\
USE, CONSERVATION AND HARVESTING OF MEDICINAL PLANTS BY
THE OGIEK OF EAST MAU FOREST, NAKURU DISTRICT, KE YA. //
BY
FIDENSIO KI YAMU DEGWA (H D. APPLIED BIOLOGY)·
A THESIS SUBMITTED I PARTIAL FULFILME T OF THE
REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF DEGREE OF MASTER OF SCIENCE
IN ETHNOBOTANY IN THE DEPARTMENT OF PLA T
AND MICROBIAL SCIENCES
KENYATTA UNIVERSITY
Ndegwa, Fidensio
Use, conservation
and harvesting of
FEBRUARY 2008
11
DECLARATION
This thesis is my original work and has not been presented for a degree in any other
University or any other award.
Signature __ -t-~c:q=l--'~~ __ Date
FIDENSIO KINY AMU NDEGWA
(156/5986/2003)
We confirm that the work in this thesis was carried out by the candidate under our
supervision
Dr. Paul K. Mbugua
Department of Plant and Microbial Sciences
Signat~ Date
Dr. Grace W. Gatheri
Department of Plant and Microbial Sciences
Signature #Jt;::¢:lL:Q
III
,
DEDICATION
To my parents, Kooru and Kirugi who were the first people to tell me the importance of
education and made all the efforts to educate me. To my wife: Kaimuri for her patience
and support during the period of this study. To my children: Kawira, Koome, Kinoti and
Makena for their love despite my absence. To my colleagues and friends, for
encouragement and support. To all those people who love plants and value their
biodiversity.
IV
ACKNOWLEDGEME TS
I wish to express my sincere gratitude to Dr. Paul K. Mbugua and Dr. Grace W. Gatheri
for their guidance, invaluable suggestions, sound advice and leadership during the course
of this study and later in the preparation of this thesis. My gratitude also to Prof. A.S.S.
Orago, without whose assistance and advice, I would not have pursued my studies. I am
indebted to the entire staff members of the Department of Plant and Microbial Sciences
and School of Health Sciences for their help throughout the period of this study.
I wish to thank Kenyatta University and its management for allowing me to pursue my
studies despite my demanding work.
vABSTRACT
A survey of medicinal plants was carried out in East Mau Forest and questionnaires
were used to interview 427 members of Ogiek community, who were above
eighteen years of age, on the use of medicinal plants. Plant samples were collected,
preserved and later identified at the East African Herbarium. One hundred 20x20m
quadrats were marked out in the entire study area. In each quadrat, the number and
type of medicinal plants and the harvesting methods were investigated. The data,
which was obtained from the quadrats and from the questionnaires were analyzed
statistically using percentages to determine the use, conservation status and also to
determine whether they use destructive harvesting techniques. One hundred and
nineteen (119) medicinal plant species were found to be in use. Out of the 427
respondents, 98.6 % indicated that they use medicinal plants. This indicated a very
high dependence on medicinal plants for their health care. The species diversity of
medicinal plants was generally low, with Simpson's Diversity Index of 0.2456 and
0.0894 in stations A (near Nessuit Shopping Centre) and B (near Mariashoni
Shopping Centre) respectively. The relative abundance was generally high with
28.3% and 37.7% medicinal plants in station A and B respectively, with values
greater than 0.5. This indicated that the medicinal plants were still abundant.
Hypoestes forskalii and H. aristata were the most abundant medicinal plant species
in station A, while Dombeya torrida was the most abundant in station B. The
harvesting techniques of most medicinal plants were found to be non-destructive,
with 74.29 % medicinal plants showing selective harvesting. Only 10.77% of the
respondents indicated that they conserve medicinal plants in any way. This showed
that the Ogiek practiced little conservation. Chi-square was used to determine the
relationship/association between: use, conservation status and harvesting techniques
of medicinal plants on one hand and age and gender on the other. The results
indicated that the use and conservation status were not dependent on age, with Chi-
square calculated values of 3.6154 and 5.1838 respectively, although harvesting
techniques were dependent on age with Chi-square calculated value of ] 5.90. The
use, conservation status and harvesting techniques of medicinal plants were
dependent on gender, with Chi-square calculated values of 3.8915, 5.4591 and
5.1)04 respectively. Ninety three (93) diseases were documented during the study.
The plant parts used mostly were roots (29 %), leaves (23.2 %) and stem bark (15.6
%). The diseases treated with the largest number of medicinal plant species were:
stomach problems 17 %, malaria 6.7 % and colds 6.1%. This research work will
assist the future Ogiek generations and other workers because the medicinal plants
knowledge of the Ogiek will now be in a documented form and will also provide-baseline data for further research. Policy makers, who include the Forest
Department, may use the findings of this work to advice the Ogiek on the future of
their medicinal plants. The results support the hypothesis that Ogiek use medicinal
plants for management of diseases, that some medicinal plants are over-exploited
and that the use, conservation status and destructive harvesting techniques were
related to gender, although only harvesting techniques had a relationship with age.
Based on the findings of this work, conservation strategies need to be put in place to '
protect the most important and most threatened medicinal plant species.
VI
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE PAGE .i
DECLARATION ii
DEDICATION .iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .iv
ABSTRACT v
TABLE OF CONTENTS vi
LIST OF TABLES .ix
LIST OF FIGURES x
LIST OF PLATES xi
ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIA nONS xii
CIIAJ>TEIt ONE: INTltOI>lJCTION 1
1.1 Background l
1.1.1 Ogiek History and modem medicine 1
1.1.2 Ogiek descent and influence by their neighbours 2
1.1.3 Social organization of the Ogiek 2
1.1.4. Ogiek and their settlement 3
1.1.5 Ogiek traditional medicine, diseases and forest destruction .4
1.1.6 Research work in South West Mau Forest 5 r
1.2 Problem statement 6
1.3 Justification.............................................................................. 6
1.4 Research questions..................................................................... 8
1.5 Hypotheses.............................................................................. 8
1.6 Objectives 8
1.6.1 Overall objective..................................................................... 8
1.6.2 Specific objectives 8
CIIAJ>TEIt TWO: LITEM TlJltE ItEVIEW 10
2,1Medicinal plants use in the world .10
2.2 Medicinal plants use in Africa 17
2.3 Medicinal plants use in East and Southern Africa .18
2.4 Gender issues in plant use and conservation .25
CIIAJ>TEIt TIlItEE: MATEItIALS ANI> METIIOI> 27
3. 1Introduction 27
3.2 Study area 27
3.2.1 Study area description .27
3.2.2 Vegetation of study area 29
3.2.3 Study population 29
3.3 Inclusion criteria 30
3.4 Exclusion criteria 30
Vll
3.5 Sampling methods 30
3.5. 1Monitoring of harvesting techniques, conservation and interviews 30
3.5.2 Preparation of voucher specimens 31
3.5.3 Determination of relative importance 32
3.5.4 Determination of relative abundance 32
3.6 Data collection tools 32
3.7 Data analysis 33
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS .35
4. 1Introduction 35
4.2 Population demography and other data on the respondents 35
4.3 Results 35
4.3.1 Use of medicinal plants 35
4.3.1.1 Plants used for human beings treatment 43
4.3.1.2 Plants used for livestock treatments 54
4.3.2 Relative importance of medicinal plants 57
4.3.2.1 Introduction 57
4.3.2.2 Results 57
4.3.3 Relative abundance of medicinal plants 62
4.3.3.1 Introduction 62
4.3.3.2 Results 63
4.3.4 The other results obtained from respondents 69
4.3.5 Age classification of respondents 71
4.3.5.1 Introduction 71
4.3.5.2 Results 71
4.3.6 Relationship between use of medicinal plants and age 72
4.3.6.1 Introduction 72
4.3.6.2 Results 72
4.3.7 Association between use of medicinal plants and gender. 74
4.3.7.1 Introduction 74
4}.7.2 Results 75
4.4 Conservation status 76
4.4.1 Introduction 76
4.4.2 Results 77
4.4.2.1 Results from quadrats 77
4.4.2.2 Results from questionnaires 78
4.4.3 Relationship between conservation of medicinal plants and people's age 78
4.4.3.1 Introduction 78
4.4.3.2 Results : 78
4.4.4 Association between conservation of medicinal plants and gender 80
4.4.4.1 Introduction 80
4.4.4.2 Results 81
4.5 Harvesting techniques 81
4.5.1 Introduction 81
Vlll
4.5.2 Results 82
4.5.2.1 Results from quadrats 86
4.5.2.2 Results on knowledge of harvesting techniques from
questionnaires 89
4.5.3 Relationship between destructive harvesting techniques and age 92
4.5.3.1 Introduction 92
4.5.3.2 Results 92
4.5.4 Association between destructive harvesting techniques of and gender. 94
4.5.4.1 Introduction 94
4.5.4.2 Results 94
4.6 Influence of the Ogiek by the Kipsigis and Maasai in the use
of medicinal plants 95
4.6.1 Introduction 95
4.6.2 Results 96
4.7 Analysis of parts of medicinal plants and the diseases treated 97
4.7.1 Introduction 97
4.7.2 Results 97
CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION 98
5.1 Use of medicinal plants 98
5.1.1 Use of medicinal plants for human diseases 98
5.1.2 Use of medicinal plants for livestock diseases 99
5.2 Diseases and plant parts 99
5.3 Importance, abundance, harvesting techniques and conservation 99
5.4 Age classification 102
5.5 Relationship between use of medicinal plants and age 102
5.6 Association between use of medicinal plants and gender 103
5.7 Relationship between conservation of medicinal plants and age 104
5.8 Destructive harvesting techniques of medicinal plants l 05
5.9 Relationship between harvesting techniques of medicinal
.plants and age .' 106
5.10 Relationships of age 107
5.11 Associations of gender 107
5.12 Analysis of parts of medicinal plants and the
diseases treated 108
5.13 Analysis of medicinal plant species and the diseases treated 110
5.14 Influence of the Ogiek by the Kipsigis and Maasai in the use of
medicinal plants 111
CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS II3
6.1 Conclusions 113
6.2 Recommendations 113
REFERENCES 115
IX
APPENDICES 119
APPENDIX 1 A checklist of medicinal plants and the herbarium where
specimens were deposited 119
APPENDIX 2 Biodata of interviewees per village 125
APPENDIX 3 Relative abundance of the medicinal plants based on species
.in the 50 quadrats of each station 145
APPENDIX 4 Similarity of plant names between the Ogiek, Kipsigis
and Maasai 151
APPENDIX 5 Questionnaire " 152
xLIST OF TABLES
Table 4.1: Medicinal plants grouped in families, vernacular name (Okiot),
part of the plant used and the diseases they treat in humans .43
Table 4.2: Medicinal plants used for livestock diseases 54
Table 4.3: Relative importance of each medicinal plant species 57
Table 4.4: Relative abundance of the medicinal plants 63
Table 4.5: Passing on of medicinal plants use 69
Table 4.6: Age characteristics of respondents 72
Table 4.7: Relationship between use of medicinal plants and age 72
Table 4.8: Chi-square for independence: Use of medicinal plants and age 73
Table 4.9: Calculation ofX2c 73
Table 4.10: Respondents Gender. 75
Table 4.11: Association between use of medicinal plants and gender 75
Table 4.12: Relationship between conservation of medicinal plants and
people's age 78
Table 4.13: Chi-square of independence: Conservation of medicinal plants
and age 79
. 2 •Table 4.14: Calculation of X c 79
Table 4.15: Association between conservation of medicinal plants and gender. 81
Table 4.16: Plants with signs of destructive and non-destructive harvesting 86
Table 4.17 Plants selectively harvested 86
Table 4.18: Plants destructively harvested 87
Table 4.19: Plants with signs of harvesting and their relative abundance 88
Table 4.20: Plants that were destructively harvested, the frequency of
Importance and relative abundance 90
Table 4.21: Relationship between destructive harvesting techniques of
Medicinal plants and age 92
Tab)e 4.22: Chi-square of independence: Destructive harvesting techniques of
medicinal plants and age 93
Table 4.23: Calculation ofX2c 93
Table 4.24: Association between destructive harvesting techniques of medicinal
plants and gender. 95
Xl
LIST OF FIGURES
Fig. 3.1: A map of East Mau Forest showing the location of the study area 28
Fig. 4.1: Use of medicinal plants among adult Ogiek .41
Fig. 4.2: Use of medicinal plants and gender. .42
Fig. 4.3: Destructive harvesting techniques by gender 90
I
Xll
LIST OF PLATES
Plate 4.1: Solanum incanum, a medicinal plant, near Nessuit Shopping Centre ..... 37
Plate 4.2: Ricinus communis, a medicinal plant, growing near Nessuit
chiefs Camp 38
Plate 4.3: Plectranthus barbatus, a medicinal plant, at Kimundo village, near
Njoro River main bridge 39
Plate 4.4: Solanum aculeastrum, a medicinal plant, at Sigotik village, near
Njoro cave 40
Plate 4.5: Urtica massaica, one of the medicinal plants which is also used
as a vegetable, growing near.Nessuit Shopping Centre 41
Plate 4.6: Pittosporum viridiflorum, a medicinal plant showing wounds
healing from selective debarking, along Kariangi stream, near
Nessuit Forest Station 83
Plate 4.7: Dombeya torrida, a medicinal plant showing selective harvesting
by partial debarking, near Mariashoni Shopping Centre 84
Plate 4.8: Ekebergia capensis, a medicinal plant showing a non-selective
harvesting technique by complete removal of stem bark, below
the main bridge of Kariangi stream, near Nessuit Forest Station......... 85
X111
ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
CAF Conserve Africa Foundation
C.E. Common Era
DSIR New Zealand Division of Scientific and Industrial Research.
FAO Food and Agriculture Organisation
ELCI Environmental Liaison Centre International
IUCN International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural
Resources
KIFCON Kenya Indigenous Forest Conservation Programme
M a.s.l Meters above sea level
SANBI South African National Biodiversity Institute
TMPs Traditional Medical Practitioners
OWC Ogiek Welfare Council
UNEP United Nations Environmental Programme
UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation
WHO World Health Organisation
1CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
Many communities in the world have used plants as a source of medicine at one time or
other. Plants are one of the most important sources of medicine and the application of
plant medicine perhaps dates back to prehistoric period. Traditional medical practice is as
old as human history and comprises the beliefs and practices that were in existence before
the development of modern scientific medicine. The knowledge that certain plants have
medicinal value and have been used as a source of drugs by mankind for treatment of
diseases is not new (Okemo, 1996; Krahe, 1998). However, most traditional knowledge
has been lost in communities where the art of writing had not been developed. Also, the
use of these plants in developing countries has now been replaced by synthetic drugs,
many of which have been derived from the formulae of natural plant products (Ashok and
Ashok, 1983; Michael and Paul, 1996).
1.1.1 Ogiek History and modern medicine
All cultures, except for a few confined to Tundra regions of the Arctic and the pastoral
peoples such as the Maasai of Kenya, depend on plants for the bulk of their diet (Michael
and Paul, 1996). In many developing countries, where the levels of poverty are very high,
the cost of modern medicine is prohibitive or some communities are so distant from
modern hospitals that they have to depend on medicinal plants directly for their health
care. The Ogiek are one such a tribe, living in the forest where modern life, including
modern medicine has not set fully. This community is a sub- group of the "Dorobo". The
term "Dorobo" (Wandierobo, Wandorobo, Andorobo, Ndorobo) is the Swahili derivative
of the Maasai term "Iitorobo" (Oltoroboni, singular) meaning "a poor person", that is a
2person who has no cattle and therefore must eat the meat of wild animals. According to
the Maasai, cattle are a measure of wealth and any person without cattle is poor by
Maasai standards (Blackburn, 1976; Towett, 2004). Ogiek is a word in both Kalenjin and
Ogiek languages, which means "The care taker of all animals and plants" (Towett, 2004).
1.1.2 Ogiek descent and influence by their neighbours
The Ogiek descended from a leader called Parusworm (Towett, 2004). They settled in
Mau Forest about 200 years ago. The Maasai and Kipsigis are the immediate neighbours
of the Ogiek of East Mau Forest. These communities have influenced the Ogiek in many
ways including the use of medicinal plants. This aspect of influence is evident from the
many plants that have same or similar names in Kipsigis/Maasai and in Okiot (language
of the Ogiek). Culturally, socially and technologically, the Mau Ogiek have more
similarities to the Kalenjin peoples, especially Kipsigis, than to any other tribe. Those
who have lived near Maasai for a long time and speak Maasai language, have
proportionately more Maasai characteristics than from the other local groups. These
Maasai characteristics tend to overlay, not displace, basic Ogiek characteristics,
especially those relating to hunting and honey.
1.1.3 Social organization of the Ogiek
The social unit is a clan, although the clan names are similar to the Kipsigis clans. The
importance of patrilineal clans is negligible. There is no mention of the importance of
matrilineal aspects of the Ogiek in literature. The Ogiek age-set is based on the Maasai
type age-set system, with the same organization terminology and generally the same
3functions, although the Okiot term for age-set itself is the Kalenjin "ipanda". The
ceremony of initiation shows a superficial resemblance to both Kipsigis and Maasai
ceremonies, though it does not rival the elaborateness of either tribe. In a society
otherwise devoid of authority, roles such as that of a chief, or even of a formal council of
elders, the hierarchical age-set system appears to function, in part, as a mechanism for
supporting personal controls over the expression of in-group conflicts. It also has a
significant role in the relationship of the Ogiek to their deity (Tororo), analogous to the
role of lineage elders as intermediaries between the living and the dead (Blackburn,
1976).
1.1.4 Ogiek and their settlement
The Ogiek living on the eastern side of the Mau have a different type of history from the
Ogiek of South Western Mau Forest, because they speak Maasai, Kalenjin and Ogiek
languages. Although these generalizations about language and neighbours either disprove
or cast serious doubt on many theories about the origins of the Ogiek, they do not in
themselves tell us exactly where the Ogiek came from or when, and to whom they are
most closely related, genetically or culturally. Subsistence has focused on bee keeping,
I'
honey storage and hunting using altitudinal gradients to exploit different forest types and
flowering times at different seasons, and thus enabling people to obtain honey during
most of the year (Blackburn, 1976). Also, East Mau Forest has been affected by the
destruction of the forest for the harvesting of forest resources and the settlement by the
Ogiek and other communities. These two factors have had serious implications on the
plant species diversity of East Mau Forest. The Ogiek of South Western Mau Forest have
4a different origin from those of East Mau Forest, and therefore they may have different
uses of medicinal plants for treatment of various diseases.
1.1.5 Ogiek traditional medicine, diseases and forest destruction
The Ogiek have lived in the forest, including Mau Forest for many generations up to
today (Blackburn, 1976; Towett, 2004). They have relied on their traditional medicine for
disease treatment because they have little access to primary health care. Diseases such as
typhoid fever, tuberculosis and highland malaria are now common diseases among the
Ogiek (Saibala, 2002; Towett, 2004). In the forest, there are no modem health facilities,
yet they have managed their illnesses through the use of herbs (Blackburn, 1976; Towett,
2004). Forests were and still are Ogiek pharmacies and laboratories despite the high
magnitude of forest destruction (Towett, 2004). The use of Olea capensis L. is evident
from the obvious debarking of the trees especially along the Njoro River. The use of
Periploca linearifolia Dill. & Rich. and that of Momordicafriesiorum (Harms) C. Jeffrey
is also evident among the Ogiek of East Mau Forest. The harvesting of Gomphocarpus
physocarpus E. Mey. is a thriving business as an export flower in East Mau Forest,
although it is one of the medicinal plants used by the Ogiek especially for treatment of
toothache. Little is known of how the medicinal plant preparations are made from these
raw plant materials by the Ogiek. It is therefore imperative that research should be
conducted into the ethnomedicine of this community, in order to document this vital
information, before it disappears, especially in view of the rapid deforestation which is
taking place in many Kenyan forests including East Mau. Indeed this knowledge is
disappearing at an alarming rate, given its nature of inheritance and the diminishing plant
5resources due to increased populations in the world today (Michael and Paul, 1996). The
loss of indigenous knowledge systems is accelerating throughout the world. Most
ethnobotanists are alarmed by the rate at which plant lore is disappearing. As traditional
people become increasingly westernized, much of the richness of their traditions
disappear (Michael and Paul, 1996). The demand for plants for timber, pharmaceuticals,
building materials and fuel creates a growing demand from fewer resources, in some
cases resulting in local disappearance of favoured and effective sources of traditional
medicine and species diversity (Cunningham, 1993). The collection of wild plants for
export and traditional medicine use is extremely detrimental to certain species. Popular
but slow growing and/or naturally rare plant species are often under pressure (Conserve
Africa Foundation, 2004).
1.1.6 Research work in South West Mau Forest
Research work on medicinal plants used by the Ogiek is very scanty although this
community depends on medicinal plants a great deal for the management of both human
and livestock diseases (Lubanga, 1991; Kokwaro, 1993; Fiona, 2001). The work by
I'
Lubanga in South West Mau Forest indicated the use of medicinal plants. However, the
Ogiek of South Western Mau Forest have a different origin from those of East Mau
Forest and therefore they may have different uses of medicinal plants for treatment of
various diseases (Lubanga, 1991). In this work, sixty-seven plants of medicinal value
were recorded. These plants include Engleromyces goetzei and Toddalia asiatica. No
people among the Ogiek specialize in medicine, all people generally have knowledge of
medicinal plants. This means that there are no medicine men per se. These plants include
6trees, shrubs, and herbs. Several plant species are mixed together to make a concoction
suitable to cure certain ailments. Different people use different plants for similar diseases.
The work by Kokwaro (1993), gives a few medicinal plants used by "Dorobo" in general.
Research work done in Mau Forest indicates Solanum nigrum and Urtica massaica as the
two vegetables used as medicine. This work is important because some vegetables also
serve as traditional medicines (Fiona, 2001). It has been documented that, Cussonia
spicata Thunb., Olea europaea L. subsp africana (Mill.) P.Green, Prunus africana
(Hook. f.) Kalkman, Rhus natalensis Bernh.ex Krauss and Dombeya torrida (J.F.Gmel) P.
Bamps K. Schum. were used by the Ogiek for medicinal purposes (Najma, 2002).
The focus of this research work is to document the medicinal plants used by the Ogiek of
East Mau Forest, determine their conservation strategies and determine whether the
harvesting techniques of medicinal plants are destructive.
1.2 Problem statement
The Ogiek depend on medicinal plants for their health care. These plants are not
documented and may be over-harvested to a point of extinction by either the Ogiek or
other people. Mau Forest, where the Ogiek live is being destroyed at an alarming rate.
There is need to investigate the medicinal plants they use, the conservation status of the
plants and the harvesting techniques used and recommend conservation strategies to save
the plant species that are at a risk, for future use.
1.3 Justification
Ogiek depend on medicinal plants a great deal, yet the ethnomedicine data of the Ogiek is
very scanty and requires urgent attention. Some work done by Kenya Indigenous Forest
7Conservation Programme (KIFCON) only involved the Ogiek of South Western Mau
Forest (Lubanga, 1991). The work in South Western Mau Forest was done sixteen years
ago and conditions have changed over the years especially with the increase in population
of the people and the severe deforestation. Therefore the vegetation in East Mau Forest
may be different from that of South Western Mau Forest. The origin and neighbourhood
of the inhabitants of these two localities is also different. East Mau Forest Ogiek border
the Kipsigis, while South-Western Mau Forest Ogiek border the Maasai. Based on the
above reasons, the study aimed to investigate the ethnomedicine of East Mau Forest
because it presents quite a different picture of medicinal plants from that of South
Western Mau Forest.
It is therefore of critical importance that the ethnomedicine of this community be
investigated and documented in order to get an insight into the various medicinal plants
used for management of diseases, parts used and preparations, determine the conservation
status and also to determine whether the harvesting techniques of medicinal plants are
destructive. Policy makers may use the results of this research to put in place
conservation measures, such as encouraging them to plant trees, especially the threatened
species in their farms. The government may also come up with reserved areas where
plants can be protected from the current destruction. This research work may also form
baseline data for further research work, which may include the determination of the
biological activity and chemical composition of these plants.
81.4 Research questions
i) What plant species do the Ogiek of East Mau Forest use as a source of medicine
for themselves and their livestock?
ii) Is the use of these medicinal plants dependent on age and gender?
iii) What is the conservation status of the plants used?
iv) Are the conservation techniques dependent on age and gender?
v) Are the harvesting techniques of the medicinal plants destructive?
vi) Are the harvesting techniques of the medicinal plants dependent on age and
gender?
1.5 Hypotheses
i) Traditional use of medicinal plants is still important in the Ogiek community.
ii) Some medicinal plants are over-exploited, hence need for conservation measures.
iii) The use, conservation and harvesting techniques of medicinal plants are related to
age and gender of the individuals.
1.6 Objectives
1.6:1 Overall objective
To identify the medicinal plant species used by the Ogiek, determine the conservation
status of these plants and whether the harvesting techniques are destructive.
1.6.2 Specific objectives
i) To identify the medicinal plant species used for treatment of various diseases by
the Ogiek of East Mau Forest.
9ii) To investigate the conservation practices of medicinal plants among the Ogiek of
East Mau Forest.
iii) To determine whether the harvesting techniques of medicinal plants are
destructive.
iv) To establish the relationship between use, conservation and harvesting techniques
of medicinal plants on one hand and age on the other.
v) To establish the association between use, conservation and harvesting techniques
of medicinal plants on one hand and gender on the other.
10
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Medicinal plants use in the world
It has been estimated by the World Health Organization that about 80% of the inhabitants
of the world, especially in developing countries, rely mainly on traditional medicine for
their primary health care (Cunningham, 1993; Blythe, 2000; Mworia, 2000; Environment
Liaison Centre International, 2000). In Europe, North America and other industrialized
regions, over 50% of the population have used complementary or alternative medicine at
least once. In San Francisco, London and South Africa, 75% of people living with
HIV/AIDS have used traditional medicine at one time or another. In Canada, 70% of the
population has used complementary medicine at least once. In Germany, 90% of the
population has used a natural remedy at some point in their life (WHO, 2006). Plant
products also play an important role in the health care systems of the remaining 20% of
the population, which reside mainly in the developing countries such as Kenya. Plants
produce chemical agents, which expel, maim or poison animals that attempt to destroy
them. The chemical agents that plants employ against animals have profound
implications for medicine. We depend on these chemicals for 25% of our prescription
drugs and for nearly all of our recreational chemical substances- the nicotine in tobacco, .
the theophylline in tea, the theobromine in chocolate, and a virtual cornucopia of other
psychoactive substances throughout the world, are some examples of these chemical
compounds (Michael and Paul, 1996). More than Yl (35,000) of the world's known plant
species with potential medicinal value, for example, originate from forest reserves in
developing countries (Mworia, 2000). There is, therefore, a need to recognize the value
of traditional knowledge on plants and subsequently to develop a mechanism for the
appropriate protection of such knowledge (UNEP, 1994). This can be achieved through a
11
better knowledge of biological resources being exploited as well as the full range of uses
and values of the resources and compilation of available information. The New York
Botanical Garden, the Royal Botanic Gardens at Kew, the U.S. Department of
Agriculture and the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations are seeking
new strategies to preserve the world's legacy of genetic and species diversity that
constitute the heritage of indigenous crops (Michael and Paul, 1996).
In China, traditional herbal preparations account for 30 to 50% of the total medicinal
consumption (WHO, 2006). The Chinese record of traditional medicines is greater and
earlier than that of other races (Ashok and Ashok, 1983). They have used moulds to treat
ulcers and Artemisia annua L. for treatment of malaria for over 2000 years. Artemisia
annua L. is one of the species of Artemisia that contains artemisinin as one of the
alkaloids, which are used for the manufacture of various anti-malarial drugs. Dioscorides,
the father of phytotherapy talked about this plant in the first century. The name is derived
from the goddess of Artemis, also called Diana, since like the goddess, the plant helps
women in labour, without-ever failing. It has also been used because of its effect on the
,.
female genitals. "Mugwort" , another name for Artemisia L., "turns women into flowers
again", is a saying from the French medical school. This meant the effects of the plant on
the menstruation, by normalizing menstrual cycle and easing menstrual pain. The species
of Artemisia: Artemisia annua L., A. vulgaris L., A. draculoides Pursh and A. absinthium
L. all have medicinal properties. Currently, the cultivation of A. annua L. is taking place
in large-scale plantations in all the three East African countries. This plant may play a
vital role in combating malaria, which is a killer disease in Africa. Other than malaria,
12
Artemisia annua L. is used as a vermifuge, for dysmenorrhoea and amenorrhoea among
other ailments (Albert, 1972; Okemo, 1996; Pamplona-Rogers, 1999). Other examples of
medicinal plants include the fig-marigold-Mesembryanthemum equilaterale L., whose
leaves have been used by the Tasmanians to relieve stomachache. They chew and
swallow a simple vegetable purge (Carleton, 1971). On the other hand, many species of
aloes are used as medicine. These include: Aloe perryi L., A. ferox Miller and A. vera (L.)
Burm.f.(Syn. A. barbadensis L.). The succulent leaves of aloes contain several glycosides
including emodin. Aloes are used chiefly as purgatives (Albert, 1972; Margaret and
Brian, 1979).
The ancient Egyptians applied mouldy bread to open wounds for treatment. The use of
Quighao, Dichroa, and Cinchona L. for treatment of malaria is recorded in early
civilization of man (Okemo, 1996). Cinchona L. is a plant of South American origin. The
hard, thick bark of several species is the source of quinine, which is an anti-malarial drug
of repute. The other active compounds in Cinchona species are: quinidine, cinchonidine,
and cinchonine. The main species of Cinchona are: Cinchona calisaya Wedd and C.
officinalis L. (Albert, 1972). Millions of Africans are alive today because of quinine (Hirt
and M'Pia, 2001). Rauvolfia serpentina (L.) Kurz has been used in India for treatment of
insanity, while in North America, native Indians used Rhus glabra L. for treatment of
syphilis, gonorrhoea and dysentery (Ericksen-Brown, 1989).
Ginseng is one of the most important drugs in China, where it is considered to be a cure
for a great variety of diseases. The true ginseng (Panax schinseng Nees), a plant of
13
eastern Asia, was at first the only source of the drug. The other species is the American
ginseng (P. quinquefolium L.). Some ginserng is used in the United States as a stimulant
and stomachic. Cascara is obtained from the reddish-brown bark of the western
buckthorn Rhamnus purshiana DC. a tree of the northwestern United States and adjacent
Canada. Cascara is a tonic and laxative. The Indians of Northern South America have
used curare for a long time as an arrow poison. Curare is obtained mainly from Stryhnos,
'.
Chondrodendron tomentosum Ruiz and Pavon. Curare causes progressive paralysis with
eventual cardiac failure. The lethal effects are due to several alkaloids. One of those,
curarine, has now been made available to medicine for use in shock therapy, as it is an
ideal muscle relaxant. Curarine is also used for chronic spastic conditions in surgical
operations and in the treatment of tetanus and as a powerful sedative (Albert, 1972).
The leaves of the coca shrub, Erythroxylon coca Lam., a native of Peru and Bolivia, and
related species are the source of cocaine. It is cultivated in South America, where the
leaves are used as a masticatory, and also in Java, Sri Lanka, and Formosa Islands.
Cocaine is used as a local anaesthetic. It is also employed as a tonic for the digestive and
nervous systems. It belongs to the family Erythroxylaceae. According to an ancient Inca
I'
legend, Manco Capac, the son of the sun and the founder of the Inca Empire, gave coca
leaves to humans as a divine remedy to comfort the afflicted, strengthen the tired and
feed the hungry. When Franscisco Pizzarro, a Spanish conquistador (conqueror) arrived
in Peru in the early sixteenth century, the habit of chewing coca leaves had already spread
among the natives. The active compounds in this plant include cocaine (Pamplona-
Rogers, 1999). Coca leaves are used as a popular remedy in the Andean regions of South
14
America in order to fight "Sorroche" or altitude sickness and tiredness caused by
traveling in high mountain regions. They are also used to calm throat problems and
stomachaches. Given their local anaesthetic effect, the main application of cocaine is as a
local anaesthetic, though nowadays its derivatives, such as procaine, are more frequently
employed. When injected or sniffed, cocaine desensitizes, allowing painless surgery. It is
also used to soak articulations, tissues and nerves affected by aching (Albert, 1972;
Pamplona-Rogers, 1999).
Datura stramonium L. is one of the most poisonous plants, but it is the source of the
drug stramonium. The active principles in this drug are alkaloids, including hyoscyamine,
atropine and scopolamine. The drug is used as a substitute for Belladonna for relaxing the
bronchial muscles in the treatment of asthma. A cardiac glycoside, digoxin, which is
obtained from Digitalis purpurea L. has been used as a heart tonic for many centuries in
some communities. This plant is a native of southern and central Europe (Albert, 1972;
Ashok and Ashok, 1983; Pamplona-Rogers, 1999).
Ephedrine is an alkaloid that is obtained from Ephedra sinica L., E. aquisetina L. and
other Asiatic species of the genus. Ephedra has been used in China for over five thousand
years. In the United States, ephedrine has been used extensively in recent years in the
treatment of colds, asthma, and hay fever and for other medicinal purposes (Albert,
1972).
15
Atropa belladonna L. is the source of atropine and hyocyamine. The plant is native to
central and southern Europe and Asia Minor. Belladonna is used externally to relieve
pain and internally to check excessive perspiration and coughs among other ailments.
Atropine is used to dilate the pupil of the eye and for many other medicinal purposes
(Albert, 1972).
Henbane is a drug obtained from the leaves and flowering tops of Hyoscyamus niger L.
The drug consists of several poisonous alkaloids, among them hyoscyamine and
scopolamine. Henbane is used as a sedative and hypnotic. Its action is similar to that of
belladonna and stramonium but less powerful (Albert, 1972). Senna is an ancient drug
obtained from the dried leaflets and also pods of several species of Cassia, which are
indigenous to the arid regions of Egypt and Arabia. Alexandrian senna comes from C.
acutifolia Delile and Indian or Tinavelly senna from C. angustifolia Vahl. Wild plants of
the C. angustifolia are still used as a source of the drug in Egypt. Senna is used as a
purgative (Albert, 1972).
I'
Chamomile is an old-time remedy obtained from Matricaria chamomilla L. The plant is
a native of Eurasia but is cultivated in the United States and elsewhere. The dried flower
heads contain an essential oil. Infusions of Chamomile are used as tonics and gastric
stimulants. The flower heads of the Russian or garden Chamomile (Anthemis nobilis L.)
are used for similar purposes and also in poultices for sprains, bruises, and rheumatism.
Hops, Humulus lupulus L., is a native of the north temperate regions of both hemispheres.
The plant was known to the Romans and has been grown in some parts of Europe since
16
the ninth century. The female flowers are produced in scaly, cone-like catkins, which are
covered with glandular hairs. These inflorescences contain resin and various bitter
aromatic and narcotic principles, chief of which is luculent. Hops are used in medicine
for their sedative and soporific properties and also as a tonic. Sometimes they are used in
poultices. The principal use, however, is in the brewing industry. They are added to beer
to prevent bacterial action and consequent decomposition and also improve the flavour
and impact the characteristic bitter taste to the beverage (Albert, 1972).
Croton oil is a fatty oil obtained from the dried, ripe seeds of Croton tiglium L., a shrub
or small tree of southern Asia. Croton oil is a yellow-brown liquid with a burning taste
and nauseous oduor. It is one of the most powerful purgatives known. The flowers and
crushed leaves are used in India to poison fishes (Albert, 1972).
Papaver sonmiferum L., the opium poppy, is the source of opium. The drug is the dried
juice or latex obtained from the unripe capsules of the opium poppy. The crude opium is
a brownish material containing as many as twenty-five alkaloids, the most important and
most powerful of which are morphine and codeine. The drug is used to relieve pain,
induce sleep and relax spasms (Albert, 1972). Blue gum, Eucalyptus globulus Labill.
contains an essential oil, cineol, which is widely used in medicine especially in the
treatment of nose and throat disorders, malaria and other fevers (Albert, 1972).
Pokeweed-Phytolacca decandra L'Herit is an herbaceous perennial native in the warmer
regions of America, especially Florida, Africa and Asia. It belongs to the family
17
Phytolaccaceae. The roots contain a saponin with emetic and purgative properties. It is
used in treatment of chronic rheumatism and arthritis. The berries, which are pleasant
tasting and were at one time used to colour wine, have similar properties which may
prove toxic if taken in excessive doses. It has alternate, lanceolate-oval leaves, which are
smooth and rather soft (Bianchini and Corbetta, 1977).
Castor oil plant, Ricinus communis L., family: Euphorbiaceae, originated in tropical
Africa, but it is now cultivated in Europe. It is an annual plant (perennial in warmer
climates, where it forms a shrub or tree). It grows to 2 to 3'li m. Leaves are alternate and
palmatified with dentate, palmately veined lobes. The medicinal part is the oil from dry
seeds. The oil is largely ricinoein, which is broken down in the duodenum, producing
ricinoleic acid and also the albuminoid toxin ricin. By means of cold expression, the
medicinal oil can be extracted without the ricin, which remains in the inner skin. Castor
oil acts as an emollient, non-irritant purgative particularly suitable for treating
constipation (Bianchini and Corbetta, 1977).
2.2 Medicinal plants use in Africa
Since the ancient times, plant medicine is an important part of healthcare system in
Africa (Conserve Africa Foundation, 2004). Many African communities use plants for
management of many diseases. In Africa, up to 80% of the population use traditional
medicine for primary healthcare (Environmental Liaison Centre International, 2003;
WHO, 2006). However, the art of writing is relatively new in many of these communities
except the Egyptians who recorded their knowledge of illness and their cures on temple
walls and on the Ebers Papyrus of 1550 B.C. These records contain over 700 medicinal
18
formulas such as castor, aloes and Cannabis (Beryl and Molly, 1996). It was estimated
that 83% of 714 ethnic communities in Africa and Madagascar were dependent on wild
resources and 50% relied on fishing, hunting and gathering of wild plant products (Ogol
et a/., 2002). Plants are used as traditional medicine, food, for shelter, dyes, oils,
intoxicants, fuel, beverages, fibres, clothing, transportation, tools, for rituals, religious,
ceremonial purposes and even as a source of cash income (Michael and Paul, 1996; Ogol
et a/., 2002; Gisesa, 2004; CAF, 2004). In Ghana, Mali, Nigeria and Zambia, the first
time treatment for 60% of children with high fever resulting from malaria is the use of
herbal medicine at home (WHO, 2006).
According to WHO, more than 3.5 billion people in the developing world rely on plants
as components of their primary health care (Michael and Paul, 1996). The vast majority
(70-80%) of people in Africa consult traditional medical practitioners (TMPs) for
healthcare (Cunningham, 1993). The Alma pygmies of Gabon used at least twenty-nine
plants that were botanically identified by Father Trilles, for medicinal purposes
(Carleton, 1971).
2.3 Medicinal plants use in East and Southern Africa
Medicinal plants had been an integral part of the culture of East Africans long before the
arrival of the Portuguese in the 15 th century (Muthiani, 1971). Muthiani quoted Rodwell
as having made the comment, "African medicine-men are no amateurs". In general,
medicinal plants may be used by anyone who has the knowledge although those who are
most skilled practitioners are called medicine men. Most of the traditional cures are for
alleviating discomforts of the digestive tract especially for worms and constipation, for
19
respiratory ailments, venereal diseases, or for stimulation. It is well known that the seeds
of Strophanthus kombe DC, a native vine of Kenya, are valuable for their cortisone
contents. Cortisone is a cardiac stimulant in much demand in the world market (Muthiani,
1971).
Aloe perryi L., native to the Mediterranean area has been cultivated in Kenya as an
ornamental for centuries. When it was discovered that the juice of the leaves could be
used as a laxative, or for treating bums, it became an export crop (Muthiani, 1971).
The fibre waste of sisal, Agave sisalana Perrine, contains hecogenin, the starting material
for synthetically prepared cortisone, the substance mentioned in Strophanthus seeds, but
in this case available as a by-product. Castor oil from the seeds of Ricinus communis L. is
used as a non-drying oil or in its hydrated form as a drying oil is a valuable laxative
(Muthiani, 1971). Papain is obtained from the unripe fruits of the papaya, Carica papaya
Dumort. Papain is made into a meat tenderizer and can also be used to treat boils, skin
conditions, and respiratory ailments and to dissolve membranes from diphtheria
(Muthiani, 1971).
It has been reported that about 85% of the Kenyan population both rural and urban, still
depends on traditional medicines for their primary health care. However, because of the
opposition to the use of traditional medicine from such quarters as conventional
medicine, Christianity, modem education, colonization, quackery and mysticism
surrounding traditional medicine, the Kenya government has the policy of encouraging
20
the formation of professional associations for traditional medical practitioners (Kokwaro,
1991). In Eastern Africa, a compilation of medicinal plants and their uses has been done
(Kokwaro, 1993). However, more detailed work on individual ethnic communities is
necessary. There have been cases of people with special knowledge of medicinal plants
dying before their knowledge is inherited (Gachathi, 1989). Traditionally, this wealth of
knowledge is passed to the first-born son, but occasionally to a trustworthy person
(Chhabra et al., 1981). Similarly, in polygamous societies, the first wife normally inherits
the knowledge of plants (Kokwaro, 1993). This mode of inheritance of herbal knowledge
is one of the factors that have lead to the disappearance of vital knowledge on medicinal
plants. This is because the information is not recorded and many herbalists start teaching
those to inherit their medicinal plants knowledge when the herbalists are too old. Another
factor is lack of conservation methods in many communities. The Forest Act Cap. 385 of
1962 (Revised 1982 and 1992), often does not adequately cover the needs of local
communities leading to conflicts, which may result in forest degradation or loss of
biodiversity (Khalumba, 2005). Elsewhere, institutions with the aim of investigating the
importance of medicinal plants are documenting traditional knowledge of plants. Such
institutions include South African National Biodiversity Institute, which seeks to be a
national focal point of research on traditional uses of Southern Africa's plants, for their
conservation, sustainable use and development (SANBI, 2004).
Certain vegetation types that were sources of traditional medicines supply will drastically
decline due to forest clearance for agriculture, afforestation of montane grasslands,
uncontrolled burning and livestock grazing (Cunningham, 1993). F.A.O, in its report
21
entitled "The State of the world's Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture",
listed the main causes of agro biodiversity erosion as the displacement of local varieties
by imported or exotic varieties, the intensification of agricultural systems that results in
habitat destruction, together with the use of agrochemicals, and the over-exploitation of
plant resources through overgrazing and excessive harvesting of wild plants and other
forest products (Howard, 2003). In fact, indigenous legends emphasize the need to
protect the earth not because it is useful to humans but because it is sacred. Also once
investigators can identify the best sources of ethnobotanical information in a community
or indigenous society, both local people and ethnoscientists can make more efficient
efforts to conserve such information (Michael and Paul, 1996). Just as many Europeans
know of the use of Aloe vera L. (Aloaceae) to treat burns, many indigenous peoples know
of some common plants that have medicinal uses. Ethnobotany should be used to
discover new pharmaceuticals for westerners and also for the benefit of the people in
developing countries. An increasing number of nations, including China, Mexico, Nigeria
and Thailand, have decided to integrate traditional medicine into their primary health care
systems (Michael and Paul, 1996).
Another factor is poor harvesting techniques. According to Charles Peters, an ecologist at
New York Botanical Garden, a sustainable system for exploiting non-timber forest
resources is one in which fruits, nuts, latexes, and other products can be harvested
indefinitely from a limited area of forest with negligible impact on the structure and
dynamics of the plant populations being exploited (Michael and Paul, 1996).
22
It has been reported that, the exploitation of most forests is not done on a sustainable
basis. It was also observed that, the harvesting activities of the minor or the non-wood
forest products might be seen to be low, but repeated activities will interfere with the
plant population and the depletion of plant resources. These non-timber products from
indigenous forests include honey, fruits, and medicines (Waiganjo, 1999). Numerous
forest resources have been exploited, sometimes to the point of extinction (Ogol et al.,
2002). The loss of habitat is the major factor contributing to the depletion of natural
resources in Africa. Among the genetic resources are medicinal plant species that are
gathered from the wild. Conservation of medicinal plants, especially endangered ones
depends largely on the conservation of the ecosystem in which they occur (Phytomedica,
2006). For example, hunting has exterminated many endemic species, particularly on
oceanic islands (Diamond, 1989; Olson, 1989).
The harvest of biomass from an ecosystem constitutes a mortality factor for the
commodity harvested, which may add to natural mortality. Most human harvests,
however, impose selective pressure that differs from the natural one affecting the gender,
age 6r size of groups present (Ogol et al., 2002). A growing herbal market and its great
commercial benefit might also pose a threat to biodiversity through the over harvesting of
the raw material for herbal medicines (Phytomedica, 2006; WHO, 2006). As population
increases, the proportion of modified land is likely to rise, and in areas of severe land
shortage, the management of such lands will become a matter of significant concern
(Ogol et al., 2002). One in every four of the world's plant species could become extinct
by the middle of this century. About 75 plants and animals became extinct during the first
23
70 years of the last century. And of the 43,000 plant species at IUCN database, 18,000
are threatened. Africa, which is home to a great wealth of medicinal plants and
indigenous knowledge, is threatened with a great loss of its bioresources (Biosafety,
2002).
There are many threats to the planet's forests, almost all of which are caused by human
activities. Tropical forests, which cover 23% of the Earth's area, are disappearing at a
rate of 4.6 million hectares a year (Mworia, 2000). The loss of forests and woodlands
around the world creates numerous environmental catastrophes, including changes in
rainfall patterns, temperatures, wind speed, aridity of otherwise fertile land, and flooding.
It can also lead to extinction or disruption of lives for people and animals as well as
insects. The level of use and disappearance of indigenous plants has increased due to
mismanagement, commercialization and failure to control illegal and unsustainable use
Several unique forests are threatened with eminent destruction, hence, the need for
effective management of the remaining areas of indigenous forests (Mworia, 2000).
I'
In fact, currently, only 2% of Kenyan land is covered by indigenous forest (Waiganjo,
1999). A study on the status of the indigenous trees in South West Mau forest near
Nyangores in Kericho found out that 30% of all Podocarpus latifolius L'Herit ex Pers.
are dead due to barks stripping for medicine, weaving, basketry, bee-hive covers and
other activities (Mworia, 2000). Though they started from very different assumptions,
both the western conservationists and many indigenous peoples recognize the need to
protect vanishing natural habitats. Medicinal plant lore often recedes or completely
24
vanishes in the wake of rapid westernization (Michael and Paul, 1996). When the Maori
elders of Australia became concerned about the loss of natural plants used in weaving, for
example, they organized a hui, or traditional conference, with the New Zealand Division
of Scientific and Industrial Research (DSIR). They invited both scientists and traditional
leaders to discuss conservation strategies. This meeting was successful because the two
parties are now involved in conservation and thus the resolutions of the meeting were for
the common good (Michael and Paul, 1996).
After all, forest-dwelling peoples often claim that, most and perhaps all plants in their
environment have a use. In fact, material culture of nearly every people on this planet is
based more on plants than on animals. Plants have determined the very course of
civilization. Even the plague of drug abuse that afflicts all countries today can be
considered an ethnobotanical problem, since it involves illicit traffic in substances, for
example: heroin, cocaine, hashish, that are derived from plants that indigenous peoples
have used for centuries (Michael and Paul, 1996). No records are available of any
research of medicinal plants in East Mau Forest, although work carried out in South-
Western Mau Forest recorded 67 species of medicinal plants (Lubanga, 1991).
25
2.4 Gender issues in plant use and conservation
Although medicinal plants are seldom gathered and used today by both male and female,
it is clear that, in the past, women were always responsible for this domain. According to
research carried out in Central Anatolia, Turkey, it was found out that women provided
90 per cent of the information on medicinal plants. Some men who were interviewed
indicated that they knew medicinal plants, which they had learnt from their mothers,
although they were not using these plants currently (Howard, 2003).
According to research work carried out in Luciana, southern Italy, for the first time in
centuries, younger women have lost their mothers' and grandmothers' wild plant
knowledge and with it, the status and authority that these older women enjoy (Howard,
2003). Ethnobiological research in the Mediterranean has focused on making lists of
plants used by local people, but very rarely has there been any attempt to investigate how
plant traditional, environmental knowledge is distributed by age and sex, how it evolves,
and which social and cultural dynamics influence these processes (Howard, 2003).
According to research work carried out in indigenous North America, digging of roots,
picking berries or chopping seaweed not only affords women the chance to "pass on the
news", but also provides teachable moments for older women to instruct girls and
younger women about caring for and managing the resources that they are harvesting or
prospecting (Howard, 2003).
26
Kothari reported that, for a participatory ethnobotanical research project in which he was
involved, having an equal number of women interviewers was critical to obtaining access
to women's knowledge, but getting women to participate as interviewers was fraught
with difficulties and only became possible when a literacy requirement was dropped
(Howard, 2003).
In Kenya, literature on gender issues on medicinal plant use and conservation is lacking
although Fiona in her research on "Agriculture and Use of Wild and Weedy Greens"
among the Ogiek, indicated that women were involved more than men in vegetable
collection (Fiona, 2001).
The purpose of this research project was therefore to document the use, conservation
status and harvesting techniques of medicinal plants among the Ogiek, whose home has
been and still remains the forested areas of the East Mau Forest. The findings of this
project will benefit not only the Ogiek but also all conservationists, including foresters,
animal conservationists, agriculturists, water engineers, health workers, road engineers,
and even policy makers.
It is hoped that the findings of this study will be used to preserve data on the medicinal
plants knowledge of the Ogiek of East Mau Forest. It will also open up new avenues for
more studies of the ethnomedicine of the Ogiek of East Mau Forest, such as the
determination of the active compounds in the medicinal plants and also testing the
activity of medicinal plants preparations on micro-organisms.
27
CHAPTER THREE: MATERIALS AND METHODS
3.1 Introduction
This chapter presents the study area and the methods used in conducting the study. It also
gives details of the nature and source of data, area description, population description,
sample size determination, sampling methods and data analysis.
3.2 Study area
3.2.1 Study area description
The study area is situated about fifty kilometers west ofNakuru town in Nakuru District
of Rift Valley Province (Fig.3.1). The area lies 0° 18' S- 0° 40' S and 35° 43' E -36°00' E
and has an area of about 800 krrr'. East Mau Forest is the catchment area for a number of
rivers including Molo and Njoro Rivers. The forest is made up of several hills with
valleys and flat areas. The soil is loam and the climate is a cool highland type. East Mau
Forest lies between 2000 and 2639 m a. s. 1. It is bordered by South West Mau Forest to
the west, non-forested area to the east towards Nakuru town, Pusimuro Forest to the south
and non-forested area to the north towards Elburgon.
..,...•
.-( ~··""'··-··"'··7'~ ."\ ,
,j KEN Y A !
l..
Study Area
5
I
Km
28
PUS't.fURO
FOREST
. f the study area. the location 0I' Forest showmgfEast MauF· 31- A map 0Ig - -
29
3.2.2 Vegetation of study area
The vegetation of the study area is very variable. About twenty years ago, the higher
parts of the forest were made up of natural vegetation consisting of Olea africana, 0.
capensis, Dombeya torrida and Arundinaria alpina among others. The lower parts were
predominantly made up of plantations of both indigenous trees such as Juniperus procera
and exotic species such as Cupressus torulosa. The higher parts of the forest have been
seriously affected by deforestation mainly for the harvesting of trees for timber, while the
lower parts have been interfered with, mainly by the farming activities especially those of
maize and wheat. Currently, the higher parts have the same type of vegetation but the
density of these plants is low. In the lower parts, the vegetation is very sparse except
along the river -banks where the riparian vegetation is moderately thick. The forest is
managed by the Forest Department of the Ministry of Environment and Natural
Resources.
3.2.3 Study population
The.population of the Ogiek in East Mau Forest is about 6,000 (Towett, 2002). Some 427
people were interviewed on the use of medicinal plants. The minimum sample size was
obtained by using the formula by Fisher as cited by Okello (2004). Although the
minimum calculated sample size was 384, a minimum of 400 people was found to be a
better working figure. The population of this area also consists of Kalenjin groups who
settled in Mau Forest recently.
30
3.3 Inclusion criteria
Adults aged 18 years and above ofOgiek origin, resident in East Mau Forest, irrespective
of their lineage and gender were included in the study. A maximum of three individuals
were interviewed per nuclear family.
3.4 Exclusion criteria
Everyone who was not Ogiek and all Ogiek below eighteen years of age irrespective of
gender, were excluded from the study.
3.5 Sampling methods
3.5.1 Monitoring of harvesting techniques, conservation and interviews
Four hundred and twenty seven (427) members of the Ogiek community were
interviewed on the use of medicinal plants, using questionnaires (Appendix 5). This was
done by interviewing a maximum of three adults from each homestead over the entire
study area. Two sampling stations were selected in the study area. At each sampling
station, two line transects at right angles to each other were made. Coordinates obtained
from a table of random' numbers were used to determine the position at which each
quadrat was to be marked. This entailed randomly selecting a number to determine the
position of a quadrat along the x and y-axis. One hundred, 20 x 20m quadrats were
marked out over the entire study area. In each quadrat, the occurrence of each medicinal
plant species was recorded. Also, any signs of harvesting of medicinal plants and the
methods of harvesting were recorded. The number of medicinal plants was used to
determine the species diversity using Simpson's Diversity Index (Brower and Jerrold,
1983;Dowdeswell, 1984).
31
Simpson's Diversity Index
ds= Ini(ni-1)/ N(N-1)
The frequency of each medicinal plant species in the one hundred quadrats was used to
determine the relative abundance of each medicinal plant species.
The harvesting of stem bark and excessive removal of roots was considered a destructive
harvesting method, while that of leaves and vegetative parts, such as herbaceous stems
was considered a non- destructive harvesting method.
Herbalists were also interviewed together with the ordinary people. Plants local names,
part of plant used and mode of drug preparation were also recorded. This procedure
enabled the preparation of a table with details of all medicinal plants used by the Ogiek of
East Mau Forest. During the interviews, any conservation methods mentioned to be in
use for medicinal plants were recorded.
3.5.2 Preparation of voucher specimens
,-Specimens of each species of medicinal value were collected. Preparation of herbarium
material was done using the standard herbarium procedures (Agnew and Agnew, 1994;
Beentje, 1994). Identification of specimens was done using taxonomic literature, mainly
Agnew and Agnew, (1994); and Beentje, (1994). Other references were used to a smaller
extent (Willis, 1973; Gachathi, 1989; Blundell, 1992; Kokwaro, 1993; Maundu and
Tengenas, 2005). Specimens difficult to identify were taken to the East African
Herbarium of the National Museums of Kenya where the confirmation of the initial
32
identification was done. Herbarium specimens were deposited in Kenyatta University
Herbarium and duplicates at the East African Herbarium.
3.5.3 Determination of relative importance
In order to determine the relative importance of each medicinal plant species, the
frequency, which is the number of times each plant was mentioned during the interviews,
was determined, as indicated in Table 4.3. This was done by comparing the number of
times each medicinal plant was mentioned with the total number of times all the
medicinal plants were mentioned by respondents.
3.5.4 Determination of relative abundance
The relative abundance of the medicinal plants was determined as indicated in Table 4.4.
The relative abundance ranges from zero (0) to one (1). Low relative abundance tends
towards zero, while high relative abundance tends towards one. The study area was
divided into Station A, near Nessuit Shopping Centre and Station B, near Mariashoni
Shopping Centre. This division was based on altitude with Station A being below 2600 m
I'
a.s.l and Station B above 2600 m a.s.l. The relative abundance was obtained from the
quadrats by recording the presence of each medicinal plant in the fifty quadrats in each
Station.
3.6 Data collection tools
A table was compiled, showing the family, species, local names, part of plant used, and
diseases treated. Since many communities rarely give information to strangers, assistance
33
was sought from the Chiefs, assistant Chiefs and the coordinator of the Ogiek Welfare
Council. They were of great help and facilitated my work in the community.
3.7 Data analysis
To test for the significance of use, the conservation status and whether their harvesting
techniques of medicinal plants were destructive, the importance of each plant,
percentages and frequencies were used. Chi-square test was used to determine the
relationship/association between:
a) Use of medicinal plants and age.
b) Use of medicinal plants and gender.
c) Conservation of medicinal plants and age.
d) Conservation of medicinal plants and gender.
e) Harvesting techniques of medicinal plants and age.
f) Harvesting techniques of medicinal plants and gender.
Using Simpson's Diversity Index (SDI) (Brower and Jerrold, 1983; Dowdeswell, 1984),
the medicinal plants species diversity was calculated. High medicinal plant species
diversity indicated low destruction and/or high conservation of the plants, while a low
medicinal plant species diversity could be due to high destruction and/or little
conservation of the plants. Species diversity ranges from zero (0) to one (1), with low
species diversity tending towards zero ,CO) and high species diversity tending towards one
(1). Another approach used was to group the interviewed people into age groups. The
percentage of use of medicinal plants, conservation status and harvesting techniques were
determined for each age group. In order to determine the relative importance of each
34
medicinal plant species, the frequency, which is the number of times each plant was
mentioned during the interviews, was determined.
35
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS
4.1 Introduction
This chapter presents results of the fieldwork and medicinal plants identification at the
East African Herbarium. The results are in five parts. The first part deals with socio-
economic characteristics, giving an overview of the study area and uses of medicinal
plants. The second part deals with the relationships/associations between use,
conservation status and harvesting techniques on one hand and then age and gender on
the other. The third part deals with gender issues in medicinal plants use, conservation
status and harvesting techniques. The fourth part deals with the influence of the Ogiek by
the Maasai and Kipsigis in the use of medicinal plants. The fifth part deals with
recommendations on use, conservation and harvesting techniques of medicinal plants.
4.2 Population demography and other data on the respondents
When conducting research on any population, it is important to gather as much
information about the population as possible. It was therefore necessary to determine the
population of the Ogiek of East Mau Forest. The Ogiek living in East Mau Forest were
"
approximately 6000 (Towett, 2002).
4.3 Results
4.3.1 Use of medicinal plants
The respondents were 7.12% of the population. The adult population was 6000 (Towett,
2002).
36
The respondents who use medicinal plants were 98.6% of the respondents. The 98.6 %
use is a very high percentage, which showed that the Ogiek depended on medicinal plants
a great deal.
The respondents who do not use medicinal plants were 1.4%
Some of these medicinal plants were as indicated in Figure 4.1 and 4.2; Plates 4.1, 4.2,
4.3 and 4.4 below.
'/
37
Plate 4.1: Solanum incanum, a medicinal plant, near Nessuit Shopping Centre
38
I'
Plate 4.2: Ricinus communis, a medicinal plant, growing near Nessuit chief's Camp
39
Plate 4.3: Plectranthus barbatus, a medicinal plant, at Kimundo village, near Njoro
River main bridge
40
I' Plate 4.4: Solanum aculeastrum, a medicinal plant, at Sigotik village, near Njoro
cave
41
Fig. 4.1: Use of medicinal plants among adult Ogiek
1%
99%
o Adult Ogiek
using
medicinal
plants
• AdultOgiek
not using
medicinal
plants
42
Fig. 4.2: Use of medicinal plants and gender
350 322
300
250
200
150
99no
50
0
Use medicinal
plants
2 4
Males
Females
Don't use
medicinal
plants
4.3.1.1 Plants used for human beings treatment
Table 4.1: Medicinal plants grouped in family name, vernacular name (Okiot), part of the plant used and the diseases they treat in
humans.
SINO PLANT NAME VERN.NAME PLANT DISEASES
PART
1 Acanthaceae Larubat Roots Stomachache, cold, malaria
Hypoestis forskalii (Vahl) R.Br. Leaves Liver problems, stomach ulcer, nausea
2 Hypoestis aristata 01 ahl) R.Br. Larubat Roots Stomachache, cold, malaria.
Leaves Liver problems, stomach ulcers nausea.
3 Acanthus eminens CB.CI Tegeldet Roots Chest pains.
4 Agavaceae Oduphait Leaves Ear -ache.
A~ave sisalana Englelm
5 Aloaceae Tangaratwet Leaves Malaria.
Aloe secundiflora Englel.
6 Amaranthaceae Lenget Malaria.
Achyranthes aspera L.
7 Cyathula uncinulata Mutumiat Tuber Malaria, wounds
(Schrad.) Schinz
8 Anacardiaceae Sirondit Roots Stomachache, bones pains.
Rhus natalensis Bernh ex. Krauss Leaves Pre-menstrual pains, madness, weak bone, general body
problems, joint pains.
9 Apocynaceae Noriot Tuber Colds, stomachache.
Cynanchum altiscandens K.
Schum.
10 Gomphocarpus physocarpus E. Turitwol Roots Stomach problems in women.
Meys Toothache.
Latex
11 Periploca linearifolia Dill. & Senedit Roots Stomach-ache.
Rich. Whole Headache, backache, diarrhoea, colds, chest problems,
"' bad smell of flatulence, mouth inflammation in children,
general body weakness, infertility in women, stomach
problems, worms, stuck placenta.
12 Araliaceae Chelubut Gum Chest pains, malaria, pneumonia.
Schejjlera volkensii (Harms)
Harms
13 Cussonia spicata Thunb Lukulukwet Roots Sexually transmitted infections.
14 Asparagaceae Kipsoinoit/ Leaves Boils.
Asparagus racemosus Willd. NorietTop Roots Stomach -ache, gonorrhoea.
ophaiyat
15 Balsaminaceae Pumbuetiet Roots Difficult births in women.
Impatiens sodenii Engl.
16 Basellaceae Nderemiat Roots Stomach- ache.
Basella alba L
17 Bignoniaceae Stem bark Many diseases.
Tecomaria capensis (Thunb.) Miti harubaine Leaves Colds, chest pains.
Spach.
18 Caesalpiniaceae Senenetwet Leaves Malaria, Stomach problems.
Senna didymobotrya
(Fresen) Irwin & Bameby
19 Canellaceae Soget Leaves Malaria, lack of appetite, chicken pox, stinking feet,
Warburgia ugandensis stomach- ache, gonorrhoea, pneumonia, skin problems.
Sprague ssp.ugandensis
20 Capparaceae Lito Roots Gonorrhoea, backache, toothache.
Maerua triphylla A. Rich. var.
johanni
21 Celastraceae Ebuluit Stem bark Diarrhoea.
May tenus undata (Thunb.)
Blakelock.
22 May tenus heterophylla (Eckl. & Kinguruit Leaves Headache.
Zeyn.) Roots Diabetes, gonorrhoea, malaria, wounds infertility in
women, eye inflammation.
23 Compositae Mucekwetl Roots Malaria, stomachache, shoulder pains, backache,
Vernonia lasiopus O. Hoffm. Selgutiet Leaves pneumonia.
Scurvy, chest pains, burns, colds.
24 Senecio syringifoluis O. Hoffm.) Ngagawet Leaves Wounds, eye inflammation.
Roots Stomach -ache.
25 Helichrysum schimperi Leaves Stomachache.
(Sch.Bip). Manarariat Stem ashes Wound.
Roots and
Moeser leaves Stomach -ache in newly born children, malaria.
26 Microglossa densiflora Hook.f Kwamiririet Leaves and Pneumonia, wounds.
stem
Leaves Stomachache.
Roots Painful periods.
Stem Backache.
Stem ashes Wounds.
27 Laggera elatior R.E. Fries Chepsamisiet Roots Liver problems, gonorrhoea.
28 Vernonia auriculifera Hiern. Tebengwet Roots Stomachache, earache.
Stem bark Chest pains, worms, painful periods.
29 Conyza bonariensis (L.) Crona. Sigowitl Leaves Toothache, ringworms, wounds.
Manarariat
30 Senecio hadiensis Forsk. (S. Chemoroliot / Stem bark Malaria.
petitianus A.Rich.) Chemulmuliet
31 Acmella calirhiza Del. Ilongroit Fruits Nasal congestion.
32 Sphaeranthus suaviolens Meito-opait Fruits Nasal congestion.
(Forsak.)
33 Vernonia brachycalyx O. Hoffm Kwamiririet Leaves and Pneumonia, wounds.
stem
34 Helichrysum schimperi Karambue Leaf tips Wounds and colds.
(Sch.Bip.) Moeser
35 Tarchonanthus comphoratus Lelechwet Roots General body fatigue wounds.
Linn
36 Tagetes minuta L. Marogot Roots Infertility in women.
Leaves Colds, polio, fresh cuts, muscle ache.
37 Solanecio mannii (Hook.f.) Chepkirgot Roots Malaria.
38 Convolvulaceae Chellrit Stem juice Cuts, wounds, fresh cuts (wounds) to stop bleeding.
Ipomoea wightii (Wall.)
Choisy var. kilimandscharica
39 Crassulaceae Musiligiet Leaves Joint pains, stomachache, umbilical cord, wounds, muscle
Kalanchoe densiflora Rolfe pains, fast heart beat, heart burn, heart beat, heartburn,
heartache, skin problems.
40 Cucurbitaceae Gatkatone Leaves and Asthma boils.
Zehneria scabra (L.f.) Sond. stem
41 Momordica friesiorum (Harms) Chepkolgolio Tuber Malaria.
C. Jeffrey
42 Lagenaria abyssinica (Hook.f.) Mutudoret Stem juice Wounds.
C. Jeffrey
43 Cupressaceae Tolokwet Stem bark and Whopping cough, stomach -ache low libido, dirty
Juniperus procera Endl roots kidneys.
44 Cupressus torulosa Cypress Leaves Colds
Stem bark Urinary bladder inflammation.
45 Dennstaediaceae Tolorwet Roots Stuck placenta, difficult labour (birth).
Pteridium aquilinium (L.)
Kuhn.
46 Euphorbiaceae Kilbanyat Roots Joints pains, diarrhoea, typhoid, menstrual problems,
Clutia robusta Pax colds, loss of appetite, general body weakness, worms,
(C.kilimandscharica Engl.) gonorrhoea, constipation III children, stomachache,
malaria.
47 Ricinus communis L. Mboleget Roots Chest pains, stomach ache (after birth),labourdifficulty
(Imaniat) Seed oil Constipation.
48 Flacourtiaceae Nukiat Roots Malaria, colds, afterbirth weakness, joints pains, sexually
Dovyalis abyssinica transmitted infections, backache, worms, stomach ache in
children, general body weakness, pneumonia, dirty
(R.Rich.) Warb circulatory system, stomach ulcers.
49 Scolopi azeyheri Kapkeiyawet Stem bark Gonorrhoea.
(Nees) Harv.
50 Trimeria grandiflora (Hochst.) Chepkowet Roots Weakbones, colds.
· Warb.
51 Gramineae Tegat~ Roots Balding head in men.
Arundinaria alpina K. Schum.
52 Zea mays L. Muchakwa Comb (maize) Coughs.
53 Digitaria abyssinica (A. Rich. ) Seretiot Leaves Ringworms, pain inside umbilical cord of adults.
Stapf.
54 Hamamelidaceae Belegiyat Roots Diarrhoea.
Trichocladus ellipticus
Eckl & Zeyh
55 Hyacinthaceae Kitunguu sumu Bulb Bone injuries, wounds.
Ornithogalum longibracteatum
Jacq.
56 Icacinaceae Chosunetl Seeds/fruits General body weakness, joints pains, sore throat malaria,
Apodytes dimidata Am var. chest pains, weak joints stomach- ache, worms.
acutifolia (A Rich) Boutique Segetik Roots Joints pains.
Stem bark Diarrhoea, internal injuries, blood clot in muscles.
57 Labiatae Musipsiet Leaves Wounds especially of bums, heart problems, stomach-
Leonotis nepetifolia (L.) Ait.f. ache, lungs, kidneys and liver problems, coughs, tooth
Roots ache.
Stomach- ache in children.
58 Leonotis ocymifolia var. Musipsiet Leaves Bleeding wounds wounds.
raineriana
59 Plectranthus barbatus var. Mairongiat Leaves Stomachache, joint pains, constipation, general body
Roots sickness.
Gymnostomus Benth. Leaves and Headache, backache, protrusion of bowels, diarrhoea.
roots Stomach -ache.
60 Plectranthus sylvestris Korindet / Leaves Wounds.
Guerke
Cheborayo
61 Fuerstia africana T.C.E. Fries Birirwet Leaf juice or Mouth inflammation in children.
ashes of
leaves
62 Satureia biflora Chepsagitiet Roots Chest pains, pimples on skin in children.
(D. Don) Benth. Stem and Mouth inflammation and colds in children.
"' leaves ashes
63· Lauraceae Avocado Seed Toothache.
Persea americana Mill.
64 Loganiaceae Stem bark Back ache.
Nuxia congesta Fresen. Ilngiriyit Roots Stomach -ache, joint pains.
65 Nuxia congesta Fresen. Choluet Stem bark Back ache.
Roots Stomach -ache, joint pains.
66 Malvaceae Oldiriet Roots Boils.
Malva parviflora L.
67 Sida massaica Vollesen Olninit Roots Excess gas in stomach.
68 Melanthaceae Kipteleliet / Stem bark Enlargement of prostate gland.
Bersama abyssinica Latex Eye- inflammation.
Fres ssp. paullinioides Cheptililiet
(Planch.) Verde.
69 Meliaceae Sunguruitl Stem bark Diarrhoea, stomach problems, difficult delivery III
Ekebergia capensis Sparrm Araruitl Oloruit women, chest problems, pneumonia colds in children,
colds, ear ache, infertility in women, dirty women system
at menses, stomach ache, diarrhoea in children.
70 Menispermaceae Tabarariat Roots Liver problems.
Stephania abyssinica (Dillon &
A. Rich) Walp
71 Mimosaceae Wattle Tree Stem bark Typhoid.
Acacia mearnsii De Wild.
72 Acacia xanthophloea Benth. Leldet Stem bark Typhoid.
73 Moraceae Soboitit Stem juice Diarrhoea, joint pains.
Ficus thonningii Blume Shoot tips Tooth -ache.
Latex Pre-menstrual pains.
Roots and
Leaves Malaria.
74 Musaceae Sochuriet Stem juice Measles, running eyes, rumbling stomach, tape worms.
Ensete ventricosum (Welw.)
Cheesm.
75 Myrsinaceae Gorabariat / Fruits Wounds, weak bones, chest pains, joint pains, diarrhoea,
Rapanea melanophloeos (L.) "' malaria, general body weakness, pneumonia, worms,
Mez. Kwarabariet stomachache, colds, bolo clot, rumbling stomach, H.B.P.
76 Myrtaceae Lemeiwet Roots Stomach- ache in women after birth.
Syzygium cordatum Krauss
77 Eucalyptus regnons F.r. Mue1l. Eucaryptus Leaves Chicken pox.
78 Oleaceae Giemdit / Leaves Eye inflammation
Olea europaea L. subsp africana Stem bark Stomach ache, worms, joint pains,
(Mill.) P. Green Yiemdit Eye- inflammation.
Leaves and Malaria, pneumonia, chest pains, stomachache, umbilical
stem bark cord.
79 Olea capensis L. Masaita Stem bark Backache, diabetes, chest pains, mouth inflammation in
children, malaria, pneumonia, colds, colds, general body
weakness, stomach -ache, amoeba.
Leaves Back ache, joint pains.
80 Jasminum abyssinica D C. Olmuliroit Roots Chest pains, weak joints.
Roots and
leaves Malaria, spinal cord aches.
81 Schrebera alata (Hochst.) Weiw. Chepte1iliet Stem bark Malaria.
82 Palmae Sosiot Leaves Stomach ulcers.
Phoenix reclinata Jaqc.
83 Papilionaceae Midoyiwet Leaves Tooth- ache.
Indigofera arrecta
Hochst. ex A. Rich.
84 Crotalaria agatiflora Elgoyoit / Leaves ashes Wounds.
Schweinf. Longoyonit Roots General body problems, backache, colds, dirty body
system.
85 Phytolaccaceae Batkawet Roots Pnemonia.
Phytolacca ocandra L.
86 Pittosporaceae Taabonit Stem bark Malaria.
Pittosporum viridiflorum. Sims Roots Diarrhoea, stomachache.
87 Podocarpaceae Saptet Stem bark Malaria, dirty stomach by inducing vomiting.
Podocarpus latifolius L'Herit Roots Stomach -ache, malaria.
ex Pers.
88 Polygalaceae Gicheyatl Leaves and Infertility in women, eye inflammation due to bad spirits.
Polygala sphenoptera Fresen. Chepkecheyat stems. Roots Stomach -ache,
89 Polygonaceae Ngasuswa Leaves and Stomach -ache.
Rumex bequaertii De wild. stem
90 Runanculaceae BisintaiBisinda Stem juice Colds.
Clematis simensis Fresen. Roots Head ache, wounds.
Roots and Mouth inflammation in children, stomach -ache, chest
leaves pains, colds, head ache.
91 Clematis braciata Parr. & Guill Bisinta Leaves Mouth inflammation in children at teething, stomach-
Roots and aches.
leaves Stomachache, chest pains, colds, headache.
92 Rhamnaceae Gongoroit Young florets Colds, coughs, chest pains, heartburn, stomach- ache,
Rhamnus staddo A. Rich and stem bark toothache, cough almost T.B., malaria, dirty stomach
(malaria).
Roots Gonorrhoea, syphilis, malaria, diabetes, stomach- ache.
93 Rhamnus prinoides L'Herit. Runyiritl Roots Malaria, dizziness, dirty circulatory system, headache,
backache, stomachache, waist pams, joint pains,
Gosisitot constipation, weak joints, loss of appetite, general body
weakness.
94 Scutia myrtina (Burm.f.) Kur Chebeiwet Leaves Lack of a son in women.
Stem bark Stomach- ache, worms.
Roots Joint pains, stomach ache.
95 Rhizophoraceae Gentujuet Roots Malaria, pneumonia.
Cassipourea molasama
(Bak. )Alston
96 Rosaceae Tenenetwet Stem bark Stomach -ache, vomiting, Typhoid, malaria.
Prunus africana (Hook.±)
Kalkman
97 Hagenia abyssinica (Bruce) J Pondet Stem bark Infertility in women.
Vlo
·F.Gmel.
98 Rubiaceae Tatakwet Roots Diarrhoea, stomachache in adults and children, rumbling
Rubus pinnata Willd.var. stomach in children.
. afrotropicus (Engl.)C.E. Gust.
99 Rubia cordifolia L. Tilitwet Leaves Mouth inflammation in children.
Roots Gonorrhoea, diarrhoea, vomiting.
100 Rutaceae Chebindoruitl Stem and leaf Mouth inflammation in children.
Toddalia asiatica (L.) Lam. ashes
Chementoruit Leaves Joint pains, boils.
Roots Colds, chest pains, coughs, malaria.
Roots and
leaves General body problems (weakness), head ache.
101 Teclea nobilis Del. Kuriot Roots Weakness in men.
102 Teclea simplicifolia (Engl.) Kuriot Roots Stomach ache, colds, weak bones, bone of ribs pam,
Verdoon malaria.
103 Sapindaceae Kapnyaliliet Roots Colds.
Allophyllus abyssinica
(Hochst.) Rodlk
104 Solanaceae Cheboina Roots Sexually transmitted infections, general body problems,
Solanum nigrum L. chest pains, joint pains, back-ache, stomachache,
diarrhoea, gonorrhoea, bad spirits, headache, mouth
inflammation, toothache.
Fruits Sprains.
Leaves Stomachache.
105 Solanum nigrum L. Isoik Leaves Stomach problems.
106 Solanum aculeastrum Dunal. Sigogwit Fruits Boils at teething in children, chest problems, malaria,
aching joints.
Roots Infertility in women, diarrhoea, gonorrhoea.
107 Datura stramonium L. Swimogong Roots Colds in adults and children.
Fruits Mouth inflammation in children.
108 Solanum aguivi Lam. Nduririot Fruit juice Skin problems, ringworms.
Roots Infertility in women, stomach-ache.
VI.....
109 Physalis peruviana L. Nyanya Leaves and Malaria, diarrhoea, cholera, serious diarrhoea, joint pains,~ roots stiff joints.
100 Solanum nakurense C.H. Wright Gaititiet Roots Pneumonia.
111 Solanum incanum L. Telebot Leaves Malaria.
112 Sterculiaceae SilibuitJ Stem bark Diarrhoea, stomach- aches.
Dombeya torrida (IF.Gmel.) P. Silipuat Roots Backache, colds, typhoid fever.
Bamps
113 Ulmaceae GwonthetitJ Roots Bone problems.
Celtis africana Burm.f. Kauothe
114 Umbelliferae Lelnet Roots Stomach- ache.
Heteromorpha trifoliata
(Wendl.) Eckl & Zeyh
115 Urticaceae Ilnyadet Roots Stomach-ache in women after birth.
Urera hypoclodendron. Wedd. Leaves Spider bite (antidote).
116 Urtica massaica Mildbr. SiwotJ Sigwot Leaves Colds, poison antidote, infertility, low libido, malaria,
sprains, headache, typhoid fever, stomachache,
dirty circulatory system, joint pains.
Roots Coughs, chest pains, mouth inflammation, muscle pains,
joint pains, general body weakness.
117 Vitaceae Sumeitot Tuber Malaria.
Cyphostema nodiglandulosa
(Fh.Fr. Jr.) Descoings
118 Verbenaceae Singorwet Roots High blood pressure, hearts pains.
Clerodendrumjohnstonii Oliv
119 Xylariaceae Pointa / Whole plant Malaria, worms, stomach -ache.
Engleromyces goetzei Buintal Buinda
P. Hennings
The plant family with the largest number of medicinal plants for treatment of human diseases was Compositae (15), followed by
Solanaceae (8) and Labiatae (6). The plant parts.that were mostly used were roots (70), leaves (53) and stem (38). The most common
diseases were stomach problems (81), chest problems (52) and malaria (32). Stomach problems seemed to be the most prevalent because
many diseases such as worms, reproductive system problems, and liver and kidney problems may cause stomach disturbances.
4.3.1.2 Plants used for livestock treatments
There were some plants that were used for livestock diseases as indicated in Table 4.2 below.
Table 4.2: Medicinal plants used for livestock diseases
SINO FAMILY AND PLANT NAME PLANT PART USED DISEASE ANIMAL
1 Araliaceae Stem bark East Coast Fever. Cattle.
SchejJlera volkensii (Harms) Harms
2 Caesalpineaceae Leaves Malaria, worms, foot and Cattle.
Senna didymobotrya (Fresen) mouth.
Irwin & Bameby Stem bark East Coast Fever. Cattle.
3 Canellaceae. Stem bark Coughs, lungs problems,
Warburgia ugandensis Sprague ssp malaria Cattle.
ugandensis Coughs, lungs problems. Sheep.
4 Compositae Leaves Anthelminthic Cattle, Sheep.
Vernonia auriculifera Hiem.
5 Solanecio mannii (Hook.f.) Leaves Anthrax. Sheep, dogs and cattle.
6 Cucurbitaceae Tuber Rabies. Dogs.
Momordica friesiorum (Harms)
C.Jeffrey
7 Cupressaceae Stem bark Diarrhoea. Cattle.
Juniperus procera Endl
8 Euphorbiaceae Leaves Stuck placenta. Cattle.
Ricinus communis L. Roots
9 Icacinaceae Leaves East coast Fever. Cattle, Sheep.
Apodytes dimidataAm var. acutifolia
(A.Rich) Boutique
10 Labiatae Leaves Malaria. Cattle.
Plectranthus barbatus var. gymnostomus
Benth.
11 Plectranthus sylvestris Leaves East Coast Fever. Cattle.
Guerke
12 Satureia biflora (D.Don) Leaves East Coast Fever. Cattle.
Benth. Whole plant
'\ Leaves and stems Urinating blood. Cattle.
Liver problems, cough, Cattle.
pneumonia.
13 Meliaceae Stem bark East Coast Fever, diarrhoea, Cattle.
Ekebergia capensis Sparrm mouth inflammation, excess
production of saliva, malaria.
Leaves Pneumonia, East Coast Fever. Cattle.
14 Ficus thonningii Blume Stem bark, East Coast Fever, eye Cattle.
Moraceae Leaves problems.
15 Musaceae Stem juice Diarrhoea. Cattle.
Ensete ventricosum (Welw )Cheesm.
16 Myrsinaceae Fruits Diarrhoea. Cattle.
Rapanea melanophloeos (L.) Mez. Worms. Cattle and sheep.
17 Myrtaceae Leaves Urinating Blood. Cattle.
Eucalypus regnons F.r. Muell.
18 Oleaceae Leaves Eye inflammation, malaria,
Olea europaea L.subsp. africana (Mill.) East coast Fever. Cattle.
P. Green Stem bark Eye- inflammation, malaria.
19 Rosaceae Roots Diarrhoea. Cattle.
Hagenia abyssinica (Bruce) J.
F.Gmei.
20 Rutaceae Roots Malaria, Pneumonia, Cattle.
Toddalia asiatica (L.) Lam. Leaves East Coast Fever. Cattle.
21 Teclea nobilis Del. Leaves Urinating blood, malaria. Cattle.
22 Solanaceae Fruits East Coast Fever. Cattle.
Solanum aculeastrum Dunal. Roots Malaria, East Coast Fever. Cattle.
Roots and fruits Standing fur. Cattle.
23 Sterculiaceae Stem bark juice Mouth inflammation.
Dombeya torrida eye inflammation, headache,
(J.F. Gmel.) P. East Coast Fever. Cattle.
Bamps Leaves Stuck placenta stem bark, juice
m honey and externally
VI
VI
•applied. Cattle.
'\.
Roots Diarrhoea. Cattle.
Stem bark Diarrhoea. Sheep.
24 Ulmaceae
Celtis africana Bunn.f. Roots Colds. Cattle and sheep.
25 Urticaceae Leaves Stuck placenta. Cattle.
Urera hypoclodendron. Wedd.
26 Urtica massaica Mildbr. Leaves Colds. Sheep.
27 Xylariaceae Whole plant Worms, malaria.
Engleromyces goetzei Diarrhoea (blood stained)
P.Hennings stomach problems,
emanciation. Cattle, sheep and dogs.
Worms.
Malaria, East Coast Fever. Cattle, sheep and dogs.
Rabies. Dogs.
Constipation. Sheep.
There were 27 medicinal plants that were used for livestock diseases.
57
4.3.2 Relative importance of medicinal plants
4.3.2.1 Introduction
The relative importance was determined as indicated in Table 4.3.
4.3.2.2 Results
The results for the relative importance of each medicinal plant species are as indicated in
Table 4.3 below:
Table 4.3: Relative importance of each medicinal plant species
SINO Plant name % Use
1 Engleromyces goetzei P. Hennings 8.34
2 Toddalia asiatica (L.) Lam 7.49
3 Dombeya torrida (J.F.Gmel.) P. Bamps 6.92
4 Rapanea melanophloeos (L.) Mez. 5.88
5 Rhamnus prinoides L'Hert. 5.31
6 Schejjlera volkensii (Harms) Harms 4.27
~
7 Olea europaea L. subsp. africana (Mill.) P. 4.27
Green
8 Dovyalis abyssinica (R.Rich.) Warb 3.13
9 Warburgia ugandensis Sprague ssp 2.94
ugandensis
10 Hypoestis forskalii (Vahl) R.Br. 2.84
11 Urtica massaica Mildbr. 2.46
58
12 Olea capensis L. 2.37
13 Rhamnus staddo A. Rich. 2.27
14 Periploca linearifolia Dill. & Rich. 2.18
15 Senna didymobotrya Irwin & Barneby 2.18
16 Solanum aculeastrum Dunal. 1.90
17 Ekebergia capensis Sparrm 1.90
18 Helichrysum schimperi ( Sch. Bip.) Moeser 1.61
19 Cyathula uncinulata (Schrad.) Schinz 1.42
20 Clutia robusta Pax (c.kilimandscharica 1.42
Engl.)
21 Kalanchoe densiflora Rolfe 1.42
22 Pittosporum viridiflorum Sims 1.14
23 Indigofera arrecta Hochst.ex A.Rich. 1.04
24 Vernonia lasiopus O. Hoffm 0.95
25 Celtis africana Burm.f. 0.95
26 Polyscias kikuyensis Summerh. 0.95
27 Prunus africana (Hook. f.) Kalkman 0.95
28 Plectranthus barbatus var. gymnostomus 0.95
Benth.
29 Ficus thonningii Blume 0.95
30 Leonotis ocymifolia var. raineriana 0.95
31 Vernonia auriculifera Hiem 0.85
32 Basella alba L. 0.76
59
33 Ipomoea wightii (Wall.) Choisy 0.76
34 Microglossa densiflora Hook.f 0.76
35 Gomphocarpus physocarpus E. Meys 0.76
37 Polygala sphenoptera 0.66
38 Senecio syringifoluis O. Hoffm.) 0.66
39 Rhus natalensis Bernh. ex Krauss 0.66
40 Jasminum abyssinica D C. 0.57
41 Juniperus procera Endl 0.57
42 Rubus pinnata Willd.var. afrotropicus (Engl.) 0.57
C.E.Gust.
43 Scutia myrtina (Burm.f.)Kurz 0.57
44 Datura stramonium L. 0.47
45 Asparagus racemosus Willd. 0.47
46 Teclea nobilis Del. 0.38
47 Ricinus communis L. 0.38
48 Satureia biflora (D. Don) Benth. 0.38
49~ May tenus heterophylla (Eckl. & Zeyn.) 0.38
N.Robson
50 Rubia cordifolia L. 0.28
51 Helichrysum schimperi 0.28
( Sch. Bip.) Moeser
52 Tagetes minuta L. 0.28
53 Podocarpus latifolius 0.28
60
54 Hagenia abyssinica (Bruce) J 0.28
.F.Gmel.
55 Cassipourea molasama (Bale) Alston 0.28
56 Ornithogalum longibracteatum Jacq 0.28
57 Solanum incanum L. 0.19
58 Zehneria scabra (L.f.) Sond. 0.19
59 Nuxia congesta Fresen. 0.19
60 Clerodendrum johnstonii Oliv 0.19
61 Solanum nakerense C.H.Wright 0.19
62 Laggera elatior R.E. Fries 0.19
63 Ensete ventricosum (Welw.) Cheesm. 0.19
64. Trimeria grandiflor (Hochst.) Warb. 0.19
65 Eucalyptus regnons F.R. Muell. 0.19
66 Tarchonanthus comphoratus Linn. 0.19
67 Urera hypoclodendron. Wedd 0.19
68 Cupressus torulosa D.Don. 0.19
69 Impatiens sodenii 0.19
70 Phytolacca ocandra L. 0.09
71 Arundinaria alpina K. Schum. 0.09
72 Rumex bequaertii De wild. 0.09
73 Solanum nigrum L. 0.09
74 Persea americana Mill. 0.09
75 Agave sisalana Englelm 0.09
61
76 Pteridium aquilinium (L.) 0.09
77 Maerua triphylla A. Rich. var. johanni 0.09
78 Plectranthus sylvestris Guerke 0.09
79 Cussonia spicata Thunb 0.09
80 Fuerstia africana T CE. Fries 0.09
81 Teclea simplicifolia (Engl.)Verdoon 0.09
82 Zea mays L. 0.09
83 Heteromorpha trifoliate Weld.) Eckl & Zeyh 0.09
84 Sida massaica Vollesen 0.09
85 Stephania abyssinica (Dillon & A.Rich) 0.09
Walp
86 Galium apariroides Forsk. 0.09
87 Tecomaria capensis (Thunb.) Spach. 0.09
88 Crotalaria agatiflora Schweint. 0.09
89 Syzygium cordatum Krauss 0.09
90 Cynanchuum altisdcandens K. Schum 0.09
91 Aloe secundiflora Engl. 0.09
92 Solanum nigrum L. 0.09
93 Sphaeranthus suaviolens (Forsak) 0.09
94 Senecio hadiensis Forsk. 0.09
95 Scolopia zeyheri (Nees) Harv. 0.09
96 Acacia xanthophloea Benth. 0.09
62
97 Carduus kikuyorum R.E.Fries 0.09
98 Acacia mearnsii De Wild 0.09
99 Nuxia congesta Fresen. 0.09
100 Physalis peruviana L. 0.09
101 Vernonia brachycalyx O. Hoffm 0.09
102 Clematis braciata Parr.& Guill 0.09
103 Bersama abyssinica Fres ssp. Verde, 0.09
104 Allophyllus abyssinica (Hochst) Rodlk 0.09
105 Lagenaria abyssinica (Hook.f.) C. Jeffrey 0.09
106 Acanthus eminens C.B.CI 0.09
NB: The following plants have two different vernacular names: Helichrysum schimperi
(Sch. Bip) and Solanum nigrum L.
From this data, it can be concluded that the most important medicinal plant was
Engleromyces goetzei P. Hennings with a relative use of8.34 % (8811055x100)
4.3.3 Relative abundance of medicinal plants
4.3.3.1 Introduction
The relatve abundance was determined as indicated below. High relative abundance will
be any value tending to one (1), moderate abundance will be about 0.5, while low
abundance will be a value tending towards zero (0).
63
4.3.3.2 Results
Table 4.4: Relative abundance of the medicinal plants
Station A: Near Nessuit Shopping Centre: <2600 m a.s.l
SINO Plant name R. abundance
1 Hypoestis forskalii 0.98
2 Asparagus racemosus 0.92
3 Dombeya torrida 0.92
4 Rhus natalensis 0.90
5 Cyathula uncinulata 0.90
6 Microglossa densiflora 0.90
7 Urera hypoclodendron 0.84
8 May tenus heterophylla 0.74
9 Dovyalis abyssinica 0.70
10 Periploca linearifolia 0.70
11 Scutia myrtina 0.66
12 Rhamnus prinoides 0.60
13 Toddalia asiatica 0.58
14 Galium aparinoides 0.58
15 Senecio syringifolius 0.54
16 Rubus pinnatus 0.52
17 Achyranthus aspera 0.52
18 Vernonia brachycalyx 0.46
64
19 Vernonia lasiopus 0.42
20 Stephania abyssinica 0.40
21 Momordica friessiorum 0.40
22 Kalanchoe densiflora 0.40
23 Solanum indicum 0.38
24 Clematis simensis 0.36
25 Olea capensis 0.34
26 Olea europaea 0.30
27 May tenus undata 0.30
28 Clutia robusta 0.28
29 Clematis braciata 0.28
30 Vernonia auricurifera 0.22
31 Leonotis nepetifolia 0.22
32 Ekebergia capensis 0.20
33 Schejjlera volkensii 0.16
34 Senecio hadiensis 0.16
I'
35 Tagetes minuta 0.12
36 Leonotis ocymifolia 0.12
37 Rapaena melanophloeos 0.12
38 Solanum nigrum 0.10
39 Cassipourea malosana 0.10
40 Rumex bequaertii 0.10
41 Crotalaria agatiflora 0.08
65
42 Rhamnus staddo 0.08
43 Prunus africana 0.08
44 Conyza bonariensis 0.08
45 Urtica massaica 0.08
46 Cupressus tolurosa 0.06
47 Apodytes dimidata 0.06
48 Ficus thonningii 0.06
49 Satureia biflora 0.06
50 Juniperus procera 0.04
51 Allophyllus abyssinica 0.04
52 Rubia cordifolia 0.04
53 Gomphocarpus 0.02
physocarpus
54 Vangueria acutiloba 0.02
55 Solanum aculeastrum 0.02
56 Plectranthus barbatus 0.02
57" Sida massaica 0.02
58 Helichrysum schimperi 0.02
59 Datura stramonium 0.02
60 Bidens pilosa 0.02
66
Station B: Near Mariashonin Shopping Centre:>2600 m a.s.l
SINO PLANT NAME R.
ABUNDANCE
1 Dombeya torrida 0.84
2 May tenus heterophylla 0.82
3 Asparagus racemosus 0.78
4 Galium aparinoides 0.78
5 Rapaena melanophloeos 0.78
6 Cyphostema nodiglandulosa 0.76
7 Hypoestis sp 0.74
8 Kalanchoe densiflora 0.74
9 Olea europaea 0.74
10 Rhamnus staddo 0.72
11 Stephania abyssinica 0.68
12 Clematis simensis 0.68
13~ Conyza bonariensis 0.64
14 May tenus undata 0.62
15 Clutia robusta 0.60
16 Vernonia brachycalyx 0.58
17 Cyathula uncinulata 0.58
18 Microglossa densiflora 0.56
19 Dovyalis abyssinica 0.54
67
20 Scutia myrtina 0.52
21 Solanum anguivi 0.44
22 Vernonia auricurifera 0.44
23 Plectranthus syvestris 0.40
24 Leonotis nepetifolia 0.40
25 Rubus pinnatus 0.38
26 Podocarpus latifolius 0.30
27 Rhus natalensis 0.28
28 Jasminum abyssinica 0.28
29 Vernonia lasiopus 0.26
30 Solanum aculeastrum 0.22
31 Momordica friessiorum 0.22
32 Achyranthus aspera 0.20
33 Periploca linearifolia 0.20
34 Laggera elatior 0.18
35,; Senecio syringifolius 0.18
36 Gomphocarpus physocarpus 0.16
37 Ekebergia capensis 0.14
38 Solanecio mannii 0.14
39 Urtica massaica 0.12
40 Olea capensis 0.10
41 Helichrysum schimperi 0.10
68
42 Rumex bequaertii 0.06
43 Juniperus procera 0.06
44 Toddalia asiatica 0.06
45 Tagetes minnuta 0.04
46 Crotalaria agatiflora 0.04
47 Schejjlera volkensii 0.04
48 Urera hypoclodendron 0.04
49 Prunus africana 0.04
50 Bidens pilosa 0.04
51 Apodytes dimidata 0.02
52 Fuerstia africana 0.02
53 Acacia mernsii 0.02
54 Senna didymobotrya 0.02
55 Solanum nigrum 0.02
56 Cupressus torulosa 0.02
The results indicated that Hypoestis forskalii (Vahl) R.Br was the most abundant
medicinal plant in East Mau Forest, with a relative abundance of 0.98 (49/50) and 0.74
(37/50) in station A and B respectively. 28.3% of the medicinal plants in station A and
35.7% in station B had a relative abundance greater than 0.5. This showed that the
69
relative abundance of medicinal plants was generally high. This implies that medicinal
plants were still quite abundant.
4.3.4 Other results obtained from respondents
The other results obtained from the questionnaires indicated that only 0.8% of the
respondents were herbalists, indicating that 99.2% of the respondents were ordinary
people with knowledge of medicinal plants.
Table 4.5: The passing on of medicinal plants use
SINO % of respondents Categories of respondents
1 60.6 Older to younger people
2 57.4 Parents to children
3 37.0 Older female to younger female and older male to
younger male
4 35.1 Father to son and mother to daughter
The use of medicinal plants was passed on from older to younger people by direct
I'
instructions from parents/grand parents to children/grand children. In other words, the
younger people learnt about medicinal plants from the older people.
There were only three organizations that have supplied seedlings to the Ogiek
community. They include: Egerton University, Ogiek Welfare Council (OWC) and
another organization whose name the respondents could not remember. It was very
encouraging to note that 98.6 % of the respondents would plant, especially indigenous
and medicinal plants.
70
Some medicinal plants were also used as food. These include: Solanum nigrum, Basella
alba, and Urtica massaica (Plate 4.5), with the leaves as the useful part. Dovya/is
abyssinica fruits and tubers of both Cynanchum altiscandens and Rumex bequartii.
Plate 4.5: Urtica massaica, one of the medicinal plants, which is also used as a
vegetable, growing near Nessuit Shopping Centre.
71
4.3.5 Age classification of respondents
4.3.5.1 Introduction
The use of medicinal plants may vary from one age group to another. The assumption in
this study was that the older people had more knowledge of medicinal plants than the .
younger people. Clustering the ages into six groups formed the age groups of the
respondents: 18-27, 28-37, 38-47, 48-57, 58-67 and 2: 68 years. The lower age limit was
the least adult age in Kenya, which is eighteen years. The age interval of ten years was
chosen because it is one of the most frequently used intervals in statistics, and was also
convenient for my work in order to minimize the age categories (Central Bureau of
Statistics, 2004).
4.3.5.2 Results
According to the information gathered, the age group 18-27 years had the largest number
of respondents. This implies that the respondents in this age group were more accessible
because they were more open with information to strangers than the older people as
indicated in Table 4.6 below:
72
Table 4.6: Age characteristics of respondents
Age of respondents (Years) Percentage of respondents
18-27 36.53
28-37 26.00.
38-47 14.52
48-57 10.77
58-67 4.68
~68 6.56
4.3.6 Relationship between use of medicinal plants and age
4.3.6.1 Introduction
The percentage of use of medicinal plants was determined for each age group as indicated
(Table 4.7). This was done by clustering the percentages for each age group.
4.3.6.2 Results
Table 4.7: Relationship between use of medicinal plants and age
Age % Use
18-27 97.50
28-37 99.10
38-47 100.00
48-57 97.83
58-67 100.00
~ 68 100.00
73
In all the age groups, it was evident that the percentage of use was very high, although
those in age group 58-67, ~ 68 on one hand use medicinal plants more than the younger
age groups of 18-27 and 28-37 on the other.
The above data were subjected to Chi-square test of independence in order to determine
whether there was a significant difference in the use of medicinal plants among the six
age groups as indicated in Table 4.8 and 4.9 below:
Table 4.8: Chi-square of independence: Use of medicinal plants and age
USE 18-27 28-37 38-47 48-57 58-67 ~68 TOTAL
YES 156 110 62 45 20 28 421
NO 4 1 0 1 0 0 6
TOTAL 160 11 62 46 20 28 427
Table 4.9: Calculation of X2c
Expected=Row total x column total/Grand total
C OBSER EX O-E (O_E)z (O-Eyl/E
I'
1 156 157.8 -1.8 •. 3.24 0.0205
2 110 109.4 -0.6 0.36 0.0033
3 62 61.1 -0.9 0.81 0.0133
4 45 45.4 -0.4 0.16 0.0035
5 20 19.7 0.3 0.09 0.0046
6 28 127.6 0.4 0.16 0.0058
74
7 4 2.2 1.8 3.24 1.4727
8 1 1.6 -0.6 0.36 0.2250
9 0 0.9 -0.9 0.49 0.9000
10 1 0.6 0.4 0.16 0.2627
11 0 0.3 -0.3 0.09 0.3000
12 0 0.4 -0.4 0.16 0.4000
X:Lc =3.6154 ns
X20.05,5=11.07 and X20.0),5=15.09
Ho: There is no significant difference between the observed and the expected frequencies.
Ha: There is a significant difference between the observed and the expected frequencies.
Since X2c falls within the acceptance region of the Chi-square distribution, accept Ho and
conclude that there is no significant difference between the observed and the expected
frequencies. This means that the use of medicinal plants was uniformly distributed among
the various age groups. It also means that knowledge of medicinal plants was evenly
distributed in the population.
4.3.7 Association between use of medicinal plants and gender
4.3.7.1 Introduction
In many communities the activities of people depend on gender. In many African
communities, for example, cooking is a women domain while cattle herding is a men's
domain. It may be worthwhile to consider the use of medicinal plants by both male and
75
female and also determine whether there is any difference in the use of medicinal plants
based on gender
4.3.7.2 Results
Table 4.10: Respondents Gender
GENDER OF RESPONDENTS %USE
Male 75.88
Female 24.18
Male form three quarters of the respondents as indicated in Table 4.10 above.
The association between use of medicinal plants and gender was also determined, as
indicated in Table 4.11 below:
Table 4.11: Association between use of medicinal plants and gender
Use medicinal plants Don't use medicinal plants
Male 322 2 324
Female 99 4 103
421 6 427
I'
76
Ho: There is no significant difference in the use of medicinal plants between male and
female.
Ha: There is a significant difference in the use of medicinal plants between male and
female.
The calculated value from the above Table was 3.8915*, while the tabular value atX~.05is
3.84. We therefore reject Ho and accept H, and conclude that there is a significant
difference in the use of medicinal plants between male and female. In other words, the
use of medicinal plants was dependent on gender.
4.4 Conservation status
4.4.1 Introduction
The indigenous knowledge pertaining to conservation is not as explicit or elaborate as
that of the inheritance of medicinal plant knowledge. In many parts of the tropical world,
there is a lack of knowledge on the conservation status of the medicinal plants on which
most people rely (Ogol et al., 2002). The call for international co-operation, not simply to
save habitats but rather to merge conservation goals with humanitarian goals of
improving the majority of human population is both sensible and humane. For instance,
advocacy for biodiversity conservation has been based on utilization value of
biodiversity. For scientists, just "liking" plants and animals is sufficient reason to work
for their conservation. But such forms of motivations or incentives are not very effective
when the very survival of the people is dependent on the primary use of land and native
77
habitats. This is absolutely true in the tropical Africa, where millions of people are poor
and creating relentless pressure on local habitats (Ogol et al., 2002; CAF, 2004).
The Simpson's Diversity Index ranges from zero (0) to one (1). Low Simpson's Diversity
Index tends towards zero (0), while high Simpson's Diversity Index tends towards one
(1).
4.4.2 Results
Conservation status of medicinal plants was determined from two sources. One source
was from the quadrats, while the other was from questionnaires.
4.4.2.1 Results from quadrats
Information from the relative abundance of medicinal plants indicated that, 28.3%
medicinal plants in station A, near Nessuit Shopping Centre and 35.7% in station B, near
Mariashoni Shopping Centre, had a relative abundance greater than 0.5 (Table 4.4). Since
most of the plants had a relatively high relative abundance, this showed that the
medicinal plants were still many. Also the percentage conservation was only 10% and
I'
10.6% in station A and B respectively. This showed that conservation of medicinal plants
was lacking in East Mau Forest. Since the medicinal plants were still many, the Ogiek
may not have realized the need to conserve plants.
Simpson's Diversity Index of medicinal plants was 0.2456 and 0.089 in station A and B
respectively. This showed that species diversity was generally low in the study area,
although it was higher in station A than in station B. This means that there were few
78
species and also few individuals of each species in the entire study area. The Ogiek
maintained that they do not clear vegetation down to the river-banks. But since there was
evidence of vegetation clearing down to the river-banks, they attributed this to the other
communities. This low medicinal plants species diversity may indicate that medicinal
plants in East Mau Forest were very few and unless the Ogiek learn to conserve these
plants, some of them may become threatened or even extinct.
4.4.2.2 Results from questionnaires
The percentage of the respondents who conserve medicinal plants was 10.3%
(44/427xl00). Male were 7.2%, while female were 3.1%. This implies that conservation
of medicinal plants among the Ogiek was generally lacking.
4.4.3 Relationship between conservation of medicinal plants and peoples' age
4.4.3.1 Introduction
The relationship between conservation of medicinal plants and peoples' age was also
determined in each age group as indicated in Table 4.12, 4.13 and 4.14 below:
4.4.~2 Results
Table 4.12: Relationship between conservation of medicinal plants and peoples' age
Age % Conservation
18-27 12.5
28-37 11.7
38-47 9.7
48-57 4.3
58-67 0
~68 10.7
79
The conservation of medicinal plants among the individual age groups indicated that, in
all the age groups, conservation was lacking although the younger people conserved more
than the older.
Table 4.13: Chi-square of independence: Conservation of medicinal plants and age
USE 18-27 28-37 38-47 48-57 58-67 68 TOTAL
YES 20 13 6 2 0 3 44
NO 140 98 56 44 20 25 383
TOTAL 160 111 62 46 20 28 427
Table 4.14: Calculation of X2c
Expected=Row total x column total/Grand total
C OBSER EX O-E O_E)2 (O-E)l/E
1 20 16.5 3.5 12.25 0.7424
2 13 11.4 1.6 2.56 0.2246
3 ,., 6 6.4 -0.4 0.16 0.0250
4 2 4.7 -2.7 7.29 1.5511
5 0 2.1 -2.1 4.41 2.1
6 3 2.9 0.1 0.01 0.0034
7 140 143.5 -3.5 12.25 0.0854
8 98 99.6 -1.6 2.56 0.0257
9 56 55.6 0.4 0.16 0.0029
80
10 44 41.3 2.7 7.29 0.1765
11 20 17.9 2.1 4.41 0.2464
12 25 25.1 -0.1 0.01 0.0004
X2c =5.1838n5
X20.05,5=11.07 and X20.0),5=15.09
Ho: There is no significant difference between the observed and the expected frequencies.
Ha: There is a significant difference between the observed and the expected frequencies.
Since X2c falls within the acceptance region of the Chi-square distribution, accept Ho and
conclude that there is no significant difference between the observed and the expected
frequencies. This means that the conservation of medicinal plants was uniformly
distributed among the various age groups. In other words, the conservation of medicinal
plants was not dependent on age:
4.4.4 Association between conservation of medicinal plants and gender
4.4.4.1 Introduction
Th~ association between conservation of medicinal plants and gender was also
determined as indicated in Table 4.14.
81
4.4.4.2 Results
Table 4.15: Association between conservation of medicinal plants and gender
Conserve Don't conserve
Male 29 295 324
Female 17 86 103
46 381 427
Ho: There is no significant difference in the conservation of medicinal plants between
male and female.
Ha: There is a significant difference in the conservation of medicinal plants between male
and female.
The calculated value from the above Table is 5.4591 *. The calculated value falls outside
the acceptance region of the Chi-square distribution, we reject Ho and accept H, and
conclude that there is a significant difference in the conservation of medicinal plants
between male and female. In other words, the conservation of medicinal plants was
dependent on gender.
I'
This means that the conservation of medicinal plants was not uniformly distributed
between male and female Ogiek.
4.5 Harvesting techniques
4.5.1 Introduction
The harvesting of medicinal plants is carried out in many ways. The harvesting
techniques such as complete debarking and excessive removal of roots are some of the
82
harvesting techniques that are regarded as destructive. These harvesting techniques lead
to the death of the plant.
There are other harvesting techniques that are non-destructive. These techniques do not
kill the plant and the plant remains alive and is harvested for a long time. These
techniques include: the harvesting of the vegetative parts of the plant, partial/selective
removal of stem bark and removal of a few roots from a plant.
Definitions: Complete debarking is the removal of the entire stem bark from a plant.
This is one of the harvesting techniques that kill the plant.
Partial/Selective debarking is the removal of just a portion of the stem bark from a
plant. This is one of the harvesting techniques that do not kill the plant because the
wound heals.
The information about the harvesting techniques of medicinal plants was obtained from
two sources. One source was from the quadrats, while the other was from the
questionnaires.
4.5.2 Results
The' results showed that the harvesting techniques of medicinal plants were non-
destructive (74.29%). These harvesting methods were those that don't destroy the plants
and the plants will remain alive for a long time. The Ogiek harvest the stem barks by
partial removal of the bark while for the roots, only a few are removed at a time as
indicated in plate 4.6 and 4.7. For the stem bark, the wound heals gradually, while for the
roots, others regenerate. However, some harvesting techniques were destructive as
indicated in plate 4.8.
83
Plate 4.6: Pittosporum viridiflorum, a medicinal plant showing wounds healing from
selective debarking, along Kariangi stream, near Nessuit Forest Station.
84
Plate 4.7: Dombeya torrida, a medicinal plant showing selective harvesting by
partial debarking, near Mariashoni Shopping Centre
85
Plate 4.8: Ekebergia capensis, a medicinal plant showing a non-selective harvesting
technique by complete removal of stem bark, below the main bridge of Kariangi
stream, near Nessuit Forest Station.
86
4.5.2.1 Results from Quadrats
Table 4.16: Plants with signs of destructive and non-destructive harvesting
SINo PLANT NAME
1 Ekebergia capensis
2 Clutia rubusta
3 Dombeya torrida
4 Hypoestis forskalii
5 Juniperus procera
6 May tenus undata
7 Momordica friesiorum
8 Olea europaea
9 Olea capensis
10 Podocarpus latifolius
"
11 Prunus africana
12 Rapenea melanophloeos
,-
13 Rhamnus staddo
14 Toddalia asiatica
Table 4.17: Plants selectively harvested
SINo Plant name % of selectively harvested
plants
1 Ekebergia capensis 4
87
2 Dombeya torrida 61.5
3 Juniperus procera 4
4 May tenus undata 8
5 Momordica friesiorum 8
6 Olea europaea 16
7 Podocarpus latifolius 16
8 Rapenea melanophloeos 9.6
9 Toddalia asiatica 4
Table 4.18: Plants destructively harvested
0/0 of destructively harvested
SINO Plant name plants
1 Ekebergia capensis 5.6
2 Clutia rubusta 5.6
3 Dombeya torrida 11.1
4 Hypoestis forskalii 5.6
I'
5 May tenus heterophlla 5.6
6 Momordica friesiorum 11.1
7 Olea europaea 11.1
8 Rapenea melanophloeos 11.1
9 Prunus africana 5.6
10 Rhamnus staddo 11.1
11 Toddalia asiatica 16.7
88
There were a total of 70 medicinal plants in the one hundred quadrats with signs of
harvesting, comprising of 15 medicinal plants species. 11 plant species were selectively
harvested (non-destructive harvesting) and 11 plant species were destructively harvested.
Some plant species fall in both categories of non-destructive and destructive harvesting
techniques which include Dombeya torrida and Ekebergia capensis, as indicated in Table
4.17 and 4.18 above. This showed that, the harvesting techniques of medicinal plants by
the Ogiek of East Mau Forest were non-destructive.
Table 4.19: Plants with signs of harvesting and their relative abundance
Plant Abundance
Station A Station B
Dombeya torrida 0.92 0.84
Podocarpus latifolius 0 0.30
Toddalia asiatica 0.58 0.06
Rhamnus staddo 0.08 0.72
Olea europaea 0.30 0.74
Olea capensis 0.34 0.10
May tenus undata 0.30 0.62
Ekebergia capensis 0.20 0.14
Clutia rubusta 0.28 0
Momordica friesiorum 0.40 0.22
Hypoestis forskalii 0.98 0.74
Rapenea melanophloeos 0.12 0.78
89
Juniperus procera 0.04 0.06
Prunus Africana 0.08 0.04
May tenus heterophlla 0.74 0.82
4.5.2.2 Results on knowledge of harvesting techniques from questionnaires
The respondents with knowledge that some harvesting techniques of medicinal plants
were destructive were 75.6%. The male with knowledge that some harvesting techniques
of medicinal plants were destructive were 60.9 %, while the female were 16.6%. From
the above data it can be concluded that the majority of the Ogiek, both male and female
knew that some harvesting techniques of medicinal plants were destructive as indicated in
Fig. 4.3 below. This may be the reason why many of them indicated that they harvested
medicinal plants selectively. This agreed with the results from the quadrats that indicated
that the harvesting techniques of the Ogiek were non-destructive. However, there were
few plants showing destructive (non-selective) harvesting although this was attributed to
other communities.
90
Fig. 4.3: Destructive harvesting techniques and gender
300
260
250
200
150
100 71 64
50
0
Destructive H.T. No Destructive HT.
Table 4.20: Plants that were destructively harvested, the frequency of importance
and relative abundance.
Plant species % Use Abundance
Station A Station B
Engleromyces goetzei 8.34 0 0
Toddalia asiatica 7.49 0.58 0.06
Dombeya torrid a 6.92 0.92 0.84
Rapenea melanophloeos 5.88 0.12 0.78
Olea europaea 4.27 0.30 0.74
Hypoestis forskalii 2.84 0.98 0.74
Olea capensis 2.37 0.34 0.10
Rhamnus staddo 2.27 0.08 0.72
91
Ekebergia capensis 1.90 0.20 0.14
Clutia rubusta 1.42 0.28 0.60
Prunus Africana 0.95 0.08 0.04
Juniperus procera 0.57 0.04 0.06
May tenus heterophylla 0.38 0.74 0.82
Podocarpus latifolius 0.28 0 0.30
Various categories of the status of destructively harvested medicinal plants were
considered based on the IUCN Plant Red Data Book, as follows:
Endangered plant species: these are the plants that are in danger of extinction and
whose survival is unlikely if the causal factors continue operating.
Vulnerable plant species: these are the plants that are believed to move into the
endangered category in the near future if the causal factors continue operating.
Rare plant species: these are the plants with small populations that are not at present
endangered or vulnerable, but are at risk.
Frequent plant species: these are the plants that are many and important.
The results showed that Engleromyces goetzei was endangered, while Toddalia asiatica
and Clutia rubusta may be considered vulnerable. Ekebergia capensis, Prunus africana,
Juniferus procera, Olea capensis, Olea europaea, Podocarpus latifolius, Rhamnus
staddo, Rapanea melanophloeos, Solanum aculeastrum, Gomphocarpus pysocarpus,
Senna didymobotrya, Helichrysum schimperi, SchefJlera volkensii, Ficus thonningii and
92
Plectranthus barbatus were rare. Dombeya torrida, Hypoestis forskalii and May tenus
heterophylla were frequent.
4.5.3 Relationship between destructive harvesting techniques of medicinal plants and
age
4.5.3.1 Introduction
The relationship between destructive harvesting techniques of medicinal plants and age was
also determined as indicated in Table 4.21, 4.22 and 4.23.
4.5.3.2 Results
Table 4.21: Relationship between destructive harvesting techniques of medicinal plants
and age.
% of resp. who know some h.t
Age are destructive
18-27 76.9
28-37 76.6
38-47 72.6
48-57 95.7
58-67 100.00
I'
~68 82.10
The knowledge that some harvesting techniques were destructive was generally high in
all the age groups with the highest level of knowledge in the older people (above 48
years). Many people mentioned that debarking and removal of roots were done
selectively.
93
Table 4.22:Chi-square of independence: Relationship between destructive
harvesting techniques of medicinal plants and age:
Age
Harvesting 18-27 28-37 38-47 48-57 58-67 2: 68 TOTAL
techniques
YES 123 85 45 44 20 23 340
NO 37 26 17 2 0 5 87
TOTAL 160 111 62 46 20 28 427
Expected=Row totals x column total/Grand total
Table 4.23: Calculation of X2c
C OBSER EX O-E (O_E)z (O-E)z/E
1 123 127.4 -4.4 19.36 0.1520
2 85 88.4 -3.4 11.56 0.1308
3 45 49.4 -4.4 19.36 0.3919
4 44 36.6 7.4 54.76 1.4962.
5 20 15.9 4.1 16.81 1.0572
6 23 22.3 0.7 0.49 0.0220
7 ,- 37 32.6 4.4 19.36 0.5939
8 26 22.6 3.4 11.56 0.5115
9 17 12.6 4.4 19.36 1.5365
10 2 9.4 -7.4 54.76 5.8255
11 0 4.1 -4.1 16.81 4.1000
12 5 5.7 -0.7 0.49 0.0860
X~c =15.90**
94
X20.05,5=11.07and X20.01,5=15.09
Ho: There is no significant difference between the observed and the expected frequencies.
Ha: There is a significant difference between the observed and the expected frequencies.
Since X2c falls outside the acceptance region of the Chi-square distribution, we reject Ho
and accept H, and conclude that there was a highly significant difference between the
observed and the expected frequencies. This means that the destructive harvesting
techniques of medicinal plants were not uniformly distributed among the various age
groups. This was evident from the percentages calculated for each age group, which
showed that, the percentage harvesting techniques of respondents below 48 years was
around 70%, while for those above 48 years they had 82-100 % of harvesting techniques.
4.5.4 Association between destructive harvesting techniques of medicinal plants and
gender
4.5.4.1 Introduction
The association between destructive harvesting techniques and gender were also
determined as indicated in Table 4.24.
4.5.~.2Results
Ho: There is no significant difference in the harvesting techniques of medicinal plants
between male and female.
Ha: There is a significant difference in the harvesting techniques of medicinal plants
between male and female.
95
Table 4.24: Association between destructive harvesting techniques of medicinal
plants and gender
Destructive H.T. No Destructive H.T. Total
Male 260 64 324
Female 71 32 103
331 96 427
The calculated value from the Table 4.24 was 5.1104*. We reject H, and accept H, and
conclude that there was a significant difference in the destructive harvesting techniques
of medicinal plants between male and female. This information put another way means
that destructive harvesting techniques of medicinal plants were dependent on gender.
This means that male and female did not have the same knowledge that some harvesting
techniques were destructive.
4.6 Influence of the Ogiek by the Kipsigis and Maasai in the use of medicinal plants
4.6.1 Introduction
When communities live next to one another, they normally influence one another in many
different ways. This is evident from the many cultural practices that are similar among
the Ogiek, Kipsigis and the Maasai.
96
4.6.2 Results
The influence of the Ogiek by both Kipsigis and Maasai on the use, conservation arid
harvesting techniques of medicinal plants was evident even from the similarities of some
medicinal plants names. Among the documented medicinal plants, 25 had names, which
were same or similar in both Okiot (Ogiek language) and Kipsigis. There were 7
medicinal plants with same or similar names in both Okiot and Maa (Maasai language).
From the introduction, it was noted that the Ogiek had been influenced in many ways by
the neighbouring communities. Since there were twenty five medicinal plants with same
or similar Okiot names to those of the Kipsigis, it showed that either the Ogiek adopted
these names from the Kipsigis or vice versa. Similarly, the seven medicinal plants with
same or similar names in both Okiot and Maa indicated that either of the tribes adopted
the names from the other. Some of the people interviewed indicated that they had one
Kipsigis or Maasai or both as relatives.
Analysis of earlier studies indicated similar trends. In this analysis, the Akamba, Ameru
and Agikuyu had 64 plants with same or similar names. These tribes are neighbours and
the similarity in plant names was a clear indication that they had influenced one another
as far as plants were concerned. This showed a similar trend to that observed between the
Ogiek and their neighbours.
97
4.7 Analysis of parts of medicinal plants and the diseases treated
4.7.1 Introduction
The various plant parts used for medicinal purposes include: roots, leaves and stem bark.
The use of these plant parts depends on the particular plant being used and also the target
disease. For some plants, all the parts were used, while for others, only certain parts were
used.
4.7.2 Results
There were 93 diseases and disease conditions documented during the study. The
diseases treated with the largest number of plant species were stomach problems (68.1%),
chest problems (43.7%), and malaria (26.9%). The plant parts that were used mostly were
roots, leaves and stem barks, representing percentages of 29.02 %, 23.21 % and 15.63 %
respectively. The least used plant parts were corms and fruit juices.
98
CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION
5.1 Use of Medicinal Plants
5.1.1 Use of medicinal plants for human diseases
The 98.6 % use of medicinal plants by the Ogiek for treatment of many diseases was a
clear indication that many Ogiek depend on medicinal plants a great deal. This high
percentage even supercedes the figure of 70-80 % quoted by WHO for developing
countries. For a community like this, the reliance on plants for medicine is expected to
be high because they live in the forest, where conventional medicines are unavailable and
are familiar with medicinal plants. Also the community has held on to its traditional ways
of life and thus treasures traditional cures for diseases. A comparison of the Ogiek with
other tribes in Kenya shows that the other communities do not live in side the forest.
They live in permanent settlements where only a few plants have remained due to human
activities such as farming. Other communities live near a forest from where they collect
their medicinal plants. This means that the Ogiek are expected to use medicinal plants
more than other communities by virtue of their life in side the forest. The other
occupation of the Ogiek is bee keeping. The bee-hives are normally placed on trees and
shrubs. This means that, as the Ogiek place their bee-hives on trees and shrubs, they
interact with medicinal plants. Infact, one of the most important sources of honey in East
Mau Forest is Dombeya torrida. It should be noted that this tree is one of the most
important and most abundant medicinal plants in the entire study area.
99
5.1.2 Use of medicinal plants for livestock diseases
2.5% of the recorded medicinal plants were also used on livestock diseases. Ogiek
originally never kept any livestock and depended on hunting. This means that the dog
may be one of the earliest livestock among the Ogiek. However, currently they keep
cattle, goats, sheep and dogs. May be, if they had a longer history of keeping livestock,
the percentage of medicinal plants would not have been as little as the 2.5%.
5.2 Diseases and plant parts
Stomach problems seemed to be the most prevalent diseases among the Ogiek. Stomach
problems may be prevalent because many diseases such as worms, reproductive system
problems, and liver and kidney problems may cause stomach disturbances.
Hypoestis forskalii was used to treat six diseases. Stomach problems was one of them.
Since stomach problems was the commonest disease, being treated with one of the most
abundant medicinal plants, it showed that these plants, though being used for many
diseases among them the most common disease, they are not threatened.
5.3 Importance, abundance, harvesting techniques and conservation
The reason why the medicinal plants were ranked in order of importance was to
determine the most important medicinal plants among the Ogiek. Some of these plants
include: Engleromyces goetzei, Dombeya torrid a, Hypoestis forskalii, Olea capensis,
Ekebergia capensis, Toddalia asiatica and Pittosporum viridiforum. The medicinal plants
were also ranked in order of abundance. The most abundant plants include: Dombeya
torrid a, Hypoestis forskalii, Olea capensis, Ekebergia capensis and Toddalia asiatica. It
100
is worth to note that among the most important and most abundant medicinal plants, only
Engleromyces goetzei and Pittosporum viridiforum that are important yet not abundant. If
a plant is important but rare, it requires some attention because it may be over-exploited,
even to a point of extinction. Engleromyces goetzei, a fungus that grows on bamboo trees
needs some attention. Engleromyces goetzei is threatened because it only forms in
bamboos that have not been disturbed. With the current destruction of the forest, many
bamboos have been destroyed. Even the few that are remaining are in the open, making it
difficult for the fungus to form. Bamboos were found only in the higher sections of
station B, at around 2650 m a. s. 1.This section of the forest has been cleared to give way
to farming activities. Also bamboo posts are very popular fencing material among the
communities neighbouring the Ogiek. A few years ago, off-cuts from the timber industry
were used for fencing. With the decline of the timber industry, off-cuts are not easily
available and most people have resorted to the use of bamboo posts for fencing. The only
major place where bamboos were used a few years ago was at Egerton University. At the
moment, bamboo posts are very popular and almost every homestead and even buildings
in the surrounding shopping centers are fenced with bamboo posts. This destruction has
,-
reduced the forest area under bamboo and also over-exposed the remaining areas. Unless
something is done to protect the remaining bamboo trees, Engleromyces goetzei will have
no chance of survival, yet it is the most important medicinal plant.
If we consider the destructively harvested medicinal plants, we find that Ekebergia
capensis and Toddalia asiatica feature prominently. Pittosporum viridiforum stem bark
was harvested by stripping and this is evident from Plate 4.6. Dombeya torrida was
selectively harvested by partial debarking of the stem. The stripping and partial debarking
101
enable the wounds inflicted during the harvesting to heal. A point to note is that of
Ekebergia capensis, which showed destructive harvesting techniques by complete
debarking and Toddalia asiatica whose entire root system was harvested. It is therefore
appropriate to say that unless non-destructive harvesting methods are employed on
Ekebergia capensis and Toddalia asiatica, these medicinal plants will be over-exploited.
Since conservation was found to be lacking, it means that either conservation was not
being practiced or severe destruction of medicinal plants was taking place in East Mau
Forest. The little conservation that was practiced was mostly done by the younger Ogiek.
This may be as a result of the younger people being exposed to other people, other places
and even modem education, more than the older ones, which may have thought the
younger people the importance of conserving plants.
Therefore conservation strategies should be put in place especially for the most.
important, rare and destructively harvested medicinal plants. This can be achieved by
planting of such medicinal plants as Ekebergia capensis and the restoration of bamboo
forest. For Ekebergia capensis and Toddalia asiatica, and other plants that are
I'
destructively harvested, non-destructive harvesting techniques should be recommended.
For Ekebergia capensis, the harvesting of stem bark from mature branches or leaves
would be a better harvesting method than the complete debarking of the main stem. For
Toddalia asiatica, removal of a few roots at a time would save these plants because the
root system is normally regenerated with time.
102
5.4 Age classification
The age group 18-27 had the highest percentage of respondents of 36.53%. This
information showed that this age group was more accessible because they were more
open with their information to strangers. For use, those in age groups 58-67,2: 68 on one
hand, use medicinal plants more than the younger age groups of 18-27 and 28-37 on the
other, although this difference in use was found to be insignificant.
5.5 Relationship between use of medicinal plants and age
The expectation was that older people use medicinal plants more than the younger ones.
The results do not agree with the expectation because all the respondents in all the age
groups had the same percentage of use. Even the younger Ogiek recorded high
percentages of use, which showed that they might have been taught about medicinal
plants by the older Ogiek. This may have been facilitated by the social organization
where young people were taught the traditional aspects of the Ogiek including the use of
medicinal plants when in seclusion after circumcision. This showed that the younger
Ogiek learnt from the older Ogiek about the use of medicinal plants. It also showed that,
the Ogiek still up hold their traditions of teaching the younger people about their wealth
of medicinal plant knowledge. This showed that, the Ogiek will continue using medicinal
plants because their knowledge is not being lost. If we compare age groups, 18-27,28-37
on one hand and 58-67,2: 68 on the other, we find that this difference is negligible. This
means that all age groups generally had the same level of use of medicinal plants. This is
expected of a community who live in almost segregation from other communities. This
103
also showed that the community has not been influenced by external forces and have held
onto their traditional way of life.
5.6 Association between use of medicinal plants and gender
The expectation was that, the male have more knowledge than the female. This is because
information from research work done elsewhere indicated that scientists ignore gender
differences in intra-community knowledge distribution. They do this by tending to over
look women's contributions to subsistence. Women and men have different access to
formal and exogenous knowledge. In some communities, women have less access since
they receive less formal education, have less contact with extensionists and other
government agents, are less able to leave their communities, and are less able to speak
languages or dialects other than their own (Howard, 2003). However, the opposite can be
the case. In many hunting-gathering societies, women are often reported to venture
further a field than men on food-gathering forays. The same has been reported for women
herbalists who travel extensively to procure medicinal plants (Howard, 2003). It was not
possible to compare this information with other research findings because research results
are usually presented in such a way that it is impossible to know whether women have
been included in the study. This is because reference throughout literature are to gender-
neutral nouns such as "farmers", "rural dwellers", "peasants," "experts," "informants,"
or tribal names. In the majority of cases where it is made explicit that women were
included in the research (as interviewers and/or .as interviewees), data are nevertheless
most often not sex-disaggregated when presented, and there is no analysis made of
gender (Howard, 2003).
104
The fact that the use of medicinal plant was the same in both male and female among the
Ogiek agrees with the information from the questionnaires, which sought to know how
use of medicinal plants was passed on. 56.8% indicated that children learnt from their
parents. Out of these, 35.6% indicated that sons learnt from their fathers and daughters
from their mothers. 60.7% people indicated that they learnt from older people irrespective
of gender, while 37% indicated that female learnt from older female and male from older
male. From this information, it can be concluded that, in the Ogiek community, the
younger people learnt from the older people about medicinal plants irrespective of
gender, although the use of medicinal plants was not evenly distributed between male and
female. Male may have an advantage over female because they have more access to
medicinal plants because of their interaction with these plants during hunting expeditions,
sourcing for building materials and also in timber processing industry (Table 4.5).
5.7 Relationship between conservation of medicinal plants and age
Although planting of medicinal plants was lacking among the Ogiek of East Mau Forest,
some Ogiek indicated that they have a cultural attachment to plants and thus protect
them. They also indicated that they put off fire after harvesting of honey. This showed
that although most Ogiek don't conserve plants directly, say by planting, they generally
take care of the naturally growing plants. This conforms to their name, which means" the
caretaker of plants and animals". From Table 4.12, it was evident that age groupl8-27
conserves more than the other age groups, while age group 58-67 does not conserve at
all. The little conservation practiced decreased with age. This indicated that the younger
105
people put more importance in conservation due probably to influence of modem life,
may be due to exposure from other communities. However, the increase in conservation
for respondents who were 68 years and above may be due to their interaction with their
grand children. The grand parents may be learning about the importance of conservation
from their grand children.
5.8 Destructive harvesting techniques of medicinal plants
The older people had more knowledge than younger people that some harvesting
techniques were destructive. This may be as a result of knowledge accumulated over
time. Dombeya torrida, Hypoestis forskalii, and May tenus heterophylla had the highest
abundance (0.74-0.92). Olea europaea, Olea capensis, May tenus undata and Momordica
friesiorum had moderate abundance (0.22-0.3), while Ekebergia capensis, Juniperus
procera and Prunus africana had the lowest abundance (0.04-0.14). For the medicinal
plants that showed low abundance, conservation strategies should be put in place such as
planting of these plants, even on individual's farms.
From these results, it was evident that Ekebergia capensis, Juniferus pro cera and Prunus
africana were vulnerable because they were few but of valuable use as medicine. The
situation was even worse off for Ekebergia cape ns is, which was harvested by complete
debarking. These vulnerable medicinal plants should be conserved otherwise they will be
threatened. Engleromyces goetzei showed that it was completely lacking in the quadrats,
yet it was the most important medicinal plant. The results showed that this was an
106
endangered plant species. Toddalia asiatica in station A and Clutia rubusta in station B
may be considered vulnerable because of their moderate abundance.
From the above data it was evident that Ekebergia capensis, Prunus africana, Juniferus
pro cera, Olea capensis and Podocarpus latifolius had a low abundance in the entire study
area. Clutia rubusta, Olea europaea, Rhamnus staddo and Rapenea melanophloeos in
station A and Toddalia asiatica in station B also showed very low abundance. These
plants may be considered to be rare because they were important medicinal plants, yet
their abundances were very low. Also in the group of rare plants were some medicinal
plants that were not destructively harvested but had very low abundances and were also
very important. These plants include: Solanum aculeastrum, Gomphocarpus pysocarpus,
Senna didymobotrya, Helichrysum schimperi, SchefJlera volkensii, Ficus thonningii and
Plectranthus barbatus. These rare medicinal plants should be conserved before they
become vulnerable.
Dombeya torrida, Hypoestis forskalii and May tenus heterophylla had very high
abundances and their harvesting posed no threat to these plants. These plants were~ .
therefore considered to be frequent, although they may enter the category of vulnerable or
endangered plants in the near future because of their destructive harvesting techniques.
5.9 Relationship between harvesting techniques of medicinal plants and age
The older people had more knowledge of destructive harvesting techniques of medicinal
plants than the younger ones. This could also imply that those aged above and below 48
107
years had very varying knowledge of destructive harvesting techniques. This may imply
that the older people are not teaching the younger people the importance of non-
destructive harvesting techniques of medicinal plants.
5.10 Relationships of age
For use and conservation, there was no significant difference in terms of age, yet there
was a highly significant difference in the relationship between destructive harvesting
techniques and age. It may be possible that as the older people teach the younger ones on
the importance of the use of medicinal plants, they do not teach them about the
importance of non-destructive techniques. Another possibility is that the younger people
may have become greedy like other tribes and ignore the good aspects of harvesting
techniques for their own selfish ends.
5.11 Associations of gender
The use, conservation and destructive harvesting techniques of medicinal plants were
dependent on gender. The Chi-square analysis for associations only showed that there
"
was a difference in the three aspects as far as gender was concerned. These differences
may be as a result of the different activities of the two genders in the community. In this
community the female are involved in farming and cooking activities while the male are
involved in hunting, bee keeping and collection of honey. These activities present
different levels of interaction with plants and thus the probable reason for the differences
in the use, conservation and harvesting techniques between male and female.
108
If we compare the percentage of male and female who use medicinal plants, we find that
it is 99.4 % and 96.1 % respectively. For conservation, it was 8.95 % and 16.6 %
respectively. For destructive harvesting techniques, it was 82.5 % and 68.9 %
respectively. These figures were worked out by calculating the percentages in each group
individually. While for use and destructive harvesting techniques male had the higher
percentages, for conservation, the percentage for female was about double that for male.
This was a clear indication that female were more concerned with conservation than
male. This may be due to female being involved more in farming activities than male. It
could also be as a result of male being involved in activities such as sourcing for building
materials and timber industry which cause forest destruction as opposed to conservation.
5.12 Analysis of parts of medicinal plants and the diseases treated
Roots were recorded as the most popular plant part used. The harvesting of roots, if not
done by non-destructive harvesting techniques can have far reaching consequences as far
as conservation is concerned. If the harvesting of roots is excessive, the result is that the
plant dies. It would be a good idea for scientists to establish the quality and quantity of
chemical compounds in each part of the plant. When this is done, it will be possible to
advice the Ogiek on the use of plant parts other than the roots. If these other plant parts
are found to have some chemical compounds that are found in roots, even if the
concentration is lower, in the long run, the community will benefit because they will be
able to harvest the particular plant over a long time period.
Since the use of roots is prominent, and also that of stem bark relatively high, this could
have serious implications in conservation. We classified destructive harvesting
109
techniques as those techniques such as complete debarking and excessive removal of
roots that kill the plant. Therefore, if the harvesting of the roots and stem bark are not
done selectively, there is danger of some plants dying due to their preference and the
destructive harvesting techniques used for their harvesting.
110
5.13 Analysis of medicinal plant species and the diseases treated
- It is worth to note that Hypoestis forskalii was used to treat six diseases, including
stomach problems. Since stomach problems were the most common disease that was
being treated with one of the most abundant medicinal plant, it requires some attention
because it is a very important plant to the Ogiek. The current clearing of the forest may
change this pattern because the plant is normally uprooted due to many activities
including farming.
There are a number of diseases such as typhoid fever, cholera and stomach ulcers whose
symptoms are generally referred to as stomach problems. It was difficult to separate
stomach problems into appropriate diseases and thus many diseases were merged.
111
5.14 Influence of other communities on the Ogiek and vice versa
Since the Ogiek live in side the forest unlike other communities, they have been able to
hold on to their traditions, with very little influence from other communities. For example
the Agikuyu had not influenced the Ogiek in East Mau Forest and vice versa. The reason
behind this may be that these communities have lived near one another for a very short
time. The reason may be that the Ogiek got exposed to the Agikuyu only recently, and
thus their influence on one another is not very evident. However, the Maasai and Kipsigis
have influenced the Ogiek and vice versa. Reliable information has it that the Kinale
"Dorobo" were assimilated by the neighbouring Agikuyu. It would be interesting to
investigate the light-skinned Agikuyu of Uplands and Limuru and it will not be surprising
to note that they have some relations with the Kinale "Dorobo". The Agikuyu of Nyeri
and the Ameru have also lived near the Dorobo of Mt. Kenya. The "Dorobo" of Mt.
Kenya may not be blood-relatives of the Ogiek. What is likely is that they are the aathi
clans of the Ameru and Agikuyu, who posed as hunters but in actual fact, they were spies
assigned the task of monitoring enemies. They may have liked the forest life and
remained there as "Dorobo"(Muriuki, 1974;Mwannzi, 1977)
The Akamba, Ameru and Agikuyu tribes live around Mt. Kenya. The Ameru live on the
eastern slopes, while the Agikuyu live on the western side of the mountain. To the south-
east, the Ameru are neighboured by the Akamba. To the north -west are the Agikuyu of
Nyeri District. Although to the west of the Ameru is Mt. Kenya, traditional knowledge
has it that, the Agikuyu invaded the Ameru from the west through the forest. The
invaders may have come from Nyeri or Kirinyaga, using routes in the forest that were
112
believed to penetrate through some narrow passages between hills. The similarity in plant
names cannot therefore be due to chance or a mere coincidence but an indication that
neighbouring tribes or communities have a profound influence on one another.
113
CHAPTER SIX: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
6.1 Conclusions
From the research work, a conclusion can be drawn that Ogiek of East Mau Forest
generally do not conserve plants directly by means such as planting, although they
generally take care of natural plants. This is because of the importance they place on
plants in their traditions and daily activities. They also largely depend on plants for
medicinal purposes. It can be concluded that the use of medicinal plants was not
dependent on age, but it was dependent on gender. Conservation was not dependent on
age, but was dependent on gender. The Ogiek know that some harvesting techniques of
medicinal plants are destructive. These destructive harvesting techniques were dependant
on age and gender. The medicinal plants were not over-exploited because only a few
species showed evidence of destructive harvesting, other wise their harvesting techniques
seem non-destructive. Hypotheses i, ii and iv were supported, while hypothesis iii was
not supported. This means that use and conservation were not dependent on age, while
harvesting techniques were dependent on age. The use, conservation and harvesting
techniques were all dependent on gender.
6.2 Recommendations
~ It is recommended that East Mau Forest should be protected because it is a source
of valuable medicines for the Ogiek.
).- Since Engleromyces goetzei P. Hennings seemed to be a very effective medicine
for the Ogiek, it is recommended that research work should be conducted on this
fungus in order to come up with a drug, which may benefit mankind.
114
~ It is recommended that the Ogiek should put more efforts in the conservation of
medicinal plants.
~ It is recommended that more research work should be conducted in East Mau
Forest in order to establish whether the claim that the clearing of vegetation down
to the river banks was attributed to the activities of other communities who have
settled among the Ogiek.
~ Since the forest is being destroyed at an alarming rate, it is recommended that
medicinal plants seedlings should be provided to the Ogiek for planting on their
farms in order to replace the destroyed ones or alternatively, they should be taught
to produce the plant seedlings themselves.
~ It is recommended that the Ogiek, who are expert bee keepers should be assisted
with modem bee hives and current technology of bee keeping. They may show
the way to other people about bee keeping. They are expert bee keepers and much
can be learnt from them.
~ It is recommended that the Ogiek should only use non-destructive harvesting
techniques to avoid destruction and maintain the declining medicinal plants
I' population.
~ It is recommended that the Ogiek should be educated on the importance,
conservation and non-destructive harvesting techniques of medicinal plants.
115
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119
APPENDICES
APPENDIXl
A CHECKLIST OF MEDICINAL PLANTS AND THE HERBARIUM WHERE
SPECIMENS WERE DEPOSITED
SINO PLANT NAME VERN. NAME DEPOSITORY
(Oaiek) HERBARIUM
1 Acanthaceae Larubat K.U.H E.A.H
Hypoestis forskalii (Vahl) R.Br.
2 Hypoestis aristata (Vahl) R.Br. Larubat K.U.H E.A.H
3 Acanthus eminens CB.el Tegeldet K.U.H E.A.H
4 Agavaceae Oduphait K.U.H E.A.H
A~ave sisalana Englelm
5 Aloaceae Tangaratwet K.U.H E.A.H
Aloe secundiflora Englel.
6 Amaranthaceae Lenget K.U.H E.A.H
Achyranthes aspera L.
7 Cyathula uncinulata Mutumiat K.U.H E.A.H
(Schrad.) Schinz
8 Anacardiaceae Sirondit K.U.H E.A.H
Rhus natalensis Bernh ex. Krauss
9 Apocynaceae Noriot K.U.H E.A.H
Cynanchum altiscandens K. Schum.
10 Gomphocarpus physocarpus E. Meys Turitwol K.U.H E.A.H
11 Periploca linearifolia Dill. & Rich. Senedit K.U.H E.A.H
12 Araliaceae Chelubut K.U.H E.A.H
SchefJlera volkensii (Harms) Harms
13 Cussonia spicata Thunb Lukulukwet K.U.H E.A.H
14 Asparagaceae Kipsoinoitl Noriet K.U.H E.A.H
Asparagus racemosus Willd.
Top ophaiyat
15 Balsaminaceae Pumbuetiet K.U.H E.A.H
Impatiens sodenii Engl.
16 Basellaceae Nderemiat K.U.H E.A.H
Basella alba L
17 Bignoniaceae K.U.H E.A.H
Tecomaria capensis (Thunb.) Spach. Miti harubaine
18 Caesalpiniaceae Senenetwet K.U.H E.A.H
120
Senna didymobotrya (Fresen)
Irwin & Barneby
19 Canellaceae Soget K.U.H E.A.H
Warburgia ugandensis
Sprague ssp.ugandensis
20 Capparaceae Lito K.U.H E.A.H
Maerua triphylla A. Rich. var.johanni
21 Celastraceae Ebuluit K.U.H E.A.H
May tenus undata (Thunb.) Blakelock.
22 May tenus heterophylla (Eckl. & Kinguruit K.U.H E.A.H
Zeyn.)
23 Compositae Mucekwetl K.U.H E.A.H
Vernonia lasiopus O. Hoffm.
Selgutiet
24 Senecio syringifoluis O. Hoffm.) Ngagawet K.U.H E.A.H
25 Helichrysum schimperi (Sch.Bip). Manarariat K.U.H E.A.H
Moeser
26 Microglossa densiflora Hook.f Kwamiririet K.U.H E.A.H
27 Laggera elatior R.E. Fries Chepsamisiet K.U.H E.A.H
28 Vernonia auriculifera Hiern. Tebengwet K.U.H E.A.H
29 Conyza bonariensis (L.) Crona. Sigowitl K.U.H E.A.H
Manarariat
30 Senecio hadiensis Forsk. (S. petitianus Chemoroliot/ K.U.H E.A.H
A.Rich.)
Chemulmuliet
,-
31 Acmella calirhiza Del. Ilongroit K.U.H E.A.H
32 Sphaeranthus suaviolens (Forsak.) Meito-opait K.U.H E.A.H
33 Vernonia brachycalyx O. Hoffm Kwamiririet K.U.H E.A..H
34 Helichrysum schimperi (Sch.Bip.) Karambue K.U.H E.A.H
Moeser
35 Tarchonanthus comphoratus Linn Lelechwet: K.U.H E.A.H
36 Tagetes minuta L. Marogot K.U.H E.A.H
37 Solanecio mannii (Hook.f.) C. Jeffrey Chepkirgot K.U.H E.A.H
38 Convolvulaceae Chelirit K.U.H E.A.H
Ipomoea wightii
(Wall.) Choisy var. kilimandscharica
39 Crassulaceae Musiligiet K.U.H E.A.H
121
Kalanchoe densiflora Rolfe
40 Cucurbitaceae Gatkatone K.U.H E.A.H
Zehneria scabra (L.f.) Sond.
41 Momordica friesiorum (Harms) Chepkolgolio K.U.H E.A.H
C. Jeffrey
42 Lagenaria abyssinica (Hook. f.) C. Mutudoret K.U.H E.A.H
Jeffrey
43 Cupressaceae Tolokwet K.U.H E.A.H
Juniperus procera Endl.
44 Cupressus torulosa Cypress K.U.H E.A.H
45 Dennstaediaceae Tolorwet K.U.H E.A.H
Pteridium aquilinium (L.) Kuhn.
46 Euphorbiaceae Kilbanyat K.U.H E.A.H
Clutia robusta
Pax (C.kilimandscharica Engl.)
47 Ricinus communis L. Mboleget K.U.H E.A.H
(Imaniat)
48 Flacourtiaceae Nukiat K.U.H E.A.H
Dovyalis abyssinica (R.Rich.) Warb
49 Scolopia zeyheri (Nees) Harv. Kapkeiyawet K.U.H E.A.H
50 Trimeria grandiflora Chepkowet K.U.H E.A.H
(Hochst.) Warb.
51 Gramineae Tegat K.U.H E.A.H
Arundinaria alpina K. Schum.
52 Zea mays L. Muchakwa K.U.H E.A.H
53 Digitaria abyssinica (A. Rich. ) Stapf. Seretiot K.U.H E.A.H
54 Hamamelidaceae Belegiyat K.U.H E.A.H
Trichocladus ellipticus Eckl & Zeyh
55 Hyacinthaceae Kitunguu sumu K.U.H E.A.H
Ornithogalum longibracteatum Jacq.
56 Icacinaceae Chosunetl Segetik K.U.H E.A.H
Apodytes dimidata Am var.
acutifolia (A Rich) Boutique
57 Labiatae Musipsiet K.U.H E.A.H
Leonotis nepetifolia (L.) Ait.f.
58 Leonotis ocymifolia var. raineriana Musipsiet K.U.H E.A.H
59 Plectranthus barbatus Mairongiat K.U.H E.A.H
Var. Gymnostomus Benth.
60 Plectranthus sylvestris Guerke Korindet / K.U.H E.A.H
Cheborayo
61 Fuerstia africana T CE. Fries Birirwet K.U.H E.A.H
62 Satureia biflora (D. Don) Benth. Chepsagitiet K.U.H E.A.H
122
63 Lauraceae Avocado K.U.H E.A.H
Persea americana Mill.
64 Loganiaceae Ilngiriyit K.U.H E.A.H
Nuxia congesta Fresen.
65 Nuxia congesta Fresen. Choluet K.U.H E.A.H
66 Malvaceae Oldiriet K.U.H E.A.H
Malva parviflora L.
67 Sida massaica Vollesen Olninit K.U.H E.A.H
68 Melanthaceae Kipteleliet / K.U.H E.A.H
Bersama abyssinica
Fres ssp. paullinioides
(Planch.) Verde. Cheptililiet
69 Meliaceae Sunguruit/ Araruit K.U.H E.A.H
Ekebergia capensis Sparrm
/Oloruit
70 Menispermaceae Tabarariat K.U.H E.A.H
Stephania abyssinica
(Dillon & A. Rich) Walp
71 Mimosaceae Wattle Tree K.U.H E.A.H
Acacia mearnsii De Wild.
72 Acacia xanthophloea Benth. Leldet K.U.H E.A.H
73 Moraceae Soboitit K.U.H E.A.H
Ficus thonningii Blume
74 Musaceae Sochuriet K.U.H E.A.H
Ensete ventricosum (Welw.) Cheesm.
75 Myrsinaceae Gorabariat/ K.U.H E.A.H
Rapanea melanophloeos (L.) Mez.
Kwarabariet
76 Myrtaceae Lemeiwet K.U.H E.A.H
I' Syzygium cordatum Krauss
77 Eucalyptus regnons F.R. Muell. Blue gum tree K.U.H E.A.H
78 Oleaceae Giemdit / Yiemdit K.U.H E.A.H
Olea europaea L. subsp.
africana (Mill.) P. Green
79 Olea capensis L. Masaita K.U.H E.A.H
80 Jasminum abyssinica D C. Olmuliroit K.U.H E.A.H
81 Schrebera alata (Hochst.) Weiw. Chepteliliet K.U.H E.A.H
82 Palmae Sosiot K.U.H E.A.H
Phoenix reclinata Jaqc.
83 Papilionaceae Midoyiwet K.U.H E.A.H
Indigofera arrecta Hochst. ex A. Rich.
84 Crotalaria agatiflora Schweinf. Eigoyoit / K.U.H E.A.H
123
- Longoyonit
85 Phytolaccaceae Batkawet K.U.H E.A.H
Phytolacca ocandra L.
86 Pittosporaceae Taabonit K.U.H E.A.H
Pittosporum viridiflorum. Sims
87 Podocarpaceae Saptet K.U.H E.A.H
Podocarpus latifolius L'Herit ex Pers.
88 Polygalaceae Gicheyat/ K.U.H E.A.H
Polygala sphenoptera Fresen.
Chepkecheyat
89 Polygonaceae Ngasuswa K.U.H E.A.H
Rumex bequaertii De Wild.
90 Runanculaceae BisintaIBisinda K.U.H E.A.H
Clematis simensis Fresen.
91 Clematis braciata Parr. & Guill. Bisinta K.U.H E.A.H
92 Rhamnaceae Gongoroit K.U.H E.A.H
Rhamnus staddo A. Rich
93 Rhamnus prinoides L'Herit. Runyirit/ K.U.H E.A.H
Gosisitot
94 Scutia myrtina (Burm.f.) Kur Chebeiwet K.U.H E.A.H
95 Rhizophoraceae Gentujuet K.U.H E.A.H
Cassipourea molasama (Bak.) Alston
96 Rosaceae Tenenetwet K.U.H E.A.H
Prunus africana (Hook.f) Kalkman
97 Hagenia abyssinica (Bruce) J.F.Gmei. Pondet K.U.H E.A.H
98 Rubiaceae Tatakwet K.U.H E.A.H
Rubus pinnata Willd. var.
" afrotropicus (Engl.) C.E. Gust.99 Rubia cordifolia L Tilitwet K.U.H E.A.H
100 Rutaceae Chebindoruit/ K.U.H E.A.H
Toddalia asiatica (L.) Lam.
Chementoruit
101 Teclea nobilis Del. Kuriot 66 K.U.H E.A.H
102 Teclea simplicifolia (Engl.) Verdoon Kuriot K.U.H E.A.H
103 Sapindaceae Kapnyaliliet K.U.H E.A.H
Allophyllus abyssinica (Hochst.)
Rodlk
104 Solanaceae Cheboina K.U.H E.A.H
Solanum nigrum L.
105 Solanum nigrum L. Isoik K.U.H E.A.H
124
106 Solanum aculeastrum Dunal. Sigogwit K.U.H E.A.H
107 Datura stramonium L. Swimogong K.U.H E.A.H
108 Solanum aguivi Lam. Nduririot K.U.H E.A.H
109 Physalis peruvian a L. Nyanya K.U.H E.A.H
100 Solanum nakurense C. H.Wright Gaititiet K.U.H E.A.H
111 Solanum incanum L. Telebot K.U.H E.A.H
112 Sterculiaceae Silibuit I Silipuat K.U.H E.A.H
Dombeya torrid (J.F.Gmel.) P. Bamps
113 Ulmaceae Gwonthetitl K.U.H E.A.H
Celtis africana Burm.F.
Kauothe
114 Umbelliferae Lelnet K.U.H E.A.H
Heteromorpha trifoliata (Wendl.)
Eckl & Zeyh
115 Urticaceae Ilnyadet K.U.H E.A.H
Urera hypoclodendron. Wedd.
116 Urtica massaica Mildbr. Siwotl Sigwot K.U.H E.A.H
117 Vitaceae Sumeitot K.U.H E.A.H
Cyphostema nodiglandulosa (Th.Fr.
Jr.) Descoings
118 Verbenaceae Singorwet K.U.H E.A.H
Clerodendrum johnstonii Oliv
119 Xylariaceae Pointa I Buinta/ K.U.H E.A.H
Engleromyces goetzei P. Hennings
Buinda
..
125
APPENDIX 2
BIODATA OF INTERVIEWEES PER VILAGE
SINO VILLA NAMEOFRESP AGE OF GEND CON HAR
GE RESP ER V.T
(YRS)
1. Beeston Sang K. 33 M N Y
2. Brewery Jane Chepkoech 38 F N N
3. Cheptoroi Joseph Kiprotich 37 M N Y
4. Cheptoroi Michael Kosgei 26 M N N
5. Cheptoroi Joseph. Kimaiyo 31 M N Y
6. Cheptoroi Emily Chepkorir 20 F N Y
7. Kapcholola Julius Chemaina 25 M N Y
8. Cheptoroi Stephen Rugui 60 M N Y
9. Kaprop Dunson Wesley 26 M N Y
10. Kaprop James Kimbai 47 M N y
11. Kimundo Peter Kisongoi 35 M N Y
12. Kimundo James Ngonino 45 M N Y
13. Kimundo Daniel Kirondo 40 M N Y
14. Kimundo Ali Lachwali 36 M N Y
15. Kimundo John Luchuda 42 M N Y
16. Kimundo Joseph Kipkorir 21 M Y N
17. Kimundo Lepiro Mutarakwa 42 M N Y
18. Kimundo Dicosta Kiringei 32 M N Y
126
19. Kimundo Samuel Mwito 30 M N N
20. Kimundo Francis Ngonino 30 M Y Y
21. Kimundo Ann Chemtai 40 F y N
22. Kimundo Atino Chilicheli 35 M N N
23. Kimundo Rosa Tapsatai 32 F N N
24. Kimundo Josphat Ngonono 32 M N Y
25. Kimundo Danson Koech 29 M N N
26. Kimundo Miriam Sayaya 75 F N Y
27. Kimundo Kapchabe Kuito 70 M N Y
28. Kimundo Ngnino Mburwo 72 M N Y
29. Kimundo Philip Siron 53 M N N
30. Kimundo Lagita Gitagita 70 F y Y
31. Kimundo Nauroik Ngonino 70 F y Y
32. Kiptunga Simon Chemones 43 M N Y
33. Kwale Eunice Chepkurui 31 F N Y
34. Kwale Joe Langat 35 M N y
35. Kwale Kimanisho Tabrika 30 F N N
36. Kwale Dalili Franco 20 M N N
37. Kwale Peter Kumere 40 M N N
38. Kwale Johns Lebele 29 M N Y
39. Kwale Filax Rasingo 18 M N y
40. Kwale Hellen Ngiria 20 F N y
41. Kwale James Lilichwa 34 M N y
127
42. Kwale Josphine Sege 44 F N N
43. Kwale Richard Yegon 25 M N N
44. Kwale Joseph Lengoisa 45 M N N
45. Kwale Joel Koskei 41 M N N
46. Kwale Manson Lelichwa 35 M N N
47. Kwale Joseph Kariangei 35 M N N
48. Kwale Maurine Chepkoech 18 F Y Y
49. Kwale Stephen Siore 30 M N N
50. Kwale Patrick Cheres 26 M N N
51. Kwale George Kipkemoi 18 M N N
52. Kwale Pamela Chebet 18 F N Y
53. Kwale Betty Cheptoo 18 F N Y
54. Kwale Daniel Chelilo 28 F N N
55. Kwale Monica Chepchirchir 30 F N Y
56. Kwale Chipe Cherotich 23 F N Y
57. Kwale David Ruto 38 M N N
I'
58. Kwale Isaac Kipsang 36 M N N
59. Kwale Maritim John 46 M N N
60. Kwale Stanley Kamunge 27 M N Y
61. Kwale Joseph Rotich 29 M N Y
62. Kwale Benson Tanui 23 M N N
63. Kwale Peter Tono 29 M N Y
64. Kwale Nixon Kipkorir 36 M N Y
128
65. Kwale Philip Bii 32 M N y
66. Kwale Joel Kiplangat 32 M N y
67. Kwale Joseph Sindai 32 M N
68. Kwale Rose Chepkemoi 20 F N Y
69. Kwale Evans Sabubabi 18 M N y
70. Kwale Joseph Langat 50 M N Y
71. Kwale John Saibala 72 M N Y
72. Kwale Henly Koech 52 M N Y
73. Kwale Tegeleta Koko 55 M N Y
74. Kwale Kumare Salimu 65 M N y
75. Kwale Ebele Tigen 62 M N y
76. Kwale Johnsone Rana 51 M N y
77. Kwale John Cherilo 72 M N y
78. Kwale Grace Tabriku 70 M N y
79. Lawina Alex Kumangai 19 M N y
80. Lawina John Tunyeti 33 M N y,.
81. Mariashoni Margaret Cherotich 30 F N y
82. Mariashoni Monoso W 36 M y y
83. Mariashoni Stanley Mutei 32 M N y
84. Mariashoni Nelson Timos 30 M N y
85. Mariashoni Cosmas Chegeit 21 M N N
86. Mariashoni Nixon Walgi 25 M N y
87. Mariashoni Simon Mutarakwa 23 M N y
129
88. Mariashoni Bernard Koech 27 M N y
89. Mariashoni Nixon Langat 25 M N Y
90. Mariashoni Isaac Rono 38 M N Y
91. Mariashoni MusaKotut 30 M N Y
92. Mariashoni Evelyne Kaeri 18 F N N
93. Mariashoni Tapkorech Tanyi 27 F N Y
94. Mariashoni Tapta Rechebei 35 F N N
95. Mariashoni Patrick Kipsang 18 M N Y
96. Mariashoni Patrick Kipkorir 19 M N Y
97. Mariashoni Duncan Kipruto 18 M N Y
98. Mariashoni John Chilbuit 29 M N Y
99. Mariashoni James Torokwet 38 M N Y
100. Mariashoni Beatrice Tokenyi 22 F N y
101. Mariashoni Daniel Saibala 49 M N y
102. Mariashoni Samita Masaita 32 M N Y
103. Mariashoni James Sigilai 43 M N Y,.
104. Mariashoni Robert Kirui 23 M N N
105. Mariashoni Sarah Chepkemoi 25 F N Y
106. Mariashoni Stella Chepkemoi 30 F N Y
107. Mariashoni Regina Chepkemoi 34 F N Y
108. Mariashoni Eunice Chepkemoi 37 F N Y
109. Mariashoni Festus Cheruiyot 20 M N Y
110. Mariashoni Julius Kirnngetich 19 M N y
130
111. Mariashoni Johnson Langat 25 M Y Y
112. Mariashoni Peter Cheruiyot 18 M N Y
113. Mariashoni Cosmas Koech 26 M N Y
114. Mariashoni Nelson Ngetich 25 M N Y
115. Mariashoni Joel Langat 39 M N Y
116. Mariashoni Bomiface Mirabon 27 M N Y
117. Mariashoni Jonathan Samoei 22 M N Y
118. Mariashoni Lilian Munge 22 M N Y
119. Mariashoni Stephen Kimtai 33 M N Y
120. Mariashoni Patice Chepkorir 35 F N Y
121. Mariashoni Betty Chelangat 35 F N Y
122. Mariashoni Joseph Bargetuny 45 M N Y
123. Mariashoni Philip Lilonzo 30 M N Y
124. Mariashoni Nelson Sailenyi 26 M N y
125. Mariashoni Stephen Kusoto 32 M N Y
126. Mariashoni David Kiplangat 25 M N Y
1"127. Mariashoni Joseph Balsai 48 M N Y
128. Mariashoni Fancy Sadela 18 F N Y
129. Mariashoni Margaret Chepkorir 25 F N N
130. Mariashoni Koskei Kipkoech 22 M N Y
131. Mariashoni Julius Leleito 30 M N Y
132. Mariashoni Wilson Warring 47 M N Y
133. Mariashoni Cherotich Lilian 18 F N Y
131
134. Mariashoni Irene Bett 26 F N y
135. Mariashoni Julius Kalvin 22 M N y
136. Mariashoni James Kimutai 30 M N y
137. Mariashoni John Kobei 45 M N Y
138. Mariashoni Johana Serbai 41 M N y
139. Mariashoni James Warionga 38 M N y
140. Mariashoni Alex Kimos 24 M N y
141. Mariashoni Harrison Lesingo 30 M N y
142. Mariashoni David Ruto 26 M N y
143. Mariashoni Kerema Joseph 20 M N y
144. Mariashoni Patrick Gitagita 30 M N y
145. Mariashoni Samuel Ruto 25 M N y
146. Mariashoni Richard Misoi 28 M y y
147. Mariashoni Alex Cheruiyot 32 M N Y
148. Mariashoni Franklin Mutai 25 M N y
149. Mariashoni Julius Chemaina 25 M N y
150. Mariashoni Charles Karada 30 M N N
151. Mariashoni Cosmus Turus 21 M N y
152. Mariashoni David Langat 25 M N y
153. Mariashoni James Leshingo 38 M N y
154. Mariashoni Kiptoo Kibet 18 M N y
155. Mariashoni Kakau Tanui 25 M N y
156. Mariashoni Stephen Tangus 30 M N y
132
157. Mariashoni Vikae Chemtai 27 F N Y
158. Mariashoni Emily Chemgetich 22 F N Y
159. Mariashoni Bali Mitei 22 M N Y
160. Mariashoni Stephen Limuge 22 M N Y
161. Mariashoni Julius Kipkemboi 27 M N Y
162. Mariashoni Thomas Bett 22 M N Y
163. Mariashoni Joel Tangus 25 M N Y
164. Mariashoni Susan Kiprono 30 F N Y
165. Mariashoni Kajai Tegus 22 M N Y
166. Mariashoni Paul Langat 26 M N Y
167. Mariashoni Jane Koech 49 F N y
168. Mariashoni Robert Kibweso 45 M N Y
169. Mariashoni James Tolokwet 38 M N Y
170. Mariashoni Widon Kiprotich 18 M N y
171. Mariashoni Duncan Latuya 22 M N y
172. Mariashoni Mureme Giemdit 18 M N Y
I'
173. Mariashoni Teresa Chemtai 38 F N Y
174. Mariashoni Nicholas Chemaina 40 M N Y
175. Mariashoni Stephen Koech 20 M N Y
176. Mariashoni Samuel Langat 35 M N y
177. Mariashoni Alexander Tologwa 29 M N Y
178. Mariashoni Samuel Towett 32 M N Y
179. Mariashoni Jane Chepkemoi 35 F N Y
133
180. Mariashoni Desmond Korir 24 M N Y
181. Mariashoni Beatrice Cheptanui 45 F N y
182. Mariashoni Kipkemoi Koech 40 M N y
183. Mariashoni Kipkorir Langat 40 M N Y
184. Mariashoni Francis Salagoi 40 M N Y
185. Mariashoni Steve Lele 20 M N y
186. Mariashoni Joseph Tabitwa 23 M N y
187. Mariashoni Dagolia Langat 26 M N Y
188. Mariashoni Kapsorara Namuga 36 M N y
189. Mariashoni Geofrey Korir 24 M N Y
190. Mariashoni Olenguta Stephen 30 M N Y
191. Mariashoni Alice Chemaina 45 M N Y
192. Mariashoni Eunice Towett 23 F N Y
193. Mariashoni Samuel Kosibei 50 M N Y
194. Mariashoni James Chemaina 50 M N Y
195. Mariashoni Richard Balsaloi 50 M N Y
,-
196. Mariashoni Daniel Kipsigei 50 M N y
197. Mariashoni Mary Chepkemboi 50 F N Y
198. Mariashoni Alice Telegei 50 F N Y
199. Mariashoni Kininda Mzee 50 M N Y
200. Mariashoni James Ruto 35 M Y Y
201. Mariasoni Samuel Kipchumba 43 M N Y
202. Marishoni Jacksolo Ngurule 27 M Y N
134
203. Mariashoni John Kigoren 52 M N y
204. Mariashoni Kiplangat Terechi 55 M N Y
205. Mariashoni Stalon Womo 80 M N y
206. Mariashoni Margaret Chemtai 70 F N Y
207. Mariashoni Elizah Sitenei 68 M N Y
208. Mariashoni Josphat Tigus 55 M N y
209. Mariashoni Stephen Rono 54 M N y
210. Mariashoni Joseph Koitai 51 M N y
211. Mariashoni Samson Mureno 53 M N Y
212. Mariashoni James Balsaloi 55 M N y
213. Mariashoni Samson Chemoi 55 M N Y
214. Mariashoni Ngonoshu Johnstone 51 M N Y
215. Mariashoni Kiprono Elasto 60 M N y
216. Mariashoni Kimugen Wilfred 55 M N y
217. Mariashoni Laboso Rabii 72 M N y
218. Mariashoni Margaret Chepkoskei 51 M N y
I"
219. Mariashoni Leisiui Kildet 75 M N y
220. Mariashoni Peter Tureiya 60 M N y
221. Mariashoni Singoei Kiprotich 70 M N y
222. Misibei Selina Kaptum 36 F N N
223. Misibei Joseph Kibet 18 M N N
224. Misibei James Korir 19 M N N
135
225 . Misibei Simon Kibet 26" M N Y
226 . Misibei Lodot Kibet 19 M N Y
227. Misibei Robert Kibet 18 M Y N
228. Misibei Joseph Kosgei 18 M N Y
229. Misibei Samson Mutarakwa 32 M N N
230. Misibei Jumerio Sang 23 M N Y
231. Misibei William Munoso 45 M. N N
232. Misibei Teresia Moira 45 F N N
233. Misibei Ann Chepkemoi 40 F N N
234. Misibei Reuben Kibet 27 M N Y
235. Misibei David Lemis 30 M N Y
236. Misibei Jane Koskei 48 F N Y
237. Misibei David Samoei 25 M N N
238. Misibei Robert Regoit 32 M N Y
239. Misibei Kipkorir Kipchumba 18 M N Y
240. Misibei Baltugus Hushuf 23 M N Y
I'
241. Misibei John Miseiye 28 M N N
242. Misibei Samuel Sang 32 M Y N
243. Misibei Chirchir Leonard 27 M N N
244. Misibei Kiplangat Ranoi 26 M N N
245. Misibei Leonard Mindore 22 M N Y
246. Misibei Alex Chepkwony 20 M N Y
247. Misibei Jane Cheluto 40 F N y
136
248. Misibei Mary Chemtai 40 F N y
249. Misibei Christopher Kimisoi 22 M N y
250. Misibei Nancy Konoo 27 F y N
251. Misibei Paul Selbai 35 M N y
252. Misibei Cosmas Kiprono 23 M N y
253. Misibei Nixon Saibala 22 M N y
254. Misibei Robenson Kulgat 22 M N Y
255. Misibei Mary Chepkoech 18 F N y
256. Misibei Baltongas Moses 18 M N Y
257. Misibei Daniel Langat 20 M N y
258. Misibei Christopher Kipkones 35 M N y
259. Misibei Emily Chepkorir 18 F N y
260. Misibei Simon Kiprono 30 M N y
261. Misibei Kiplangat Moreno 20 M N y
262. Misibei Joseph Mbulgu 32 M N y
263. Misibei Stephen Saibala 25 M N y
I'
264. Misibei Samuel Langat 45 M N y
265. Misibei Joseph Letet 50 M N y
266. Misibei Tablariet Misieiyo 75 F N y
267. Misibei John Lesingo 64 M N y
268. Misibei Tapradich Cheliro 75 F N y
269. Misibei Tapsabei Kenduiyu 65 F N y
270. Misibei Esther Langat 55 F N y
137
27l. Misibei Pius Mutarakwa 70 M N N
272. Misibei Tabsabei Lugwuita 55 F N N
273. Misibei John Tania 52 M N Y
274. Misibei Musonik Korir 59 M N Y
275. Misibei Freda Tamusta 60 M N Y
276. Misibei Alice Tokomlepu 55 F N Y
277. Mutarakwa Dickrack Kimeri 20 M Y Y
278. Mutarakwa Maison Bungwo 25 M N N
279. Mutarakwa Daniel Sayaya 40 M N N
280. Mutarakwa Franco Famdastick 20 M N N
28l. Mutarakwa Hanna Baranoti 40 F N N
282. Mutarakwa Monica Chepkoech 40 F Y Y
283. Mutarakwa Monica Chepkoech 25 F N Y
284. Mutarakwa Mary Mariro 40 F N Y
285. Mutarakwa Joseph Rochuda 35 M N Y
286. Mutarakwa Monica Mariro 40 F N Y
I'
287. Mutarakwa Dondo Chesili 35 M N Y
288. Mutarakwa Samuel Rana 45 M Y N
289. Mutarakwa Ann Chebii 30 F N N
290. Mutarakwa John Lengaisha 18 M N N
29l. Mutarakwa Jecinta Cheptoo 26 F Y Y
292. Mutarakwa 'Josephat Kingara 32 M Y Y
138
293. Mutarakwa Jane Kipkemoi 42 F Y Y
294. Mutarakwa William Baranoti 50 M N N
295. Mutarakwa Jane Rubiro 50 F N Y
296. Mutarakwa Tabtai Kimoo 50 F Y Y
297. Mutarakwa Jackson Mibei 38 M Y N
298. Mutarakwa Niny Baranoti 70 F N N
299. Mutarakwa Tabutai Wambui 75 F N Y
300. Ndoswa Jonathan Bett 40 M N N
301. Ndoswa Reuben Komungei 32 M N Y
302. Ndoswa Charles Bett 27 M N N
303. Ndoswa Teta Cheparah 21 M N N
304. Ndoswa William Solubei 45 M N y
305. Ndoswa Muriot Segutwito 30 M N Y
306. Ndoswa Josephat Seguton 29 M N y
307. Ndoswa Duncan Willa 23 M N Y
308. Ndoswa Benson Chepchilat 25 M N N
~09. Ndoswa David Kipkemoi 22 M N Y
310. Ndoswa Joseph Samoei 39 M N Y
311. Ndoswa Stanley Toroigo 23 M N Y
312. Ndoswa Festus Tionyi 19 M N Y
313. Ndoswa Philip Murgor 21 M N Y
314. Ndoswa Mirita Suruberi 23 M N y
139
315. Ndoswa David Kimisoit 33 M N Y
316. Ndoswa Stephen Kibet 21 M N N
317. Ndoswa Erison Lucau 30 M N N
318. Ndoswa Isaiah Sang 22 M y y
319. Ndoswa Benjamin Korir 36 M Y Y
320. Ndoswa Joseph Marusoi 32 M N N
321. Ndoswa Harrison Koskei 45 M N N
322. Ndoswa David Rana 30 M N y
323. Ndoswa Susan Chepkoech 35 F N y
324. Ndoswa Donald Balino 26 M N Y
325. Ndoswa Wisely Sailori 20 M N y
326. Ndoswa Grace Kimaiyo 19 F y y
327. Ndoswa Reuben Ruto 25 M y y
328. Ndoswa Bili Maraenget 18 M y N
329. Ndoswa Charles Kones 35 M N N
330. Ndoswa Joseph Kirui 25 M N y
"331. Ndoswa Donald Maraiget 20 M y y
332. Ndoswa Sagli Birgen 22 F y y
333. Ndoswa Richard Saibala 24 M N y
334. Ndoswa Sara Chepkemoi 30 F N y
335. Ndoswa Tanui Simon 24 M N y
336. Ndoswa Elizabeth Sitinei 50 F N y
337. Ndoswa Harrison Naitutai 50 M N N
140
338. Ndoswa Benson Kimbai 41 M N Y
339. Ndoswa Kiprono Kinduyo 60 M N y
340. Ndoswa Harrison Sitinei 52 M N y
341. Ndoswa Tabletcho Salimo 75 F N y
342. Ndoswa Rael Chelangat 53 F N y
343. Ndoswa Kiprono Saibala 66 M N y
344. Ndoswa Tabsabi Birati 70 F Y N
345. Ndoswa Linah Tabrosoi 60 F N y
346. Ndoswa Justus Njalah 60 M N y
347. Ndoswa Elijah Kurasoi 65 M N y
348. Ndoswa Sigoerkalo 60 M N y
349. Ndoswa SimoenRana 70 M N y
350. Nessuit Daniel Cheres 32 M y y
351. Nessuit Geofrey Resingo 20 M y y
352. Nessuit Paul Leswagai 38 M N y
353. Nessuit Rachael Chepkoech 32 F N y
I"
354. Nessuit William Towett 35 M N y
355. Nessuit Stephen.Swamuti 39 M N y
356. Nessuit David Cheriro 42 M N Y
357. Nessuit Maraik Korir 32 M N y
358. Nessuit Clarkson Ruto 23 M N y
359. Nessuit Cliopus Naisura 21 M N N
360. Nessuit Langat Kiri 27 M N N
141
361. Nessuit Obigi Benson 36 M N y
362. Nessuit Patson Segi 30 M N y
363. Nessuit Benjamin Segi 37 M N Y
364. Nessuit Alice Chepkemoi 44 F N Y
365. Nessuit Joseph Mungai 35 F N y
366. Nessuit Jane Rotich 35 M N Y
367. Nessuit Jackson Kibet 18 M N Y
368. Nessuit Raphael Sitinei 23 M Y Y
369. Nessuit Stephen Serbai 23 M N y
370. Nessuit Onesmus Lechwali 25 M N y
371. Nessuit Tapkiri Cheriro 70 F N y
372. Nessuit Muchinai Kiranyat 60 M N y
373. Nessuit Simon Kiprotich 60 M N y
374. Nessuit Samuel Leswagei 57 M N y
375. Nessuit Amest Leshwagai 56 M N y
376. Nessuit Jane Leswangai 50 F N y
377. Sigawon Abraham Kibet 20 M N N
378. Sigawon David Korir 30 M y y
379. Sigawon Langat Stephen 32 M y y
380. Sigawon Nadung Giok 21 M N y
381. Sigawon Stephen Ngiria 59 M N y
382. Sigotik Stephen Wapole 35 M N y
383. Sigotik Ann Chepkemoi 27 F N N
142
384. Sigotik Stephen Lichebi 30 M Y Y
385. Sigotik Paul Towett 27 M Y Y
386. Sigotik Jackson Lichebi 33 M N Y
387. Sigotik Charles Kashule 19 M N Y
388. Sigotik Joseph.Miringa 33 M N Y
389. Sigotik Jackson Kireto 40 M N N
390. Sigotik Esther Naneyo 40 F Y Y
391. Sigotik Monica Wamo 20 F Y Y
392. Sigotik Joyce Bett 26 F N N
393. Sigotik Elick Bett 28 M N N
394. Sigotik Philip Chelule 35 M N N
395. Sigotik Chekemoi Chekurui 35 F Y N
396. Sigotik Zablon Tolu 55 M N Y
397. Sigotik Kawembe Kibitwa 55 M Y Y
398. Sigotik Elijah Koech 57 M N Y
399. Sigotik Chelule Ngiria 71 M N Y
I'
400. Sigotik Tabrado Chelule 67 F N N
401. Sigotik Beactrice Tabtai 70 F N N
402. Sururu Jimmy Papiot 60 M N Y
403. Sururu Samuel Oletinga 70 M N Y
404. Tritago Simon Konin 44 M N N
405. Tritago Agnes Konana 37 F Y N
406. Tritago Simon Cembene 24 M N y
143
407. Tritago Bernard Kibet 20 M N y
408. Tritago Joseph Taki 42 M N Y
409. Tritago Romas Mburuo 27 M N Y
410. Tritago Flora Chepkurui 22 F N N
411. Tritago Alice Chemtai 21 F Y y
412. Tritago Franklin Cheruiyot 19 M Y Y
413. Tritago Samuel Lelechwa 29 M N Y
414. Tritago Willy Salubabi 33 M N Y
415. Tritago Festus Kitoyat 18 M N y
416. Tritago Charles Mutarakwa 29 M N y
417. Tritago Joseph Lichebi 23 M N y
418. Tritago Rirunga Ringashu 60 M N y
419. Tritago Sabalel Ringashu 70 M N y
420. Tritago Silbabi Oleibon 70 M N y
421. Tuyabei Livingstone ngiria 47 M N y
,.
PERSONS WITHOUT KNOWLEDGE OF MEDICINAL PLANT
SINO VILLAGE NAMEOFRESP AGE GENDER CON HARV.T
1. Kimundo Susan Chepkemoi 20 F N N
2. Kimundo Alice Chelucheruto 30 F N N
3. Kimundo Margaret Chepkorir 22 F N N
4. Mariashoni Wilson Kiprotich 51 M N N
5. Mariashoni Bernard Koech 27 M N N
6. Ndoswa Rosaline Chebet 22 F N N
144
KEY
CON: Conservation status
HARV. T: Hervesting techniques
RESP: Respondent
145
APPENDIX 3
RELATIVE ABUNDANCE OF THE MEDICINAL PLANTS BASED ON
SPECIES IN THE 50 QUADRATS OF EACH STATION
Station A: Near Nessuit Shopping Centre
PLANT FRACTION R. ABUNDANCE
Hypoestis forskalii 49/50 0.98
Asparagus racemosus 46/50 0.92
Dombeya torrida 46/50 0.92
Rhus natalensis 45/50 0.90
Cyathula uncinulata 45/50 0.90
Microglossa densiflora 45/50 0.90
Urera hypoclodendron 42/50 0.84
May tenus heterophylla 37/50 0.74
Dovyalis abyssinica 35/50 0.70
Periploca linearifolia 35/50 0.70
Scutia myrtina 33/50 0.66
I'
Rhamnus prinoides 30/50 0.60
Toddalia asiatica 29/50 0.58
Galium aparinoides 29/50 0.58
Senecio syringifolius 27/50 0.54
Rubus pinnatus 26/50 0.52
Achyranthus aspera 26/50 0.52
146
Vernonia brachycalyx 23/S0 0.46
Vernonia lasiopus 21/S0 0.42
Stephania abyssinica 20/S0 0.40
Momordica friessiorum 20/S0 0.40
Kalanchoe densiflora 20/S0 0.40
Solanum indicum 19/50 0.38
Clematis simensis 18/S0 0.36
Olea capensis 17/S0 0.34
Olea europaea IS/SO 0.30
May tenus undata IS/SO 0.30
Clutia robusta 14/S0 0.28
Clematis braciata 14/S0 0.28
Vernonia auricurifera 111S0 0.22
Leonotis nepetifolia 11/S0 0.22
Ekebergia capensis 10/S0 0.20
Schejjlera volkensii 8/S0 0.16
Senecio hadiensis 8/S0 0.16
Tagetes minnuta 6/S0 0.12
Leonotis ocymifolia 6/S0 0.12
Rapaena melanophloeos 6/S0 0.12
Solanum nigrum S/SO 0.10
Cassipourea malosana S/SO 0.10
147
Rumex bequaertii 5/50 0.10
Crotalaria agatiflora 4/50 0.08
Rhamnus staddo 4/50 0.08
Prunus africana 4/50 0.08
Conyza bonariensis 4/50 0.08
Urtica massaica 4/50 0.08
Cupressus sp 3/50 0.06
Apodytes dimidata 3/50 0.06
Ficus thonningii 3/50 0.06
Satureia biflora 3/50 0.06
Juniperus procera 2/50 0.04
Allophyllus abyssinica 2/50 0.04
Rubia cordifolia 2/50 0.04
Gomphocarpus physocarpus 1150 0.02
Vangueria acutiloba 1150 .' 0.02
Solanum aculeastrum 1/50 0.02
Plectranthus barbatus 1150 0.02
Sida massaica 2/50 0.02
Helichrysum schimperi 1/50 0.02
Datura stramonium 1150 0.02
Bidens pilosa 1/50 0.02
148
Station B: Near Mariashoni Shopping Centre
PLANT FRACTION R-ABUNDANCE
Dombeya torrida 42/50 0.84
May tenus heterophylla 41/50 0.82
Asparagus racemosus 39/50 0.78
Galium aparinoides 39/50 0.78
Rapaena melanophloeos 39/50 0.78
Cyphostema nodiglandulosa 38/50 0.76
Hypoestis sp 37/50 0.74
Kalanchoe densiflora 37/50 0.74
Olea europaea 37/50 0.74
Rhamnus staddo 36/50 0.72
Stephania abyssinica 34/50 0.68
Clematis simensis 34/50 0.68
Conyza bonariensis 32/50 0.64
I'
May tenus undata 31/50 0.62
Clutia robusta 30/50 0.60
Vernonia brachycalyx 29/50 0.58
Cyathula uncinulata 29/50 0.58
Microglossadensiflora 28/50 0.56
Dovyalis abyssinica 27/50 0.54
149
Scutia myrtina 26/50 0.52
Solanum anguivi 22/50 0.44
Vernonia auricurifera 22/50 0.44
Plectranthus syvestris 20/50 0040
Leonotis nepetifolia 20/50 0.40
Rubus pinnatus 19/50 0.38
Podocarpus latifolius 15/50 0.30
Rhus natalensis 14/50 0.28
Jasminum abyssinica 14/50 0.28
Vernonia lasiopus 13/50 0.26
Solanum aculeastrum 11/50 0.22
Momordica friessiorum 11/50 0.22
Achyranthus aspera 10/50 0.20
Periploca linearifolia 10/50 0.20
Laggera elatior 9/50 0.18
Senecio syringifolius 9/50 0.18
Gomphocarpus physocarpus 8/50 0.16
Ekebergia capensis 7/50 0.14
Solanecio mannii 7/50 0.14
Urtica massaica 6/50 0.12
Olea capensis 5/50 0.10
Helichrysum schimperi 5/50 0.10
150
Rumex bequaertii 3/50 0.06
Juniperus procera 3/50 0.06
Toddalia asiatica 3/50 0.06
Tagetes minnuta 2/50 0.04
Crotalaria agatiflora 2/50 0.04
SchefJlera volkensii 2/50 0.04
Urera hypoclodendron 2/50 0.04
Prunus africana 2/50 0.04
Bidens pilosa 2/50 0.04
Apodytes dimidata 1/50 0.02
Fuerstia africana 1/50 0.02
Acacia mernsii 1/50 0.02
Senna didymobotrya 1/50 0.02
Solanum nigrum 1/50 0.02
Cupressus torulosa 1/50 0.02
151
APPENDIX4
SIMILARITY OF PLANT NAMES BETWEEN THE OGIEK, KIPSIGIS AND
MAASAI
Sino Plant name Ogiek name Kipsigis name Maasai name
1 Vernonia brachcalyx Kwamiririet Kwambereryet
2 Rapanea melonophloeos Kwarabariat Kwaraariat
3 Syzigium guineense Lemeiwet Lemeiywet
4 Cyathula uncinulata Mutumiat Ng'atumia
5 Myrsine africana Segetik Segetyet Ol-segetit
6 Trichocladus ellipticus Belegiyat Parageiyuet Ol-bulegelugi
7 Clematis braciata Bisinta/Bisinda Bisingwet
8 Clematis sinensis Bisinta/Bisinda Bisinda
9 Indigofera arrecta Midoiywet Minteiyuet
10 Fuestia africana Birirwet Pirirwo-sotIBrirwob-sot
11 Clutia rubusta KIlbanyat Kurbanyat
12 Prunus africana Tenetwet Tenduet
13 Senna didymobotrya Senetwet Senetwet Ol-senetoi
14 Teclea nobilis Kuriot Kurisyot
15 Teclea simplicifolia Kuriot Kurisyot
16 Datura strumonium Swimogong Chenogong
17 Periploca linearifolia Senedit Senedit Osinendei
18 Rhus natalensis Sirondit Sirodet
19 Aloe secundiflora Tangaratwet Tangaratwet
20 Arundinaria alpina Taget Terga
21 Rhamnus stadso Gongoroit Kosisitot
22 Polyscias kikuyense Oonet Aunet
23 Phytolaca dodecandra Batkawet Batkanet/Batkawet
24 Hagenia abyssinica Pondet Bodet
25 ,- Leonotis nepetifolia Musiptiet Chemosibit
26 Toddalia asiatica Chebindoruet Chepindoruit
27 Plectranthus barbatus Moronget Maronget
28 Olea europaea ssp. Giedit Emitiot
africana
29 Dovyalis abyssinica Nukiat Mukiat
30 Warburgia ugandensis Soget Soget Ol-sogunui
31 Dombeya torrida Silibuit Silibwet Ol-subukiyai
32 Tarchonanthus Lelechwet Lelechwet Olleleshwa
comphoratus
33 . Sida massaica Olninit Ol-oinini
34 Solanum incanum Ndureliot Endulelei
152
APPENDIX 5
QUESTIONNAIRE
Questionnaire administered to collect raw data on Medicinal plants in East Mau Forest,
as part of my Master of Science Degree course at Kenyatta University. The information
you give will benefit you and the generations to come, because your people will have a
permanent record of your medicinal plants knowledge. The information will be treated
confidentially. I am therefore requesting you to fill this questionnaire as fully as possible.
Name Address .
Sex Age Village Date .
1. Do you use any plants for treatment of diseases? Yes/ No.
If yes, which plants and for what ailments?
Plant s local Botanical Part used Ailment Mode of
name name preparation
a
b I'
C
d
e
f
g
h
1
J
k
153
I
m
n
m
0
p
q
r
s
t
u
v
w
2. Of the plants mentioned above, which ones are easy to find around here (within 10Km
radius)
a) b)
c) d)
e)
3. Of the plants mentioned in (1) above, which ones offer a complete cure? .
which ones offer just a temporary relief? -----------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------I'
4. Are there conservation techniques practices for the rare plants? Yes/ No. If the answer
is yes, mention the plant and how it is being conserved .
5. Are there people in your community who are herbalists? Yes/ No.
6. Is there any family/clan in your community with monopoly of medicinal plant
knowledge? Yes/ No.
7. How is the medicinal plant knowledge passed on? .
8. Are there plants used as a medicine for livestock?
154
9. In your opinion, do you think the present younger generations have more or less
knowledge of herbal plants as compared to their fore-fathers? Yes/ No. If yes, give
reason(s) .
Ifno, give reason(s) .
10. In your opinion, what factors have lead to the reduced/increased reliance on
medicinal plants? .
How do you think this trend can be reversed? .
11. Can you distinguish between a herbalist and a witch. doctor in your community?
Yes/ No. Give details .
12. Are there more people now depending on modem medicine than before? Yes/ No.
If yes, Why? .
If no, why not .
13. In your opinion, how would people be assisted/ encouraged in order to conserve the
remaining medicinal plants? .
14. If medicinal plant seedlings were being distributed to people, would you be interested
in planting some? Yes/ No. If yes, which species and why? .
If no, why not? : .
15. Are there more people using medicinal plants at present for treatment of various
diseases than before? Yes/ No.
If yes, give reasons .
Ifno, give reasons .
16. Are there any organizations distributing medicinal plant seedlings in your area?
YeslNo
If-yes, who are they and which plants .
17. Through meetings such as chiefs barazas, are people educated on the importance of
medicinal plants? Yes/ No. If yes, who are the resources persons? .
18. Are there plants you know which are eaten as food, yet they are medicinal? Yes/ No.
If yes, which ones? .
19. Why do you seek modem remedies even when you have knowledge of medicinal
plants cures? .
20. Is the reliance on medicinal plants use declining? Yes/ No. If yes, give
reasons .
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Ifno, give reasons .
21. Are there medicinal plants that are destroyed by the harvesting techniques, such as
debarking and removal of roots? Yes/ No.
If yes, which medicinal plants are the most vulnerable? .
If no, what precautions do you take in the harvesting of these plants? .
22. Do you have any cultural beliefs about plants generally? Yes/ No
If yes, what are these cultural beliefs? .