0.78 0.594 Accept
11 0.92 0.67 1.00 0.684 I.ccept
12 1.00 0.53 0.67 0.472 \ccept
13 0.97 0.75 0.75 0.303 \ccept
N=36 Ave. 0.603
Diff= 0.44
,
';
, J 7 .f
327
Appendix 5b:
Elicitation, Difficulty, Discrimination and Elicitation Indices and Point Bi-
Serial Correlation for Subtest Two- For Test Refinement
ITEM Elicitation IndeX Difficulty Index Discrimination Point Bi-serial (r.-) Renwtt.
(8) Index (DI)
1 1.00 0.17 0.11 0.073
2 1.00 0.11 0.20 0.545 Accepf/Revise
3 1.00 0.06 0.20 0.357 Reject
4 1.00 0.14 0.30 0.464 Accept
5 1.00 0.28 0.25 0.263 Accept
6 1.00 0.28 0.40 0.532 Accept
7 1.00 0.17 0.10 0.057 Accept
8 0.97 0.14 0.20 0.135 Accept
9 0.89 0.83 0.67 0.275 AcceptJRevise
10 0.97 0.42 0.30 0.684 AcceptIRevise
11 0.97 0.50 0.89 0.578 Aceeot
12 0.97 0.36 0.75 0.458 Accept
13 0.92 0.78 0.33 0.250 Accept
14 0.89 0.33 0.78 0.736 Accept
N=36 Ave. Diff= 0.33 0.42
Appendix 5c:
Elicitation, Difficulty, Discrimination and Elicitation Indices and Point Bl-
Serial Correlation for Subtest Three- For test refinement
ITEM Elicitation Index Difficulty Index Discrimination Point Bi-serial Remarks
(EI) Index(DI) (rplli)
1 1.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Reject
2 1.00 0.06 0.10 0.07 AcceptlRevise
3 1.00 0.00 o.ce 0.00 Reject
4 1.00 0.81 0.75 0.304 . Accept
5 0.97 0.08 0.00 ~.072 Reject
6 1.00 0.03 0.10 0.255 Accept
7 1.00 0.47 0.50 0.319 Accept
8 1.00 0.06 0.10 0.050 Reject
9 0.97 0.42 0.75 0.532 Accept
10 1.00 0.14 0.00 0.158 AcceptJRevise
11 1.00 0.06 0.20 0.422 AcceptIRevise
12 1.00 0.53 1.00 0.653 Accept
13 1.00 0.60 0.75 0.500 Accept
14 1.00 0.83 0.33 0.012 evise
N=36 AveO.53. 0.35
00= 0.29
E.I = Number of subjects who attempted Item
Total Number of respondents (N)
Difficulty Index (01) = No of passing Item
Total Number of subjects
01 = Number getting Item correct from 27% - Number getting correct from lower 27%
2]0" of all top candidates (Upper 27%)
328
Appendix 6a:
Subtest 1: Calculation of coefficient of reliability - split - half method for test
refinement
Scaeon
Score on 'tIotloIe Score on odd even test Rank on odd Rank on
test test items scores items even items d dZ
1 88 44 44 2 1.5 0.5 0.25
2 81 43.5 37.5 3 5.5 2.5 615
3 75 37.5 37.5 4 5.5 1.5 215
4 75 50 25 1 16 15 225
5 69 31 38 10 3.5 6.5 42.25
6 69 31 38 10 3.5 6.5 42.25
7 69 25 44 15.5 1.5 14 196
8 63 31.5 31.5 5.5 7 1.5 2.25
9 56 31 25 10 16 6 36
10 50 31 19 10 24 14 196
11 50 31 19 10 24 14 196
12 50 19 31 22 9 13 169
13 50 25 25 15.5 16 0.5 0.25
14 50 25 25 15.5 16 0.5 0.25
15 50 31 19 10 24 14 196
16 50 19 31 22 9 13 169
17 50 19 31 22 9 13 169
18 44 19 25 22 16 6 36
19 44 19 25 22 16 6 36
20 50 31 19 10 24 14 196
21 44 19 25 22 16 6 36
22 44 19 25 22 16 6 36
23 38 13 25 29.5 16 13.5 182.25
24 38 13 25 29.5 16 13.5 182.25
25 31 12.5 18.5 32.5 28 4.5 20.25
26 38 31.5 6.5 5.5 35 29.5 870.25
27 38 25 13 15.5 30.5 15 225
28 38 19 19 22 24 2 4
29 31 18.5 12.5 27.5 33 5.5 30.25
30 31 6 25 35.5 16 19.5 380.25
31 31 18.5 12.5 27.5 33 5.5 30.25
32 31 12.5 18.5 32.5 28 4.5 20.25
33 31 12.5 18.5 32.5 28 4.5 20.25
34 25 12.5 12.5 32.5 33 0.5 0.25
35 25 19 6 22 38 14 196
38 19 6 13 35.5 30.5 5 25
4174.49
l:dl = 4174.49 N = 36r",,= 1(6X4174.49I33(362-1»= 1 - (25046.94136x 1295) = 1-0.542:0.46
corecton
rt= 2xO.4611-+O.46= 0.92/1.46 2: 0.63
329
Appendix 6b:
Subtest 2: Calculation of coefficient of reliability - split - half method- For
test Refinement
Scaeon
Scae on whole Scaeonodj even test Rank on ockj Rank on
test test items itEmS itEmS even items d cf2
1 90 45 45 1 9.5 8.5 72.25
2 75 25 50 19.5 3 16.5 272.25
3 85 35 50 6 3 3 9
4 85 40 45 2 9.5 7.5 56.25
5 85 35 50 6 3 3 9
6 80 35 45 6 9.5 3.5 12.25
7 60 20 50 26 18.5 7.5 56.25
8 80 35 45 6 9.5 3.5 12. ~
9 80 35 45 6 9.5 3.5 12.25
10 75 30 45 13 9.5 3.5 12.25
11 75 35 40 6 18.5 12.5 156.25
12 75 25 50 19.5 3 16.5 272.25
13 75 30 45 13 9.5 3.5 12.25
14 70 30 40 13 18.5 5.5 30.25
15 70 30 50 13 18.5 5.5 30.25
16 70 20 40 26 3 23 529
17 65 25 40 19.5 18.5 1 1
18 65 25 40 19.5 18.5 1 ,
'9 00 2() 40 26 18.5 7.5 56.25
20 60 20 40 26 18.5 7.5 56.25
21 60 30 30 13 28 15 225
22 70 35 35 6 25.5 19.5 380.25
23 70 30 40 13 18.5 5.5 30.25
24 70 25 45 19.5 9.5 1 1
25 55 15 40 32.5 18.5 14 196
26 50 15 35 32.5 25.5 7 49
27 45 30 15 13 34 21 441
28 50 15 35 32.5 25.5 7 49
29 50 15 35 32.5 25.5 7 49
30 45 20 25 26 29.5 3.5 12.25
31 45 25 20 19.5 29.5 10 100
32 45 20 25 26 31.5 5.5 30.25
33 35 15 20 32.5 34 1.5 2.25
34 35 20 15 26 31.5 5.5 30.25
35 25 15 10 32.5 34 1.5 2.25
36 25 10 15 36 36 0 0
3365.5
N = 36 rcf2 = 3385.5
rt~=(6x3365.5136(362-1)}=1-{20193136x1295)= 1-20193146620= HI.433= 0.567 =0.57
Carection
r. = 2xO.5711-t{).57= 1.1411.57 = 0.726 = 0.73
330
Appendix 6c:
Subtest 3: Calculation of coefficient of reliability - split - half method - For
the test refinement
Sccreon
Sccre on v.tloIe Sccre on octJ even test Rank onO<tj Rank on
test test items items items even items d d!
1 86 50 36 2.5 9 6.5 42.25
2 86 43 43 10 2.5 7.5 56.25
3 86 50 36 2.5 9 6.5 42.25
4 86 43 43 10 2.5 7.5 56.25
5 86 43 43 10 2.5 7.5 56.25
6 79 43 36 10 9 1 1
7 79 43 36 10 9 1 1
8 79 43 36 10 9 1 1
9 79 43 36 10 9 1 1
10 79 36 43 19.5 2.5 17 289
11 79 43 36 10 9 1 1
12 79 50 29 2.5 21 18.5 342.25
13 79 43 36 10 9 1 1
14 79 50 29 2.5 21 18.5 342.25
15 79 43 36 10 9 1 1
16 71 35.5 35.5 25.5 16.5 9 81
17 71 35.5 35.5 25.5 16.5 9 81
18 71 42.5 28.5 17 28 11 121
19 71 42.5 28.5 17 28 11 121
20 71 35.5 35.5 25.5 16.5 9 81
21 71 35.5 35.5 25.5 16.5 9 81
22 71 42.5 28.5 17 28 11 121
23 71 35.5 35.5 25.5 16.5 9 81
24 64 35.5 28.5 25.5 28 2.5 6.25
25 64 35.5 28.5 25.5 28 2.5 6.25
26 64 35.5 28.5 25.5 28 2.5 6.25
27 64 35.5 28.5 25.5 28 2.5 6.25
28 64 35.5 28.5 25.5 28 2.5 6.25
29 64 43 21 10 35 25 625
30 64 28.5 35.5 33.5 16.5 17 289
31 57 28.5 28.5 33.5 28 5.5 30.25
32 57 28.5 28.5 33.5 28 5.5 30.25
33 57 28.5 28.5 33.5 28 5.5 30.25
34 57 36 21 19.5 35 15.5 240.25
35 50 29 21 31 35 4 16
36 50 21 29 36 21 15 225
3519
N = 36 2:d!= 3519
filii = 1-{6x3519136(J62-1))=1-{21114136x1295)=1-(21114146620)=1..{).45=0.55
Carection
r. = 2xO.5&1~.55 = 1.111.55= 0.709 = 0.71
331
Appendix 7a:
Calculation of Point-Biserial Correlation Reliability Indices for
Items on Subtest One- From test Refinement
P «II P«II xp xq; xp- (xp-xq) VP«II (xp-xq) r,w
xca ~ca) ..Jr-ca .
1 0.861 0.139 0.120 48.52 42.60 5.92 0.710 0.346 0.048 0.124
2 0.861 0.139 0.120 47.90 46.40 1.50 0.180 0.346 0.519 0.082
3 0.611 0.389 0.238 45.00 51.93 -6.93 -1.649 0.480 -3.326 -0.201
4 0.556 0.4444 0.247 56.15 37.13 19.02 4.700 0.497 9.453 0.573
5 0.361 0.639 0.231 43.77 49.91 -6.14 -5.900 0.481 -2.953 -0.179
6 0.972 0.028 0.027 48.51 19.00 29.51 0.797 0.164 4.840 0.293
7 0.444 0.556 0.247 56.56 40.60 15.96 3.942 0.497 7.953 0.480
8 0.139 0.861 0.120 59.00 45.87 13.13 1.576 0.346 4.543 0.275
9 0.528 0.472 0.249 52.84 41.94 10.90 2.715 0.499 5.439 0.329
10 0.500 0.500 0.250 57.50 37.89 19.61 4.903 0.500 9.005 0.594
11 0.333 0.667 0.222 63.67 39.71 23.96 5.319 0.471 11.285 0.984
12 0.472 0.538 0.249 55.94 40.32 15.62 3.889 0.499 7.794 0.472
13 0.250 0.750 0.188 56.33 44.81 11.52 2.166 0.434 5.000 0.303
x of x 53.21 41.39
SO 5.96 8.06
6 5.72 7.74
Sx = (fest Package Deviafun) = 16.51
Appendix 7b:
Calculation of Point - Biserial Correlation Reliability Indices for
Items on Subtest Two- For test refinement
PI ~ P~ xPi x~ x PI - (xp-xq) "Pi «II (x p-xq) rplll
xq; (r-.QI) "r-q;
1 0.833 0.167 0.139 63.40 60.00 3.40 0.473 0.373 1.568 0.073
2 0.889 0.111 0.099 66.16 36.25 39.91 2.961 0.315 9.422 0.545
3 0.944 0.056 0.053 64.32 37.50 26.82 1.421 0.230 6.169 0.357
4 0.861 0.139 0.120 65.71 42.50 23.21 2.785 0.346 8.031 0.464
5 0.722 0.278 0.201 65.15 55.50 10.15 2.040 0.448 4.5147 0.263
6 0.722 0.278 0.201 58.54 48.00 20.54 4.129 0.448 9.202 0.532
7 0.833 0.167 0.139 62.54 65.00 -2.60 -0.361 0.378 -0.983 -0.057
8 0.861 0.139 0.120 63.77 57.00 6.77 0.812 0.346 2.342 0.135
9 0.167 0.833 0.139 73.33 60.73 12.60 1.751 0.378 4.763 0.275
10 0.583 0.417 0.243 73.33 49.33 24.00 5.832 0.493 11.832 0.884
11 0.500 0.500 0.250 72.48 52.50 19.98 4.995 0.500 9.99 0.578
12 0.639 .0361 0.231 68.78 52.31 16.47 3.805 0.481 7.922 0.458
13 0.222 .0778 0.173 70.75 60.57 10.18 1.761 0.416 4.235 0.250
14 0.667 .0333 0.222 71.83 44.83 27.00 5.994 0.471 12.717 0.736
x of x 63.60 51.57
SO 15.68 8.948
6 15.11 8.622
Sx (Test Pcdage Deviatioo) = 17.29
332
Appendix 7c:
Calculation of Point- Biserial Correlation Reliability Indices for Items on
Subtest Three - For test Refinement
PI CJI PlCJI XPi XCJI x PI-XCJi (x P -xq) "PlCJI (x p-xq) r•••
(PI:Q) ..JPlQ
1 1.000 0.000 0.000 71.22 0.000 71.22 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
2 0.944 0.056 0.053 67.12 64.00 3.12 0.165 0.230 0.718 0.07
3 1.000 0.000 0.000 71.22 0.000 71.22 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
4 0.194 0.806 0.156 77.fil 69.18 7.89 1.231 0.395 3.117 0.304
5 0.917 0.083 0.076 71.00 73.68 -2.68 ..{J.204 0.276 0.740 ..{J.072
6 0.972 0.027 0.026 73.33 fil.OO 16.23 0.422 0..161 2.613 0.255
7 0.528 0.472 0.249 74.32 67.77 6.55 1.631 0.499 3.268 0.319
8 0.944 0.056 0.053 73.33 71.00 2.23 0.118 0.230 0.513 0.050
9 0.583 0.417 0.243 74.71 63.67 11.05 2.685 0.493 5.118 0.532
10 0.861 0.139 0.120 71.87 67.20 4.67 0.560 0.346 1.616 0.158
11 0.944 0.056 0.053 72.27 53.50 18.77 0.995 0.230 4.317 0.422
12 0.472 0.528 0.249 78.29 64.90 13.40 3.337 0.499 6.687 0.653
13 0.444 0,556 0.247 76.94 66.65 10.29 2.542 0.497 5.114 0.500
14 0.167 0.833 0.139 71.50 71.17 0.33 0.046 0.373 0.123 0.012
x of x 73.18 56.44
SD 3.01 24.51
6 2.90 23.62
Sx (Test Package Devi<ful) = 10.24
legend to Appendix 8a, band c
PI = Proportion to respondents passing the item
q;=Proportion to respondents failing the item
Pi q; = S1! = Item variance
x p;= Mean mark for respondents passing the item
xqi= Mean mark for respondents faililg the item
x p; -xqr= Difference bel'Mlen passing mean and failing mean for a given item
x p -xq (PI·q~ = Variance of task item equals (=) contributions to total variance of package
..JPICJ = S = Item standard deviation
ex p -xq) ..Jpq; = Item- item covariance
r = (x p -xq)JSx ("p;ql) = Pont Bi-serial Correlation
Nate also that s.z = (x - xJN)2= Standard deviation of the package
S =" (HIN)!
Note: Significance of r•••
The significance of rpbiis determined by the value of t at 95% level;
Where, t = rplll "N-2J(1 - r~ (For N = 36, df = N - 2 = 34)
Significmce cj t at df 34 = 2.042 (from t table)
The lowest significant rpWis given by: 2.042 = rpIN'1341(1- rptJ)
= 34_r~ (1- r~ = (2.042)2 Therefore rplli = 0.324 = 0.3
Therefore atry rptlivalue abcNe or near 0.3 is si!1lificant in item selection
333
Appendix 8:
Measures of central tendency on test package for test Refinement
Whole test
IrxividJaI scae (xl Mean x x-x ex - x)I z-scae
1 82 21.667 469.46 2.042
2 78 17.667 312.12 1.665
3 77 16.667 277.79 1.571
4 77 16.667 277.79 1.571
5 72 11.667 136.12 1.1
6 72 11.667 136.12 1.1
7 72 11.667 136.12 1.1
8 70 9.667 93.45 0.911
9 68 7.667 58.78 0.723
10 68 7.667 58.78 0.723
11 66 5.667 32.11 0.534
12 66 5.667 32.11 0.534
13 64 3.667 13.45 0.346
14 63 2.667 7.11 0.251
15 63 2.667 7.11 0.251
16 63 2.667 7.11 0.251
17 62 1.667 2.78 0.157
18 61 60.61 0.667 0.44 0.063
19 59 -1.333 1.78 -0.126
20 59 -1.333 1.78 -0.126
21 58 -2.333 5.44 -0.22
22 56 -4.333 18.77 -0.408
23 56 -4.333 18.77 -0.408
24 56 -4.333 18.77 -0.408
25 55 -5.333 28.44 -0.503
26 55 -5.333 28.44 -0.503
27 55 -5.333 28.44 -0.503
28 51 -9.333 87.1 -0.808
29 51 -9.333 87.1 -0.808
30 50 -10.333 106.77 -0.974
31 48 -12.333 152.1 -1.162
32 47 -13.333 177.77 -1.257
33 46 -14.333 205.43 -1.351
34 45 -15.333 235.1 -1.445.
35 42 -18.333 336.1 -1.728
36 39 -21.333 455.1 -2.011
rx = 7172 rex - x)2= 4051.95
N=36
SO = --I(x - x)2 = 4051.9fJ36
SO = 10.76
x = 60.61
variance = 115.778, Range = 43, Medan = 60
S. = 10.61
334
Appendix 9:
Questionnaire for Teachers of English
General Information
Please tid< (..J) a fill in the ~propriate answer in the space provided.
)
)
)
46- 55 years ()
2. Your teaching experience is years.
1. Yoor age is: Below 25 yea-s
30-35 years
36-45 years
(
(
(
3. Indicate your highest academic qualifications:
Dip. Ed. ( )
B. Ed ( )
BA ( )
M. Ed ( )
M. A ( )
Others specify .
4. Teaching subject trained for:
English/literature ( )
Literature! Kiswahili ( )
LiteratureJ CRE ( )
Literature! History ( )
English/ CRE ( )
Others, specify .
5. Have you been involved in designing the KCSE English syllabus?
Yes ( )
No ( )
If yes, please give details Information on the teaching of listening comprehension in English
6. How much time do you spend on listening exercises during, teaching -learning sessions?
a) 5 minutes ( )
b) 10 minutes ( )
c) 20 minutes ( )
d) 30 minutes ( )
Specify .
7. Do your students appear to enjoy English lessons?
~s ( )
No ( )
8. Does the English syllabus give enough emphasis on listening comprehension exercises?
Yes ( )
No ( )
335
9. How do you generally rate your students quality of listening?
a) Competent ( )
b) Modest ( )
c) Umited ( )
10. What things do you think affect your students listening ability?
a) .
b) .
c) .
d) .
11. Which of the following topic areas appear to involve more students listening ab~ity?
a) Pronunciation ( )
b) Grammatical structures ( )
c) Vocabulary ( )
d) Reading comprehension passages ( )
e) Composition ( )
f) Summary ( )
g) Poetry ( )
h) The play ( )
i) Oral art forms ( )
12. What activities do you provide in order to sustain listening in your dass?
a) .
b) .
c) .
d) .
13. Suggest ways of improving listening comprehension.
a} .
b) .
c) .
d) .
14. Where do you obtain listening materials tasks to use to develop leamer's listening skms?
a) Language course books ()
b) Uterature course books ()
c) Other subjects ( )
d) Students' conversations ()
e) Teachers'speech ( )
15. What types of materials do you use to assess your students' listening comprehension abilities
(other than the written passages?)
a) Poems ( )
b) Stories ( )
c) Speech drills ()
d) Conversations ()
e) Others, .
16. Which of the following skills do you consider as being the most important (in order of importance
.,•......_-- -
336
from 14) for the development of students' academic oommunicative ability?
a) Reading ( )
b) Writing ( )
c) Listening ( )
d) Speci<ing ( )
17. Indicate in order of intensity (1-4) the source(s) of evidence that students are having difficulties
in listening.
a) Failing on a test ( )
b) Failing on oral questions ( )
c) Students' questions ( )
d) Pupil's oomments ( )
Others, explainl-----------------
18. What measures do you take in view of the evidence stated in question 17 above?
a)
b)
c)
d)
19. Indicate in order of importance (1-5) what should be done about the future of the listening
comprehension skill in schools.
a) The syllabus should have m9re listening exercises
b) It should be taught only by teachers of English
c) More time should be allocated to it
d) It should be taught across the curriculum
e) It should be tested in the national examinations
a) Strongly agree ( )
b) Agree ( )
c) Undecided ( )
d) Disagree (. )
Give reasons for your answer
Appendix 10a:
The interview schedule for the Heads of Languages: English Section
1. In which bracket of teaching experience do you fall?
a) 0 - 5 years ( )
b) 6 -10 years ( )
c) 11 - 15 years ( )
d) 16-20 years ( )
e) Over 20 years ( )
337
2. How often have you attendedthe Ministry of Educatiooorganizedworkshops/seminars
of teaj}ers of English?
a) Rarely ( )
b) Frequently ( )
c) Don't know ( )
d) Never ( )
Explain
3. In your view, which of the follcwing promotes Ustening Comprehensionin English?
a) Poetry ( )
b) Conversations ( )
c) Stories ( )
d) Spontaneoustalk ( )
e) Drama ( )
4. Explain the major factors affecting the listening ability of your English students?
---------------------,--
5. In your opinion, hON often do your teachersof English engagestudents in
Communicative listening exercise?
a) Every lesson ( )
b) Once a week ( )
c) Rarely ( )
d) Never ( )
6. What would yoo say is the practical role of Ustening ComprehensionSkills in students'
English LanguageProficiency? , .
7. How do you deal with listening problems amongyoor students?
8. What of the follONingexercisesdo your studentsappearto enjoy most during
English lesson?
a) Readingcomprehensioopassages ()
b) Ustening ( )
c) Proounciati00 ( )
d) Grammar ( )
e) Vocabulary ( )
t) Composition ( )
g) Summary ( )
h} Drama ( )
i) Oral a1 forms ( )
j) Poetry ( )
9. In yoor opinion, how woold yoo describe the quaity of preparationof the students
in English by the end of the secondaryschool?
a) Adequate ( )
b} Inadequate ( )
c) Not sure ( )
338
~Ian------------------------------------
10. In your view, is the time allocated for English adequate?
a) Yes ( )
b) No ( )
~an-----------------------------------------
11. If you were in charge of the syllabus of English, what skills would you emphasise:
a) Most? ----
b) Least?
12. 'MIat factas do you believe influence poor performance of English in your school?
13. 'MIat specific reasons explain the decline in English performance in National
Examinations in your school?
14. a) Which issues/problems seem to face the teachingJIearning of English?
b) 'MIy do you consider it a major issue?-------'--------
c) How can these problems be solved?
15. In view of the current standards of English, what improvement strategies would you
recommend for the next five years?--------------------------
Appendix 10b:
Interview Schedule for Head of English (Secondary) Panel at Kenya
Institute of Education (KIE)
1. How often do you organize seminars and workshops or any other professional
development for teachers of English in Kenya?
Explain
2. What is the emphasis given to the various skills of English?
Listening -----------------------------------
Speaking ---------------------------------
Reading --------------------------------
Writing ----------------------------
Explain ----------------------------
3. Ustening Comprehension is given less coverage in the Integrated English Course book
for secondary schools. What is the reason for this?
339
4. What major factors do you think affect listening abilities for seoondary school students in Kenya?
5. In your view, how best can Listening Comprehension SkUlsbe promoted in seoondary schools?
6. What second language teaching approach/method is the current English syllabus based on?
a)
b) 'Mlo influences this syllabus? - Foreign or local experts?
7. In your view, what is the rontribution of Listening Comprehension Skills to students' overall
English Language proficiency?
8. Please suggest some wcfjs in which the teachers can rope with problems of IisteninglListening
Comprehension among his/her students. How would you structure a Listening Comprehension
lesson to cope with problems of listening Comprehension in class?
9. What skills of listening would you as head of the English panel of English syllabus emphasize
most?
a) Phonetics? -------------------
b) Specific grammar elements ----------
c) Overall comprehension -------------
10. How do you justify the time allocation for English in secondary schools?
11. What factors influence the decline in English performance in National examinations?
12. What constraints seem to face the implementation of English syllabus by teachers?
13. 'Mlat teachingllearning materials do you have available for teaching the following areas in
the syllabus of English:
a) Writing -----------------
b) Ustening ---------------------------
c) Speaking---------------
d) Reading-
e) Play
f) Short story -----
g) The Novel----------------
h) Poetry----------------
14. Does the English syllci>us cater for the rural/urban disparities?
a) What differences exists between a rural and urban studenVschool regarding
Listening Comprehension from your experienre
If so, explain how? ------------------
340
b} What explanations would you give for the disparities in perfonnance in national
examinations?
15. What do you oonsider to be the major weaknesses/strength of the present Integrated English
Syllabus?
16. In view of the current standards of English, what improvements strategies would you recommend
for the frve years?
17. b} Do you have any intentions of changing or improving the syllabus?
Yes ()
No ()
Explain ------------------
Appendix 11:
Correlation coefficients showing Interrelations between Subtests 1,2 and 3
and test total-In actual study
TEST SUBTEST1 SUBTEST2 SUBTEST3 TESTOTAl TEST AVE.
SUBTEST1 1.000 0.3179 0.1973 0.6240 0.6240
(520) (520) (520) (520) (520)
p=.OOO p=.OOO p=.OOO p=.OOO p=.OOO
SUBTEST2 0.3179 1.000 0.4062 0.8444 0.8444
(520) (520) (520) (520) (520)
p=.OOO p=.OOO p=.OOO p=.OOO P=.OOO
SUBTEST3 0.1973 0.4062 1.000 0.7184 0.7184
(520) (520) (520) (520) (520)
p=.OOO p= .000 p= .000 P=.OOO P=.OOO
TESTOTAl 0.6240 0.8444 0.7184 1.000 1.000
(520) (520) (520) (520) (520)
p=.OOO p=.OOO p=.OOO P=.OOO p= .000
TESTAVE 0.6240 0.8444 0.7184 1.000 1.000
(520) (520) (520) (520) (520)
p=.OOO p=.ooO P=.OOO P=.OOO D=.ooo
341
Appendix 12:
School Description By Codes: Vihiga (Rural) and Nairobi (Urban) • in actual
study
i) School Description By Codes: Vihiga (Rural)
School code School type N
B G Total
R1 MOB (Mixed day boarding) 28 9 37
R2 MO (Mixed day) 13 17 30
R3 MO (M"lXedday) 13 8 21
R4 MOB (Mixed day boarding) 20 13 33
R5 MOB (Mixed day boarding) 21 30 51
R6 GB (Girl boarding) - 28 28
R7 GB (Girl boarding) - 40 40
R8 MOB (Mixed day boarding) 20 20 40
R9 BB (Boys boarding) 45 - 45
Total 160 165 325
ii) School Description By Codes: Nairobi (Urban)
School code School type N
B G Total
U1 BD (Boys day) 23 - 23
U2 GO (Girls day) - 24 24
U3 MO (M"lXedday) 19 13 32
U4 MO (Mixed day) 21 13 34
U5 BB (Boys boarding) 38 - 38
U6 GB (Girls boarding) - 44 44
Total 101 94 195
342
Appendix 13:
Insignificant CCHelationship Comparison of school type performance on subtests in
actual study
Comparison of the school type petformance on subtest 1
~ MeanVariable pai,.. r Mean SO difference t-value df 2-tai Sig Comment
BB 3.7024 1.387 Very weak & insignifi:ant
U3MD 84 0.16 3.6667 1.442 0.0357 0.16 83 0.869 re!aOOnship
U1-BD 4.1304 1.392 Ainmt no relationship.
MD 23 -0.055 3.9565 1.107 0.1739 0.46 22 0.652 negative & ilsignifuant
U2GO 3.8333 1.274 Very weak relationsh~&
MO 24 -0.131 3.9583 1.083 -0.125 -0.34 23 0.734 ins~nifuant
U5BB 4.1304 1.486 No insignificant
U1-U5-80 23 -0.118 4.1304 1.392 0.00 0.00 22 1.00 relationship insiqnfficant
R9-BB 4.0417 1.517 No relationship and
U2-GO 24 -0.019 3.8333 1.274 0.2083 0.51 23 0.615 insigniflCallt
U5-BB 3.7024 1.387 Very small & insignifuant
MOB 84 0.189 3.5714 1.301 0.131 0.7 84 0.485 relationship
MOB 4.1304 1.392 No relationship &
MOO 24 0.096 4.0435 0.976 0.87 0.26 22 0.799 insignificant
GO 3.8333 1.274 Very weak & insignifICant
MOO 24 0.126 3.9583 1.042 -0.125 -0.4 23 0.695 relationship
MOB 3.4274 1.385 Very weak negative &
MO 117 -0.124 3.3333 1.486 0.094 0.47 116 0.638 insiqnificant relationship
Comparison of the school t ~ performance on subtest 2
Mean
Variable N pairs r Mean SO difference t-value df 2-tail Sig Comment
U1-BO
R1.2,4.5 3.8696 2.546
and 8 MOB 23 0.332 3.6522 1.555 0.2174 0.42 22 0.681 SmaA but insignificant corr
R1,2,3
and 8
MDB 2.8718 1.789 No relationship &
MD 117 0.077 2.5895 1.858 0.2821 1.23 116 0.221 insignificant
Comparison of the school type performance on subtest 3
Mean
Variable N pairs r Mean SO Difference t-value df 2- tail Sig Comment
U2-GO
R1.2.4.5.and 4.1667 1.736 Very small &
8MDB 24 0.273 4.7917 1.179 -0.625 -1.69 23 0.105 insignificclnt relationship
U1-BD
R1. 2,4 and 8 4.3913 1.699 Almost no relationsh~ &
MOB 23 -0.068 4.2609 1.322 0.1304 0.28 22 0.695 ilsilJlificant
U2-GO 4.1667 1.736 Very weak and
MOB 24 0.174 4.325 1.294 -0.0833 -0.21 23 0.638 insignifi:ant relationship
R1. 4.5 &8
MOB 3.6838 1.529 Almost no reIations~ &
U3-MO 117 0.079 3.8718 1.517 -0.188 -0.98 116 0.327 ilsiglificant
OFFICE OF THE PRESIDE IT
I'IWVI. 'CIAI. ADMISISTRATIO. .••SD J TERSAL SECURrn'
So .9~ P/OO]/l"~c 2)3/8
and Ib!r
P.O. l.kJx 30:; 1(,
N&Jrobl
.~~~~...~c~t"c"~?<:r"....•19 '1~
t:lph A.dd:CM "RAI',"
~>n<:" N.,n.l-t :.27411
n I't!C>l "" roIc.J~ Q:IOIC'
Adelheid Marie Bwire
C/o Kenyatta University
P. O. Box 43844
'AIROBI
Dear Madam.
RESEARCH A THORIZATIO:;
Follwoing your application for authority to conduct research on "Listeninir
Co~rehension Proficiency in English by form III Pupils of selected
Secondary Schools. 1 am pleased to let you know that your application has
been considered and approved.
Accordingly you are authorised to conduct research 1n Nairobi and Vihiga as
from 22nd September 1998 to 30th November 1999. You are advised to pay
courtesy calls on the Provincial Commissioner Nairobi and the District
Commissioner Vihiga before embarking on your research project.
You are further advised to liase with Ministry of Education for the
smooth flow of your work.
Ple~se note that this office expects to receive two bound copies of
your final research final research findings upon completion of your
research project.
Yours faithfully.
~~ ..A.. A
for: PERMANENT SECRETARY/
PROVI CIAL ADm JISTRATICl.
cc.
The Permanent Secretary
Ministry of Education
Provincial Commissioner
NAIROBI
District Commissioner
\'1: _JGl.
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. :
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._._-_.---.-------_._ .<Permnnent !':.:~::~~.-:.~'
Office oj tlu: ..' '."
1:.:''' : ':... :... -
• - • ..!.:.
LOCATION MAP OF NAIROBI AREA
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° Dandora
EMBAKASI
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MAKAbARA
Embakasi
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