MANAGEMENT OF WATER RESOURCES IN THE PERI- .URBAN AREAS OF RUIRU DISTRICT, KENYA BY EUNICE WAMBUI MUGERA N50/11159/04 A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT FOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE IN THE SCHOOL OF ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES, KENYATTA UNIVERSITY AUGUST,2Qll Mugera, Eunice Wambui Management of water resources in the .. -~- IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII~IIIIIIII!III~IIIIIIIIIIIII~IIII~~III11111 2012/383356 - KENYATTA UN IV RSITY LIBRARY DECLARATION This Thesis is my original work and has not been presented for a degree in any other University or any other award. Signature ~ Eunice Wambui Mugera, Bsc Nairobi, Date 11f~/~Q/I We confirm that the work reported in this thesis was carried out by the candidate under our supervision. Signed~ Date Dr. Jones F. Agwata Department of Environmental Sciences Kenyatta University Signed ~_ Dr. Stephen O. Anyango Department of Environmental Sciences Kenyatta University 11 DEDICATION This work is dedicated to my parents, husband and children for the moral support and understanding they accorded me during the course of my studies. III ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I express my appreciation to my heavenly Father for His kindness, faithfulness and for seeing me through the study period. I am most indebted to my supervisors Dr. Jones Agwata and Dr. Stephen Anyango for guiding this study from the initial stages to its completion. My thanks go to my employer the Ministry of Water and Irrigation for affording me study leave and for the financial support and Winrock International for offering me a partial scholarship that covered my research work expenses. Further, I do appreciate Mungai and Muchiri for proofreading the thesis; field assistants and all those people not mentioned by name who assisted in one way or another. Finally, thanks go to my parents, Eustus Mugera and Judy Mugera for impressing on me to work diligently; to my husband Mr. Kariuki and children, Doris, Christine and Felix for according me moral support and encouragement in accomplishing this work successfully. IV TABLE OF CONTENT TITLE i DECLARATION .ii DEDICATION .iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .iv TABLE OF CONTENT v LIST OF TABLES .ix LIST OF FIGURES x LIST OF PLATES xi ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS xii ABSTRACT xiii CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 Background of the study 1 1.2 Statement of the Problem 5 1.3 Research Questions 7 1.4 Objectives of the Study 7 1.5 Justification, Significance and Limitation of the Study 8 1.6 Conceptual framework for water management in Peri-Urban Areas 9 1. 7 Defini tions of Operational Terms 1 1 CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW 13 2.1 Introduction .13 2.2 Water Sources 13 v ) 2.3 Accessibility of the Water Sources 14 2.4 Reliability of the Water Sources 17 2.5 Water Utilization 19 2.6 Water Conservation 20 CHAPTER THREE: MATERIALS AND METHODS 24 3.1 Introduction 24 3.2 Location of the study area 24 3.3 Study Design 27 3.4 Sample and Sampling Procedures 27 3.4.1 Random Sampling 27 3.4.2 Cluster Sampling 28 3.5 Data Collection tools 30 3.5.1 Household Questionnaires 31 3.5.2 Key informant Guide 31 3.5.3 Focus Group Discussion Guide 31 3.5.4 Observation Record Sheet. 32 3.6 Data Management and Analysis 32 CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 33 4.1 Introduction 33 4.2 Socio Demographic Characteristics 33 4.3 The main water sources accessibility and reliability 35 4.3.1 The main water sources accessibility for domestic use 35 VI 4.3.2 The main water sources Reliability for domestic use 38 4.3.3 The main water sources and their accessibility for livestock use .41 4.3.4 The main water sources adequacy for livestock use .44 4.3.5 The main water sources and their accessibility for irrigation use .46 4.3.6 The main water sources adequacy for irrigation use .47 4.4 The quantity of water utilization .49 4.4.1 Water consumption for domestic activities .49 4.4.2 Water use for livestock activities 51 4.4.3 Water use for irrigation activities 52 4.5 Water conservation techniques 54 4.5.l Water conservation techniques practiced in the study clusters 54 4.5.2 Limitations associated with water conservation techniques 57 CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 60 5.1 Introduction 60 5.2 Conclusions of the study 60 5.3 Recommendations 62 5.3.1 Implementation 62 5.3.2 Future Research 64 REFERENCES 65 APPENDICES 70 APPENDIX 1: HOUSEHOLD QUESTIONNAIRE 70 APPENDIX 2: KEY INFORMANT QUESTIONNAIRE 76 Vll APPENDIX 3: APPENDIX 4: FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION GUIDE 78 OBSERVATION RECORD SHEET 81 V111 LIST OF TABLES Table 3.1 Selected Characteristics for Cluster Formation 30 Table 4.1: Socio-Demographic Characteristics of the Study respondents 34 Table 4.2 Main Water Sources and their Accessibility for Domestic use 35 Table 4.3 Main Water Sources Reliability for Domestic use 39 Table 4.4 Main Water Sources Accessibility for Livestock use .42 Table 4.5 Main Water Sources Adequacy for Livestock use .45 Table 4.6 The Main Water Sources Accessibility for Irrigation use .46 Table 4.7 The Main Water Sources Adequacy for Irrigation use 47 Table 4.8 Amount of Water used per day per Cluster Domestic activities .49 Table 4.9 Daily Water used for Livestock activities 52 Table 4.10 Ranking of Domestic Water Conservation Techniques 54 Table 4.11 Ranking of irrigation water conservation techniques 56 Table 4.12 Limitations Associated with Water Conservation 58 IX Figure 1.1 Figure 3.1 LIST OF FIGURES Conceptual Framework for Water Management in Peri-Urban Areas 9 Administrative boundaries of Ruiru District (GOK, 2009) .25 x .•.•.......- -._-_ ..-- Plate 4.1 Plate 4.2 LIST OF PLATES Gatong'ora river at the bridge to Gitambaa in cluster (2) (29th September, 2006) 38 Animal Watering Zone in Ruiru River at Gitambaa in cluster (2) (1ih September, 2006) .44 Xl ASALs CBO CBS DANIDA GOK ILRI IWRMS LlC MPND NEMA NGO TARDA UNCCD UNEP USAID WHO WRMA WRI ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS Arid and Semi Arid Lands Community Based Organization Central Bureau of Statistics Danish Development Agency Government of Kenya International Livestock Research Institute Integrated Water Resources Management Strategy Local Community Ministry of Planning and National Development National Environment Management Agency Non Governmental Organization Tana and Athi River Development Authority United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification United Nations Environment Programme United States Aid International Development World Health Organization Water Resources Management Authority World Resources Institute xu ABSTRACT In peri-urban areas of the country, there are numerous and complex problems that confront the residents. Water scarcity is one of the critical problems that deserves most attention. It is a major challenge hindering socio-economic development in these areas. This therefore calls for research to find out how water is managed in these areas. Ruiru District was chosen for the study to fill this gap due to its high population density as significant population working in Nairobi city and Thika towns are shifting to the District looking for places to settle. The high population increases water demand leading to water scarcity in the area. Ruiru District has two Divisions, six locations and ten sub locations. A multistage design involving stratified and random sample surveys were used to come up with the required sample. A household survey approach with the aid of questionnaires and observation record sheets were used to collect data on the major sources of water, their accessibility, reliability and utilization in the area. The study examined the techniques used to conserve water and established the problems the people experience while practicing these techniques. The data collected was analyzed using Statistical Packages for Social Scientists programme and presented in frequencies, percentages and ranking. The study has confirmed that Ruiru Distrtict has rapid population growth without a corresponding increase in water sources. The study also established the main sources of water as Nairobi Water Company mains, Community Based Organization's mains, boreholes, wells and rivers. The major problems found were limited access to potable water, inadequate number of water sources and drying up of wells during the dry season. The study revealed that the mean household water consumption rate in the area was 18.3 liters per person per day. This rate is slightly below the recommended per capita consumption rate of 20 liters per person per day. Water conservation techniques practiced include roof rain water harvesting, repair of leaking taps/pipes, water reuse, use of efficient taps and installation of dual flush toilets, among others. The various limitations that affected water conservation techniques include lack of finances, lack of awareness, dry weather conditions, altitude and culture, among others. Based on the findings it is necessary to provide water at homes so that people involved in providing water can be engaged in other productive activities. Promotion of appropriate technologies such as use of dual toilets, use of efficient taps, drip irrigation and mulching need to be encouraged. There is also need to promote marketing and processing of farm and livestock products so as to increase the people's daily earnings and so alleviate poverty in the District which is directly affecting water conservation practices. There is need to increase public awareness regarding protection of water sources, their use and conservation in the District. Specific efforts should be made through the Ministry of Water and Irrigation and other related a.ctors to increase water conservation awareness programmes to enable the people appreciate the importance of water management III the District. Xlll CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background of the Study A third of the world's population live in water stressed countries and it is expected that this will rise to two-thirds by the year 2015 (UNEP, 2004). In the developing world about 25 percent of the population have access to improved water sources (Abu-Eid, 2007). Peter Gleick from the Pacific Institute for Studies in Development, Environment and Security recommends a minimum of 50 litres per capita per day (led) for domestic uses, (Gleick et al 2002). Because access to water is a basic human right, the UN as part of its Millenium Development Goals programme (MDOs) aims at, among others, to increase the proportion of population (urban and rural) with sustainable access to an improved water source by 2015. In Kenya about 57% of the population has access to improved water sources (OOK, 2009). In an effort to solve this problem, Kenya's Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP) 2000-2003 prescribes steps to achieve the UN millennium development goal on water. The steps include among others introduction of private sector participation in water delivery and management, and rehabilitation of smaller water supply systems. Despite the efforts, access to potable water in peri-urban areas in Kenya still remains a problem because of the uncontrolled increases in population. UNEP, 2003 1 confirms that "the carrying capacity of the peri urban areas is deteriorating due to growmg populations that do not correspond with the rate at which resources are provided. In short, water demand exceeds supply due to the non- corresponding increase in per capita investment. In 2002, the Government of Kenya adopted the National Water Policy to address the problems of water supply. The shortage of water in various parts of the world has affected the well being of ecosystems due to its uneven distribution in space and time, poor management of the available water and variations in its use for different socio economic activities (Abu-Eid, 2007). It is therefore important that water must be properly planned, utilized, conserved and be made accessible for continued social and economic development. The number of African countries facing water stress, scarcity and land degradation is increasing. This is a major concern in the world. This is mainly caused by increasing demand for water due to increase in population, expansion of urbanization, agriculture, industry and livestock especially in the marginal areas leading to the clearance of natural habitats such as forests and wetlands. These land-use changes have affected Africa's water conservation efforts (Kundell, 2007). The scarcity of water and unreliability of its supply is a major constraint for agriculture, domestic and livestock development in most African countries. This leads to reduction 2 of land productivity as a result prolonged dry spells and inappropriate agricultural production systems. Indeed, insufficient quantity of water is slowing social and economic development and is leading to increasing levels of poverty due to declining food availability and employment opportunities for the people in the world. Kenya is regarded as a water scarce country whose water resources are declining as a result of catchments degradation, population growth and urbanization (UNESCO, 2003). '"'" This scarcity and unreliability of water poses a serious challenge to agriculture, domestic and livestock development in the peri-urban lands in various parts of the country. Estimate indicate that Kenya needs approximately 3.4 billion m" of storage for water by the year 2010 to reliably supply water for domestic, urban-rural agriculture and livestock development (UNESCO, 2003). For this demand to be met, the available water should be utilized in a sustainable manner by promoting water conservation in all sectors of development in the country. The present urban population in Kenya has about 3.7 million people, representing about 18.5% of the total population (Shivoga, 2002). Due to the congestion in the urban areas, people are shifting to the nearby peri-urban areas in search of employment and for places to settle. Biswas et al (2005) established that such areas are typically poorly served with permanent water supply systems and also lack in infrastructure services. Frequently, such areas are not officially recognized by the local administration which deprives them of basic services even though they are centers of rapid population growth 3 due to both natural and population migration. Because of the high population density, generally low incomes and sociological features of communities' provision of water supply facilities is not a simple technological and economic issue. Solutions need to relate to the overall circumstances of the community in question. Farming activities are also affected by the changes in land use practices in the peri-urban areas. The lands formerly used for farming and rearing of livestock are subdivided in to smaller plots for residential purposes living the farmers with limited farming lands, grazing lands and limited water sources for their activities. Ghettuba, (2004) in her study established that available water is given first priority to domestic water use while other uses come after. This suggests that in areas with limited water supplies farming and livestock are likely to suffer for lack of water unless more water sources are made available. Due to worsening of poverty levels in peri-urban areas, many low-income households suffer from extremely limited livelihood security. They engage in peri-urban farming and livestock keeping as a response to limited alternative livelihood options and food insecurity. This category of livestock keepers, lacking the control over access to water supplies (Waters-Bayer, 2005). The peri-urban parts of the country require significantly more water and enhanced conservation measures to ensure availability of reliable supply of water to meet the increased demand in the domestic, irrigation and livestock sectors. This requires that the 4 sources of water for various uses and the amount of water used in the various sectors be known in order to plan for and manage the available water properly. In this study, water availability and use in the peri-urban areas of Ruiru District was examined with a view to optimizing its utilization in the District. 1.2 Statement of the Problem Lack of water threatens progress towards sustainable development in the peri-urban areas of the country. The unregulated use of water in these areas has caused over- exploitation and degradation of water sources leading to drying of rivers and shallow boreholes (Turton and Waner, 2002). This leads to increased water scarcity which in turn leads to competition for access to available water sources for domestic, livestock and irrigation activities. These competition leads to low levels of agricultural production leading to starvation of the people and livestock. This therefore suggests the need to understand the water situation and establish the solutions to peri-urban water problems. The problem of access to water sources is one of the major problems that currently confront many communities in the world. According to the Kenya's Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP) 2000-2003, access to improved water sources (piped water) by both rural and urban populations is limited (30% and 70% respectively) and is declining due to non-performance of existing schemes. Moreover, 73% of the urban community with pipe network have experienced irregular or no water. Households without access to 5 piped water tend to rely on a variety of less reliable sources, including mobile water tankers, water vendors and shallow wells. The peri-urban areas of Ruiru District are faced with a lot of water shortages and land use changes leading to transformations III the hydrological, ecological, geomorphological and socio economic systems. The District is also characterized by a high population from different ethnic communities of the country. The high concentration of people have placed enormous pressure on the available water resources. This has increased demand on the available water supplies. At the same time, under decentralization of policies, the responsibility for delivering such services face a lot of facilitation challenges in terms of financial and human resources. As a result these areas have suffered slow progress towards sustainable water development (GOK, 2009). The majority of research projects reviewed have focused on highlighting the current water shortage and management in the urban and rural areas. Research in water management in cities has been restricted to the capital and not in other cities especially small and medium size ones and in particular the peri-urban areas. Most of the information about water use and management is reported within figures for total annual water consumption or is contained in information about existing problems. There appears to be no specific information about water use and management in domestic, livestock and irrigation in peri-urban areas. This study seeks to fill this gap by addressing the management of water resources in the peri-urban areas of Ruiru District. 6 The study will establish the various sources from where water is drawn, determine how much water is used in the various sectors and examine the methods used to conserve water and assess their limitations and propose ways of improving water supply in the District. 1.3 Research Questions The following research questions are addressed in the study. (a) Which sources of water are available for use in Ruiru District and how accessible and reliable are they? (b) How much water is used in the domestic, livestock and crop irrigation activities in the District? (c) Which techniques are used to conserve water in the District and what are the limitations associated with these techniques? 1.4 Objectives of the Study The objectives of this study are to: (a) Establish the major sources of water, their accessibility and reliability in Ruiru District. (b) Determine the amount of water used for domestic, livestock and irrigation activities in the District. (c) Examine the various methods used to conserve water and establish the limitations associated with these techniques. 7 1.5 Justification, Significance and Limitations of the Study The problem related to water scarcity can be resolved through water resource management activities that optimize on sustainable use of the available water. This change in emphasis is particularly important for Ruiru District due to continued water scarcity and increased water demand in the area as a result of increase in human population, livestock and irrigation activities. There was need, therefore, to establish the water resource availability and determine the amount of water used in domestic, irrigation and livestock sector. Information on the way water is conserved and the limitations of various conservation efforts is also necessary in the District with a view to making recommendations on what can be done to improve the situation. The study is important as its findings can be used to address water resources management issues in the area. The information obtained from the study can also be used by the Government and other relevant agencies involved in water management to improve water availability in related peri-urban areas and activities. The findings from the study can also be used as a basis for comparison with similar studies in other areas having similar climatic and hydrological conditions, settlement patterns and land use activities to ensure sustainable water management for enhanced socio- economic development of these areas. Few limitations were experienced while carrying out this study. The farms have been sub-divided into smaller sizes of quarter acre plots for residential purposes as opposed to 8 the original sizes due to lack of benefit from farming activities. This affected the sample size because 20 more households were added to increase data validity and reliability. 1.6 Conceptual Framework for Water Management in Peri-Urban Areas The research is based on a conceptual framework on water management (Figure 1.1) borrowed from Solei et al (2010) and modified to match with the study. RESOURCE (Water) RESOURCE SOURCES ( NWC, CBOs, Rivers, Wells, Dams, Pans and Boreholes) 2 3 RESOURCE PROVIDERS (Nairobi Water Company, CBO's, Boreholes owners and well owners) RESOURCE USERS (Households Owners for Domestic, livestock and irrigation) •• Figure 1.1: Conceptual framework for Water Management adapted from (Solei et al, 2010). Interactions (1) between resource and resource sources shows the available water sources in the District that could be accessed by the residents for use in various sectors. 9 Interactions (2) between resource sources and resource providers shows the resources providers develop projects that could make the resource sources available for the resource users to access for various uses. Interactions (3) between resource providers and resource users shows the resource provider set rules and conditions for the resource user on the mode of accessing the resource, rate and mode of payment of water, mode of water distribution etc. Interaction (4) between resource user and resource conservation shows that the resource user plays a major role in ensuring that the available water is utilized well without waste while ensuring that the sources are protected. Interaction (5) between resource provider and resource conservation shows the resource provider ensures that the resource source is protected and increases the available resource source. Interaction (6) between the resource conservation and the resource ensures that the resource is available in sufficient quantity. 10 1.7 Definitions of Operational Terms Adequate-Having enough water for use in a particular activity Bucket Bath-Washing the body by splashing water on it from a bucket Domestic water use- This includes everyday uses such as drinking, cooking, bathing, toilet flushing, washing clothes and dishes, watering lawns and gardens, maintaining swimming pools and washing cars among others Levels of education-This is taken as (basic education or formal learning in an institution like Primary, Secondary and College where, (a) Primary stands for the first 8 years of formal education, (b) Secondary stands for 9-12 years of formal education, (c) Tertiary stands for 13 years and above of formal education Monthly Income-This is taken to mean the amount of money earned or given to a person per month Peri-U rban Areas-These are areas found at the outskirts of towns or cities and are getting modernized from a rural set up to urban set up with developed means of transport, water supplies, industrial growth and with a high population living within small land fragments and work in those towns or cities Reliability- This is the availability of water at the source during the time of need. Shower-Stand upright under water sprayed from a nozzle Utilization -This is the use of water for various activities Water accessibility- This is the physical distance travelled to and from the water sources 11 Water actors- All institutions dealing with water activities Water conservation- Reduction in water use accomplished by improved water management practices that enhance the beneficial use of water Water conservation techniques- An action, behavior change, device, technology, improved design or process implemented to reduce water loss, waste or use Water Crisis - This describes a situation where the available water within a region is less than the region's demand. 12 CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Introduction This chapter presents the review of literature on water sources, availability and accessibility, reliability and utilization in the domestic, livestock and irrigation sectors. The chapter also presents review of studies on water conservation practices and the limitation of these practices as conducted in various parts of the world. 2.2 Water sources Besides rain, the other natural water sources available to communities are either surface water or groundwater. Surface water is the traditional source of water for most rural and urban communities. This source type includes natural water bodies such as streams, pans, dams, lakes, rivers and springs. The resource may be accessed directly at the source, through water pipes to a water supply. Nowlan (2004) notes that the most convenient source of water for small communities is frequently a natural stream or a nearby river. Community water supply systems is mostly from surface water or groundwater sources. Groundwater source is considered as the most economic source of rural potable water supply. It is usually tapped by the communities through the digging of boreholes and wells. Gyau-Boakye and Dapaah-Siakwari's (2006) established that 50.5% of the rural population depends on surface waters. Only 0.05% of the rural population depends on 13 rainwater harvesting due to the poor annual rainfall pattern in many parts of the country. While 40.7% depends on boreholes and wells and 0.7% rely on springs. In addition to these facts, another study mentioned in Katz, and Sara (2007) established that there are aquifers which underlie geographically large areas of the country which can be tapped at shallow depths close to the demand centers in response to the dispersed nature of the rural settlements. Furthermore, water stored in aquifers is almost protected naturally from evaporation, and well yields are in many cases adequate. Though, groundwater requires minimal or no treatment Branco et al (2005), McGregor et al (2006) warn that: "the increasing use of boreholes by communities and private individuals progressively increases the inifiltration of nutrients to groundwater resources". 2.3 Accessibility of the Water Sources Life on earth depends upon water availability and accessibility, which supports all ecosystems within the planet. A number of studies have shown a decline in water sources, accessibility and reliability in various parts of the world. Findings from Annandale (2001) showed that overall per capita water available in urban areas dropped from 121.6 liters in 1967 to as low as 47.4 liters in 1997. In 2000, willingness to pay finding by UNEP (2002) in Nairobi, Mombasa and Kakamega urban areas found a low figure of 40 liters per capita water use per day. Findings from Smakhtin et al (2004), in their study on global assessment of environmental water requirement and scarcity also found a low figure of 36 liters per capita water use per day. 14 The decline in water availability and accessibility has been as a result of the increase in population, lack of sustainable management of the resource base plus global climate change which has changed precipitation patterns and other local climate conditions (UNEP, 2001). This deteriorates forest growth that forms the water catchment areas and leads to reduced water supplies in many parts of the world. Herweijer et al (2006) described North America as experiencing frequent droughts due to climate change. The droughts are causing rivers and shallow wells to dry up due to the lowering of the water table leaving the communities with limited alternative sources. The affected communities have to walk for long distances in search of water beside spending a lot of money in buying water and drilling of boreholes. It is proj ected by Vorosmarty et al (2004) that under current trends, two thirds of the world population may be subject to high water stress by 2025. It is also expected that the world will need 17 per cent more water for domestic use and agriculture to support t,he increasing world population (UNEP, 2002). Vorosmarty et al (2004) proposed that, to sustainably plan for water, there is need to know how much water is needed globally for domestic use, irrigation and for livestock in order to control withdrawals to ensure equitable distribution. This information is lacking in most peri-urban areas such as Ruiru District. The available methods of accessing water from vanous sources for most uses in developing countries are inefficient and inadequate (Selborne, 2000). In the Middle East 15 and North Africa water at homes is availed by traveling long distances to the water sources (Brooks et al; 2007). People carry water in large quantities over long distances on their backs, using carts and large water tankers. There is need to establish alternative means of accessing water so that people can pursue other productive and beneficial activities in terms of education and development. This can be done by appreciating the various problems people face while accessing water from various sources with a view to obtaining information on what can be done to solve these problems. Information on water accessibility in peri-urban areas is lacking hence the need for the study to fill this gap. This study in the peri-urban areas of Ruiru District on water management is important so as to capture all the necessary information on how the community access water in peri-urban areas and other related areas with a view to suggest possible solutions to these problems. The exploitation and distribution of water resources in Kenya is normally controlled through an appropriate mechanism provided for in the Water Act of 2002 in which a permit is issued for diversion, extraction, obstruction and use of water. This enables water to be made accessible to most users who need it for various functions. UNEP (2002) revealed that groundwater is a major supplement of surface water for communities in Nairobi and Mombasa due to high demand resulting from rapid growth of the population and also due to umeliability and degradation of surface water in these areas. The peri-urban areas of the country have a rapid increase in population resulting from migration of people from rural areas seeking employment. Urban population are 16 also shifting to these areas for settlement. The impacts in decline in per capital water availability from the sources in these areas is high. From the literature review, there were no such studies carried out in the peri-urban areas particularly those of Ruiru District. This study seeks to reveal the available sources of water and establish the alternative water sources that can be accessed by the communities. 2.4 Reliability of the Water Sources The reliability of water is essential for development in all aspects of life. Gleick et af (2002) stated that one billion people worldwide lack access to reliable water supplies. The global consumption of water is known to be doubling every twenty years, and it is estimated that by 2025, if present rates of water consumption are maintained, five billion out of the world's 7.9 billion people will be living in areas where it will be difficult to meet basic water requirements. It is therefore, important to establish the methods that can be used to conserve available water and to improve reliability of the water sources in various parts of the world. In developing countries, there is frequently uncertain access to reliable supplies of portable water. Commonly, the peri-urban populations lack modern water distribution systems. Following the decreased surface water sources due to global warming effect, people are depending on groundwater for their water supply. This therefore calls the need for a study to establish the reliability of the available water sources in the peri- urban areas. 17 The unreliability of water supplies becomes a great challenge on socio-economic development as more financial resources that could be used in development activities are allocated to supplying people with relief food and water for consumption (Warner et al 2006). People living in urban and rural areas are disproportionately affected as they spend several hours every day collecting water, either from communal taps or directly from streams and rivers. The unreliability of water sources increases the level of poverty among the people. The poverty level can be reduced by providing the communities with developed water supply systems and also through increased water conservation measures that can improve availability and reliability of water in these water scarce areas. Although such plans have been successful with utilities in big cities, according to the literature review that were conducted, we have no evidence that this would be true for utilities in smaller towns and other areas. Further more, most case studies are focused on a few countries and there is not a global perception. So there is a place for a study that could go a step further by studying the reliability of water sources and the possible limitations in small towns and in particular in peri-urban areas. ~ 18 2.5 Water Utilization Access to and continued supply of water for domestic, livestock and irrigation constitutes the most universal and most pressing of water use in the rural and urban areas. These activities require flows that are reliable in quantity. On a global scale, about 67 per cent of all water accessed for human use is absorbed by agriculture mostly in the form of irrigation. Domestic use accounts for 9 per cent while industry uses 25% (Rosegrant and Ringlier, 2000). The global water consumption averages vary from one region to another depending on whether it is a developing continent or a developed continent. In Europe Conca (2005) found that from the bulk of water accessed 45 per cent was supplied to the industry, agriculture's share was 39 per cent while domestic consumption took up 14 per cent. In Africa, however, Mc Cornick et al (2003) estimated that agriculture in Ethiopia consumes 63 per cent of all the water withdrawn for human use, while the proportion used for domestic purposes is 8 per cent while for industry it was 4 per cent. This shows that industry and agriculture are the major sectors that use a lot of water as compared to domestic water use. The impact of these major sectors on the environment as a consequence of their use of water and their methods of returning used or surplus water into the system for other uses are significantly different. Waste water from some industries and agricultural activities can not be put to any use and sometimes their interaction with the environment can be very destructive (Nowlan, 2004). Laban (2007) estimated the amount of waste water from household uses in the urban areas of Cape Town, South Africa to be 40% of the initial water used. He found that 19 domestic activities pollute water that could be used in other sectors. He recommended installation of technical appliances that would enable less domestic water consumption. Some of the water saving options suggested for use at the household level are re-use of water from the kitchen, use of economy shower heads, using toilets with flushing interceptions and the utilization of rain water. Unfortunately these appliances have not been used and their benefits realized in many regions of the world today because of the negative attitude that people have of them while others have not received the technology yet (Tsagarakis et a; 2002). In Kenya, the ever-increasing demand for water especially in the urban areas is caused by increasing demand by increasing populations and expanding urban areas. Urban residential development draws off increasing quantities of water thus reducing water recharge (Annandale, 2001). The combination of rapid population growth, groundwater depletion and poor drainage causes potential threats for many large populations. The studies reviewed focuses water utilization on a global scale and urban areas in few countries and has not focused on peri-urban areas and therefore need for the study to address this gap. 2.6 Water Conservation Water conservation is a very useful activity among all water users because it increases the water supply for use in times of water scarcity (WHO, 2005). To meet the water demand required in domestic, irrigation and livestock in the peri-urban areas, water 20 conservation has to be given first priority. This therefore predicts the need for a study to understand the methods of water conservation used so as to find the possible solutions to water conservation techniques. Among the techniques identified by Meinzen and Rosegrant, (2001) for semi-arid areas include proper design of water sources and distribution network, appropriate plant selection, use of efficient irrigation methods such as drip method, mulching and appropriate maintenance in water scarce areas. These particular techniques have proved to solve most of the water problems in rural areas with low population densities and large farm sizes but we have no evidence that this would be true for utilities in peri-urban areas. So there is a place for a study that could go further to establish the methods used to conserve water and asses their limitations in peri-urban areas. In the agricultural sector, Attia (2005) reported that water savings in the irrigation sector can be achieved through the application of five major on-farm irrigation water conservation practices. The five practices include LEPA sprinklers, surge flow furrow irrigation valves, drip irrigation, soil moisture measurement and use of on-farm underground water distribution pipelines. Tsagarakis et al (2002) noted that water recycling and reuse has solved many of the water shortages in Greece and proposed the adoption of similar techniques elsewhere so as to meet some of the water demand in various sectors. 21 In Kenya, the Water Act of 2002 recogmzes the need to promote integrated water resource management through the involvement of various stakeholders. In pursuant to Section 15(5) of the Act, the Catchment Management Strategy is meant to encourage and facilitate the establishment and operation of Water Resource Users Associations (WRUAs) for co-operative management of water resources. The involvement of stakeholders in water resources conservation is supported by Cremers et al (2005) who considered this action to be central in improving access, development and use of water resources. In spite of the rising demand for water, very little is being done to conserve water especially in the urban areas of Kenya due to financial constraints, lack of knowledge and lack of technology (Gichuki et al, 2000). To avoid this situation there is need to educate people in various water conservation techniques and also conservation of the environment in general. Ghettuba (2004) established that the first priority any community needs is accessing clean drinking water followed by water for livestock, then water for crop production and finally water for other activities like pottery, recreation and transport, among others. Guleid (2002) found that water for crop production in dry areas of Ethiopia is harvested by diverting run-off water from rainstorms and concentrating it into the field where crops are grown. The study by Getachew (2005) on water harvesting, found water harvesting to be a security for mitigating the impact of drought in Ethiopia. The study 22 suggested that further work was needed to establish more suitable techniques for use in water conservation particularly in areas with limited water sources and areas with high human and livestock populations. He also suggested further work to establish the limitations of these techniques with a view to finding suitable solutions and / or improve the ones now being used in other parts of the country. The majority of research projects have focused on highlighting the current water shortage and conservation in the urban and rural areas. Research in water conservation in cities has been restricted to the capital. There is a gap of studies relating to other cities especially small and medium size ones and in particular the peri-urban areas. Most of the information about water use and conservation is reported within figures for total annual water consumption or is contained in information about existing problems. There appears to be no specific information about water conservation in domestic, livestock and irrigation in peri-urban areas. This Research is therefore important to fill this gap particularly in the peri-urban areas of Ruiru District. The methodology used to analyze the data gathered from the field is described in the next chapter. 23 CHAPTER THREE MATERIALS AND METHODS 3.1 Introduction This chapter describes the location of the study area, design of the study, the sample and sampling procedures used, the data collection procedures, types of data collected and the methods that were used to analyze the data. The chapter also details the process of cluster formation, how sample sizes were arrived at as well as how the collected samples were handled, prepared and analyzed and the statistical tools employed to analyze the data. 3.2 Location of the study area Ruiru District is in Kiambu County in Central province. The District is new and was officially inaugurated on February 2009. It was part of larger Thika District. It is boarded by Districts Gatundu and Githunguri to the north, Kiambu to the west, Thika to the east while Nairobi North and Kangundo Districts are to the south. The District is at the periphery of Nairobi city and hence has a lot of influence from the city since it is about 20 kiometers from the city centre. The District has a population from different ethnic communities. It is a fast growing industrial area due to opening up of Thika road which cuts across the District. The district has two means of transport the railway and road transport. Ruiru District was chosen for the study due to its high rate of increase in population as significant population working in Nairobi city and Thika towns are shifting to the District looking for places to settle. This therefore increases water demand 24 to the District looking for places to settle. This therefore increases water demand leading to water scarcity in the area. The district includes within its boundaries 2 Divisions, 6 locations and 10 sub-locations (Figure 3.1) ~ I M'RQ~I ~!\S.TDI~If'I~T 10\<,11\ I ~~·'I·:3W\~: This map 'is not an authority on delineation ofboundanes Figure 3.1 Administrative boundaries of Ruiru District (GOK, 2009) Ruiru District is dominated by peri-urban activities and because of its proximity to Nairobi and Thika towns, a significant population involved in economic activities in these towns resides in Ruiru Districts and its environs. GOK, (2009) revealed that the population of Ruiru District had grown at approximately by 10% from the previous census of 1999. This has significantly increased the population densities and has 25 population of Ruiru District had grown at approximately by 10% from the previous census of 1999. This has significantly increased the population densities and has increased the demand for water in the District especially due to increased water usage in the multiple economic activities. This is because the residents are involved in small scale but intensive crop and livestock production systems which require a significant amount of water. The District falls within the category of the arid and semi-arid lands of the country. These are fragile environments with relatively shallow and infertile soils with unpredictable rainfall that make them unsuitable for supporting a large population unless alternative sources of water are estblished (GOK, 2009). The District receives rainfall of between 116mm and 965mm in an average year (GOK, 2009). This problem of low precipitation in the area is compounded by exceedingly high rates of potential evaporation that also affects the volume of water accessible to households since some water sources such as surface wells dry- up. Agricultural activities in the District have been affected by lack of sufficient water. The farmers grow crops like maize, beans, bananas and Napier grass. The rain that falls in the District doesn't support crops to maturity. As a result the farming lands are being subdivided into small plots of quarter and an eighth of an acre for residential purposes due to shifting production activities and little benefits from crop farming. 26 Existing records shows that the number of livestock has decreased drastically due to water shortages that have affected the livestock farming for the available water is first used for domestic purposes before other uses. The number of chicken, on the other hand, are on the increase because many people keep them and also possibly because of the many people settling in the area who provide good markets for their products. 3.3 Study Design In this study, a multistage design involving stratified and random sample survey was carried out with the help of household questionnaires. The purpose of the survey was to obtain information of the sample so as to generalize for the population so that inferences could be made about certain parameters. The information required from the study included establishing the main sources of water for use in the domestic, livestock and irrigation activities, their accessibility and reliability as well as establishing how much water was used in the domestic and livestock sectors. The study also examined the various techniques used to conserve water together with the limitations hindering the practices of these techniques in the District. The design allowed for collection of both quantitative and qualitative data at the same time. 3.4 Sample and Sampling Procedures 3.4.1. Random sampling Ruiru District has two Divisions (Ruiru and Githurai). These are subdivided into six 27 locations and ten sub-locations. Simple random sampling method was used to select representative sub-locations for the study. Each sub-location was assigned a random number. Using shuffled numbered sub-location specific balls, a ball was picked at random without replacement. The process was continued until 40% of the total number of sub-locations was attained. Kahawa Sukari, Gatongora, Theta and, Ruiru sub- locations were selected and were used as field study areas. 3.4.2 Cluster sampling The study area has plot sizes ranging from 40x60 feet to several acres (GOK, 2009). Because of multi-demand in terms of water needs and usage, the study formed clusters as structure of the study based on plot sizes. The study was carried out on 3 types of plot sizes: 1OOx100 square feet, 200x250 square feet and 200x650 square feet which were considered as cluster (1) small plot sizes, cluster (11) medium plot sizes and cluster (111) large plot sizes, respectively. This is because these plot sizes are owned by the majority in the peri-urban areas of the study sites and are considered to have multiple water uses such as domestic water use, livestock water use and water use for irrigation. A list of all residential estates in the three sub-locations was then obtained from the Ruiru District listing of 2006. Using the list obtained, only the residential estate that had the above plot sizes were marched to one of the three clusters thus giving rise to the formation of 19 estates. Random sampling was then used to select 40% of the estates 28 from each cluster for use in the study. The sample size was calculated based on (Bartlett, et al, 2001) formula. n = Z2 pq / d2 Where n = required sample size z =Confidence level at 95% ( standard value of 1.96) p = the proportion in the target population estimated to have characteristics being estimated (90%) q = 1-p d = Margin of error at 5% (standard value of (0.05) Computation of the formula and calculation of design effect yielded 276 samples. The sample was further increased by 5% to account for contingences such as none response. Therefore the sample size for household interviews was 290. The number of selected households was distributed proportionally in the three selected clusters based on population densities. Therefore, 109 households were selected in cluster (1),97 in cluster (2) while 78 households were in cluster (3) (Table 3.1). In each selected estate systematic random sampling started centrally then moved eastwards then to other directions until all the selected households were visited. Every s" household was considered until the last respondent was obtained from each cluster. In the case where the key representative of the household was not available, the next household was 29 considered. The head of the household or anybody above 18 years was taken as the respondent for the household. Table 3.1 Selected characteristics for cluster formation Cluster Characteristics Estates Selected Estates Cluster (1) Kahawa Sukari, Gitothua, Kahawa Sukari, Small 100xlOO square Finance, Manguu, Wendani, Ting'ang'a, Plot/sizes feet Fourty, Githurai Kimbo post, Finance and Ruiru Ruiru and Ting'ang'a Cluster (2) 200x250 square Gatong'ora, Kihunguro, Gitambaa, Medium feet Iriuko, Gatong'ora plot /sizes Cluster (3) 200x650 square Zone A, B, C, M, N, P and R. Zone A, M and P Large feet plot/sizes 3.4 Data Collection Tools The household questionnaires, key informant guides, focus group discussion guides and observation record sheets were the tools used to collect data in the field. These tools are described in the following sub-sections. 3.5.1 Household Questionnaires Household questionnaires were the main data collection method and the tool used for the study (Appendix 1). It involved administering questions to the selected 290 household respondents. The questionnaire was divided into three parts. Part A was on general information which was to establish how it related to water sources, water use at home, 30 use by livestock and how it related to water conservation practices. Part B was designed to collect data on water sources, use and reliability while Part C was designed to collect data on water conservation practices in the area and the constraints experienced while practicing the conservation measures. Both qualitative and quantitative data was collected from the study. 3.5.2 Key Informant Guide Key Informant interviews were conducted among 5 community resource persons, that is, two Assistant-Chiefs, one elder and Heads of Water Institutions (Irrigation and Livestock Officers) of the District. They were interviewed on the type of water sources, accessibility, reliability, utilization and conservation techniques that are practiced in the area and the problems the people face in the process of managing their water resources (Appendix 2). In the process both qualitative and quantitative data was collected. 3.5.3 Focus Group Discussion Guide A total of five focus group discussions were conducted with chosen representatives of women / men self-help water groups in the area to obtain information on water sources, accessibility, reliability, utilization, conservation and the problems that the people experience in the process of managing their water (Appendix 3). The sizes of the focus groups varied between 10 to 20 people. This was done to verify the information obtained from the household interviews and collection of the qualitative and quantative data. 31 3.5.4 Observation Record Sheet The record sheet was used for recording any observation on water sources, uses and conservation practices carried out in the area such as rivers, boreholes, wells, dams, water tanks and other water conservation techniques in use. A digital camera was used to photographically record observations. The information gathered was important in verifying the responses from the respondents. 3.6 Data Management and Analysis The raw data from the questionnaires was coded, thoroughly cleaned and analyzed according to the objectives of the study. Cross tabulation was used to compare availability of the water sources, their accessibility and reliability for domestic, livestock and irrigation activities in the study clusters. Tables of ranking, frequencies and percentages were computed to show the priorities the community give to various techniques used to conserve water and the vanous limitations associated with these water conservation practices. The results obtained from the analysis are presented and discussed in the next chapter. 32 CHAPTER FOUR RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 4.1 Introduction . This chapter presents the results and discussions on the management of water resources in the peri-urban areas of Ruiru District. 4.2 Socio Demographic Characteristics The general background information of the respondents in Ruiru District is summarized in Table 4.1. Overall, 284 household respondents were interviewed during the study with (62%) being females as they are normally the people responsible for taking care of water in the household. A large proportion of the respondents had formal education (>50% in the three clusters), where 17%, 35% and 33% in the three clusters had attained primary, secondary and tertiary education and only 11% of the total respondents were without any formal education. From the table, 48% of the total respondents had family size between 4-6 members with cluster (1) 59(54%), cluster (2) 45(46%) and in cluster (3) 33(42%). Family income varied in all the clusters. 33 Table 4.2: Socio-Demographic characteristics of the study respondents Description Res rouses Cluster (I) Cluster (2) Cluster (3) Total n=109 n=97 n=78 n=284 Male 47(43%) 39(40%) 22(28%) 103(38%) Sex Female 62(57%) 58(60%) 56(72%) 176(62%) Single 12(11%) 9(9%) 9(12%) 30(11 %) Married 83(76%) 77(79%) 61(78%) 221(78%) Separated 2(1%) 3(3%) 3(4%) 8(3%) Marital Window/Widower 6(6%) 5(5%) 3(4%) 14(5%) status Divorced 3(3%) 0 2(3%) 5(1%) None Response 4(4%) 3(3%) 2(3%) 9(3%) 1-3 31(28%) 21(22%} 19(24%) 71(25%) family 4-6 59(54%) 45(46%) 33(42%) 137(48%) SIze 7 and above 29(27%) 31(32%) 26(33%) 86(30%) No formal 0 14(14%) 18(23%) 32(11%) Level of education Education Primary 6(6%) 21(22%) 22(28%) 49(17%) Secondary 35(32%) 38(39%) 27(35%) 100(35%) Tertiary 55(50%) 22(23%) 17(22%) 94(33%0 Non Response 5(5%) 2(2%) 2(3%) 9(3%0 Family Below 20,000 22(20%) 37(38%) 47(60%) 106(37%0 income 20,000-40,000 35(32%) 41(42%) 19(24%) 95(33%) per month Above 40,000 52(48%) 19(20%) 12(15%) 83(29%) Results from Table 4,1 show respondents of cluster (1) majority 52(48%) earned above Kshs. 40,000 per month as most of them had attained tertiary education and therefore were able to get high paying jobs such as senior civil servants and good businessmen while cluster (2) majority 41(42%) earned between Kshs. 20,000 and 40,000 and in cluster (3) majority 47(60%) earned below Kshs. 20,000 per month as most of them were farmers and housewives. 34 4.3 The main water sources accessibility and reliability There are various sources of water that are used in the District. They include piped water, boreholes, rivers and wells. The summary of the main water sources their accessibility and reliability for use in domestic, livestock and irrigation activities in the District are presented according to clusters mentioned in Chapter Three. 4.3.1 The main water sources accessibility for domestic use Table 4.2 shows the results of main water sources and their accessibility in the three study clusters. The table shows that the major sources of water used in the district are NWC mains, CBO mains, boreholes, rivers and wells. 100% of the respondents of cluster (1) access NWC mains, 64% of respondents of cluster (2) access borehole water while 42% of the respondents of cluster (3) access CBO mains. Table 4.2 Main water sources and their accessibility for domestic use Main water STUDY CLUSTERS Signifi sources cant accessibility level Cluster (1) Cluster (2) Cluster (3) Total NWC mains 109(100%) 0 0 50% X2=282CBO mains 0 14(14%) 33(42%) 17% Boreholes 0 62(64%) 17(22%) 32% df=3Shallow wells 0 0 5(6%) 2% Rivers 0 21(22%) 23(29%) 17% p<0.05 Total 109(100%) 97(100%) 78(100%) 284(100%) 35 Table 4.2 indicate that there are significant differences in the accessibility of the main water sources for different domestic activities in the three clusters (p<0.05). The Table shows that 100% of respondents of cluster (1) accesses NWC mains, 42% respondents of cluster (3) accesses CBO water mains through in house water connections and stand pipes, while 64% of respondents of cluster (2). The percentage water sources accessibility in the study clusters could be explained by the fact that cluster (1) households have piped water distributed in the whole area and that the connection fee was reported to be affordable. It was observed that in cluster (2) and (3) residents queued for water at the water kiosks indicating that these clusters were significantly underserved with water (p<0.05) thus increasing water accessibility difficulties in the two clusters. Due to this water scarcity in cluster (2) and (3) as a result of most of the rivers being seasonal, example (plate 4.1), some residents were motivated to drill private boreholes for their own water use and also sell to the community members. Previous studies elsewhere have demonstrated similar findings where due to long queues at the water sources some individuals drill boreholes to sell water to the community in an attempt to solve the problem Nowlan, (2004) and Abu-Eid, (2007). Results in Table 4.2 also show that only 17% of the respondents had access to rivers for domestic water use, cluster (2) 28% and cluster (3) 29% while none of the respondents in cluster (1) reported accessing river water for domestic water use for the respondents perceived the quality of river water to be polluted. This presumably reflected attitude 36 towards river water quality, rather than simply distance to the water source. This may be because the rivers pass through highly populated estates that are not connected to the sewerage system and thus dispose their domestic waste along trenches that drain into these rivers. Further, Ruiru District has several industries which the residents suspect, dispose their waste into the ground. This may find their way into the water sources. The results show water accessibility disparities favoring residents in cluster (1) over residents in cluster (2) and cluster (3). This could possibly be the case due to its high population density settlements in the area and improved infrastructure as compared to clusters (2) and cluster (3) which have low population densities settlements and poor infrastructure. The results were consistent with studies carried out in South Africa which show that water demand and supply for urban and poor urban settlements are less favorable (Macy, 2001). 37 Plate 4.1 Gatong'ora river at the bridge to Gitambaa in cluster (2) (29th September, 2006) This Gatong'ora river is seasonal and flows for two to three weeks after the rams. During the flows, the resident accesses the river for domestic, irrigation and livestock water use. 4.3.2 The main water sources reliability for domestic use The results in Table 4.3 show the results of main water sources reliability for domestic activities in the study area. The results show that reliability of all the main water sources was reported to be average 50% with 55% from cluster (1), 50% from cluster (2) while 43% were from cluster (3). 38 Table 4.3 Main water sources reliability for domestic use Main water STUDY CLUSTERS sources reliability Significa frequency Cluster (1) Cluster (2) Cluster (3) Total nee level Reliable 15(15%) 21(22%) 15(20% 19% X2=253 Average 56(55%) 47(50%) 32(43%) 50% df=3 reliable Unreliable 31(30%) 26(28%) 27(36%) 31% p<0.05 Total 102(100%) 94(100%) 74(100%) 270(100%) The frequency of main water sources reliability in each cluster was observed to differ significantly (p<0.05). Up to 50% of the total respondents reported average reliability of main water sources majority of whom were from cluster (1) 55% followed by cluster (2) 50% and least in cluster (3) 43%. Other respondents reported main water sources as unreliable 31%. The majority of those were from cluster (3) 36% followed by cluster (1) 30% and finally cluster (2) 28%. Among the total respondents 19% reported main water sources as reliable. Among them 22% were from cluster (2),20% from cluster (3) while 15% were from cluster (1). There was a strong association between the frequency of the main water sources reliability and study cluster (p<0.5). Some of the reasons why respondents in cluster (1) 39 and (3) reported average piped water sources reliability were due to the fact that there was no continuous supply of water from the water pipes while respondents of cluster (2) reported that borehole water sources were reliable due to the fact that most of the boreholes were always operating. There are 20% of respondents in cluster (2) and 23% of cluster (3) who reported that rivers and boreholes were average in reliability due to the fact that the water sources were mainly accessed through vendors who lacked consistency in supplying the water. This means that there exists inadequate and inconsistent reliability of water sources in cluster (2) and (3). The respondents reported that they are not connected to Nairobi Water Company mains who are the major water service provider in Athi Water Catchment where Ruiru Division belongs. This could be explained by the fact that cluster (2) and (3) have unplanned settlements hence less likely to attract planned and focused services. The result are consistent with findings by Postel et al (2005). The results revealed that the sources of water available to the communities are not enough to meet the water demand of the communities for different sectors. For cluster (1) the water lacked pressure because of the many connections that have been done arising from the many people who have migrated to the area. The key informant (Water officer) reported that the existing water serving pipes were designed for a small population and therefore predicts the need for expansion of the main water pipes to correspond with the population density target in vision 2030. For cluster (2) and (3) all 40 the sources of water aside the river and rain water are privately owned. These private owners determine when the water from their sources is made available to the public and also have full control over the prices. It is therefore not reliable for the community to continue depending on these sources for water. Most people depend on boreholes for drinking but the boreholes can only be used when there is electricity. The frequent power-cut in the area makes it difficult for people to access water from the boreholes all the time. This explains why a number of people in the area own hand dug wells. These wells are not reliable sources of water because they dry up during the dry season. All respondents of cluster (1), 30% and 20% of respondents of cluster (2) and (3) respectively hardly use nearby rivers and streams for domestic activities since the people perceive the water from these sources to be polluted. This is because a lot of polluting activities take place along the riverside like car washing, washing of clothes and dumping of waste by institutions around Ruiru town. 4.3.3 The main water sources and their accessibility for livestock use Table 4.4 show the results of main water sources and their accessibility for livestock use in the study area. The results show that only 98(35%) of the total respondents kept livestock where 21% were from cluster (1), 31% from cluster (2) and 45% from cluster (3). Among the total respondents, 31% reported that their animals mainly accessed river water sources followed by 28% who accessed NWC mains, 20% mainly accessed CBO 41 mains, 10% reported that their animals accessed shallow wells and finally only 9% of the total respondents watered their animals with water from boreholes. Table 4.4 Main water sources accessibility for livestock use Main STUDY CLUSTERS Significant Water level Sources Cluster Cluster Cluster (3) Total Accessibility (1) (2) X2=107 NWC mains 19 (90%) 0 8(18%) 28% CBO mains 0 9(28%) 11(24%) 20% df=3 Boreholes 2(10%) 3(13%) 4 (9%) 9% Shallow wells 0 6(20%) 4 (9%) 10% p<0.05 Rivers 0 12 (50%) 18 (41%) 31% Total 21(100%) 31(100%) 45(100%) 98(100%) Table 4.4 shows that there were significant differences in the accessibility of the main water sources for livestock use in the study clusters (p<0.05). Majority of respondents in cluster (1) mainly watered their animals with water from NWC mains 19(90%) while majority of respondents in cluaster (2) used river water for their animals 12(50%) and majority of the respondents in cluster (3) reported that their livestock mainly accessed river water sources 18(41%) which was accessed away from their home compounds. According to the results, approximately 20% and 9% of respondents in cluster (2) and (3) respectively water their animals with water from shallow wells while 28% and 24% of respondents of cluster (2) and (3) water their animals with water from CBO mains. No such practice was reported in cluster (1). A significant 50% and 41% of respondents 42 in cluster (2) and (3) use river water to water their animals. This can be explained by the fact that cluster (2) and (3) had animal watering zone along the rivers (Plate 4.2). Cluster (1) did not have animal watering zone at the rivers and therefore none of the respondents watered their animals at the river while majority of the residents preferred accessing other water sources. The frequency of animals accessing well water sources in the three clusters was less significant (p<0.05) 6(20%) and 4(9%) in cluster (2) and (3) respectively. The wells were reported to be unprofessionally dug and therefore dried up a few weeks after the rains. This explains why wells were not popular sources of water among the respondents. The available water sources in all the clusters are significantly inadequate for livestock use. The respondents of cluster (2) reported that lack of reliable water sources made the respondents reduce the number of livestock owned and that others died for lack of enough water. Previous studies have demonstrated near similar findings (Akhilu et al, 2001; Peden et aI, 2003 and ILRI 2005). 43 Plate 4.2 Animal watering zone in ruiru river at Gitambaa in cluster 2 (17th September, 2006) The river bank at this animal watering zone is degraded because of the many animals drinking water at this zone. These have loosened the top soil and caused erosion to a point where the rocks are almost bear as a result of which there is need to construct animal watering structures away from the river. 4.3.4 The main water sources adequacy for livestock use Table 4.5 presents the results of main water sources adequacy for livestock use in the study clusters. The results show that the main water sources for livestock use were average adequacy 45%, 39% inadequate and 18% adequate. 44 Table 4.5 Main water sources adequacy for livestock use Main water STUDY CLUSTERS sources adequacy Cluster (1) Cluster (2) Cluster (3) Total Significant level Adequate 3(14%) 6(25%) 4(14%) 18% X2=177 Average 14(67%) 8(33%) 11(38%) 45% df=3adequacy Inadequate 5(24%) 10(42%) 14(48%) 39% p<0.05 Total 21(100%) 24(100%) 29(100%) 74(100%) Results in Table 4.5 show that majority of the respondents in the study clusters reported average adequacy of the main water sources. This was reported to be due to the fact that residents of the study clusters reported that the available water was given first priority to domestic water use while other uses come after. This explains why there was 24% and 34% of the respondents in cluster (2) and (3) respectively who reported the water sources as inadequate. Some of the reasons why borehole water sources were regarded as inadequate for livestock use were because the water sources were privately owned, the community boreholes were not operational, and also due to long distances to the water sources. Respondents of cluster (1) and (2) reported piped water sources as inadequate source of water for livestock use due to lack of continuous flow and low pressure. These results compare favourably with the findings reported by Akhilu et al (2001) and Peden et al (2003). 45 ,.-.....-~- ~---'-~~...•....----- KENYATTA UN'V(RS'TYL~~ 4.3.5 Main water sources and their accessibility for irrigation use Table 4.6 shows the results of the main water sources and their accessibility for irrigation use in the study area. The results show that among the total respondents only 72 respondents that carried out irrigation activities in the study clusters where 28 were from cluster (1), 21 were from cluster (2) and 23 were from cluster (3). Table 4.6 The main water sources accessibility for irrigation use Main Signific Water STUDY CLUSTERS ant Sources level accessibility Cluster (1) Cluster (2) Cluster (3) Total NWC mains 21 (75%) 0 0 29% X2=128 CBO mains 0 0 8(35%) 11% Boreholes 2(7%) 2(15%) 3(13%) 10% df=3 Rivers 5(18%) 19(85%) 12(52%) 28% Total 28(100%) 21(100%) 23(100%) 72(100%) p<0.05 The findings in Table 4.6 indicate that accessibility to water sources by the respondents for irrigation water use differ significantly from each cluster (p<0.05). According to the results approximately 75% of respondents in cluster (1) accessed NWC mains compared to 11% of cluster (3) respondents who accessed CBO mains. This water is normally treated and therefore huge amounts of treated water is lost through irrigation. River water sources were accessed by 18% from cluster (1), 85%, from cluster (2) and 52% were from cluster (3). The frequency of the respondents accessing borehole water for irrigation activities in the three clusters is less significant (p