KENYATTA UNIVERSITY
SCHOOL OF HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES
DEPARTMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY
. PSYCHOSOCIAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL ABUSE ON THE SPOUSAL
RELATIONSHIP IN AINAMOI DIVISION, KERICHO COUNTY, KENYA
BY
MUTAI C. GLADYS (BED)
C50/CE'11339/08
A RESEARCH PROJECT SUBMITTED TO THE SCHOOL OF HUMA...~ITIES
AND SOCIAL SCIENCES IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF REQUIREMENTS
FOR AWARD OJ?THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS (COUNSELLING
PSYCHOLOGy) OF K}~NYATTA UNIVERSIT
APRJ:L 2014
K NYATTAUN\V
AKURU CA P
,.,
DECLARATION
This research report is my original work and to the best of my knowledge has not
been presented for the award of a degree in any university .
Signature ...~~ .
....~.?.1. ~ . .1.~?'.t .Date
Mutai C Gladys, BED
C501CEI11339/2008
This research report has been submitted with our approval -as University~~--" ....~#;~~NTOF-P~~
1:" «l 'YO '
.y~~ P ~B ~ . \
Signature .~ ..~ ..~ 1r.-: Date: r~1'~f~"~~"0':))\:y ~* Date ... '_" ..
~. 7'.t- ~ *#.~" "-'1\1 >': ,~ ~(j.,i£
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Supervisors.
Dr. Christine Wasanga
Department of Psychology
Dr. Merecia Sirera
Kenyatta University. \" .
Signature
Department of Psychology
Kenyatta University
11
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I want to the thank God for affording me the opportunity to undertake the studies.
To him be glory forever and ever.
I would like to thank my supervisors Dr Christine Wasanga and Dr Merecia Sirera- -
who tirelessly directed, guided and provided support during my research. The
interaction with them since the inception of this project made me learn a lot of
things that were useful in this study.
I am grateful to my family for both the moral and emotional support. This study
would net have been possible without the patience and understanding of my
loving husband, Raymond Bett for his entire support and encouragement at every
stage of this study. I cannot forget my children Ian, Brian and Chelsea who
missed my company and denied themselves other needs while I undertook my
studies.
I also thank the principal and staff of Chelilis Secondary for their support. Special
recognition is due in respect to the Medical Superitendant and staff of Kapkatet
hospital for allowing me to carry out my practicum in Kapkatet Hospital. Their
support was very helpful for it allowed me to put into practice what I had learnt in
class
My gratitude also goes to all who participated in this research. Their frank
responses made this research successful. May God bless you.
11l
ABSTRACT
Alcohol abuse has become rampant in the society. Despite prevalence of alcohol
abuse, few studies have been done on effect of alcohol abuse on the non drinking
spouse. Most past studies on effect on alcohol abuse on spousal relationship have
focused on the role of spouse on facilitating or curtailing alcohol abuse of their
spouses. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of alcohol abuse
in the spousal relationship. It specifically sought to establish its impact on the
non-alcoholic spouse. The study was carried out in Ainamoi Division, Kericho
County. The theoretical framework guiding the study is Bowen's Family Systems
Theory. Family Systems Theory developed by Murray Bowen ( 1966) highlights
the importance of functional roles and emotional relationships among family
members and the reciprocal interactions in the context of family process. The
theory emphasizes family organization and the need for balance or homeostasis.
To realize the purpose of the study a descriptive survey design was used and data
,MRScollected through questionnaires, intervip.ws and for.lIsed grollp disClIssion
The target populations were people whose spouses' abuse alcohol and were
selected using stratified .and snowballing sampling procedures. The division was
stratified into urban and rural so as to ensure comprehensive coverage of the area.
Snowballing sampling was used to identify participants who led the researchers to
others. A sample population of 144 respondents was used. Descriptive statistics
was used to analyze quantitative data with the help of the Statistical Packages for
Social Science (SPSS). The qualitative data was summarized into themes in line
with the study objectives and thematic analysis done. The research found out that
alcohol abuse affects the psychosocial well-being of the non-drinking spouse, for
instance: it causes anger, bitterness, resentment, anxiety and stress which affect
the spousal relationship. The results also showed that there are many challenges
that spouses face when their spouse abuses alcohol for example it affects
communication, finances, intimacy, lack of trust, development etc and as a result
affect the spousal relationship. The research recommends that there is need to
sensitize non-drinking spouses on the psychosocial effects of alcohol abuse on the
spousal relationship. There is also need for establishment of counseling centers in
more places in order the address the alcohol problem. This will assist non-
alcoholic spouses to cope with alcohol abuse in a more effective way.
IV
-TABLE OF CONTENTS
DECLARATION .ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .iii
ABSTRACT iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS v
LIST OF FIGURES vi
ABBREVIATIONS &ACRONYMS ;· ~ · vii
DEFINITION OF TERMS .ix
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background to the study I
1.2 Statement of the problem 6
1.3 Purpose of he study.... 7
1.4 Objectives of the study , ~
1.5 Research questions , 8
1.6 Justification and Significance 9
1. 7Scope, and Limitations 10
1.8Assumptions of the study 10
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction 11
2.2 Theoretical Framework 11
2.3 Review of related Literature , 13
2.4 Summary of related literature and theoretical framework 23
2.4 Conceptual Framework 25
v
CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.0 Introduction ; 26
3.1 Research design : 26
3.2 Research area 26
3.3 Target Population 27
3.4 Sampling and sampling technique 27
3.5 Research instruments .28
3.6 Validity& Reliability of instruments 29
3.7 Piloting 29
3.8 Data collection procedure 29
3.9 Data analysis 30
3.10 Ethical considerations 31
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.1 Introduction 32
4.2 Demographic characteristics 32
4.3 Discussion offindings 39
4.3.1 Effects of alcohol abuse on performance of social roles 39
4.3.2 Alcohol related challenges .46
4.3.3 Effect of alcohol on marital relationship 50
4.3.4 Effect of alcohol on psychological wellbeing 54
4.3.5 Coping strategies. 56
4.3.5 Intervention measures 58
CHAPTER FIVE:
RECOMMENDATION
5.1 Introduction 60
5.2 summary and conclusion 62
5.3 Conclusion 64
5.4 Recommendations 65
Reference: ~ 66
SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND
VI
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.5- Conceptual framework ~ 25
~., .
Vll
LIST 0 F TABLES
Table 4.1 Gender or respondents 31
Table 4.2 Age of respondents : 32
Table 4.3 length of marriage , 33
Table 4.4 highest educational level. 34
Table 4.5 Frequency of alcohol use 35
Table4.6 Years of spouse use of alcohol 36
Table 4.7 Effects of alcohol abuse on social roles 37
Table 4.8 Male respondents' view on effects of alcohol abuse on social roles .40
Table 4.9 Person who performs roles .41
Table 4.10 Chi-square tests for effect of alcohol abuse .42
Table 4.11 Symmetric measures 43
Table 4.12 Effect on Marital Relationship .44
Table 4.13 Alcohol related challenges .48
Table 4.14 Male respondents' view on alcohol related challenges .49
Table 4.15 Aggressive behavior. 50
Table 4.16 Male respondents' view on aggressive behavior.. . . . 51
Table 4.17 Effect on psychological wellbeing 53
Table 4.18 Coping strategies 54
Table 4.19 Intervention measures 55
Vlll
- ABBREVIA TIO S A 0 ACRO VMS
SAAMHSA Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration
WHO World Health Organization
COAs Children of Alcoholics
NACADA ational Campaign against Drug and Substance Abuse
IX
DEFINITION OF TERMS
Alcoholism: is a condition in which a person is unable to control the use of
alcohol despite the negative consequences of drinking. It
involves use of alcoholic beverages that causes any damage to
the individual or society.
Psychosocial effects: Is a combination of psychological and social factors
responsible for the well being of people.
Coping Mechanisms: are strategies used in adaptation in order to minimize the
effects of alcoholism.
Gender : refers to the socially constructed roles, b haviour, acti vities 3T:G
attribute that a particular society considers appropriate for men
and women.
Non-alcoholic spouse: is a husband or wife who does not use alcohol
Challenges: are problems
x
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the Problem
The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that there are about 2 billion
(33%) people worldwide who consume alcoholic beverages and 76.3 million with
diagnosable alcohol use disorders (WHO, 2004) making alcohol the most widely
used and abused substance world over (Basangwa et a!., 2006). The widespread
use of alcohol is fuelled by ease of its production process (i.e., a plain process of
fermentation achieved by yeast acting on sugar) and multiple daily usages for
recreation, curative and religious purposes (Basangwa et a!., 2006). Because of its
easy production, its wide use causes many effects ranging from physical, health,
economic and social making its prevention and control a public health priority.
In Kenya recent community studies (NACADA, 2007) indicate significant alcohol
consumption. The NACADA (2007) countrywide survey indicated a current
usage of alcohol (i.e., consumption in the last 30 days) among persons aged 15-65
years (n = 3,356) to be 14.2% with male consumption being 22.9% and female
consumption being 5.9%. Other rates of consumption were: rural- 13.0%, urban-:
17.7%; legal/packaged alcohol - 9.1%, traditional liquor - 5.5% and chang'aa2 -
3.8%. Disaggregating by province, the lowest use was found in North Eastern (0
%) and Western provinces (6.8%) while the other six provinces were comparable
with a range of 13% - 19% (i.e., Rift Valley - 12.5%, Eastern - 14.8%, Nyanza-
17.0%, Central- 17.7%, Coast - 18.6%, Nairobi - 18.6%). These statistics show
1
that Alcohol is widely used in the country and therefore the effects mentioned in
other countries are also felt.
Psychosocial effects are a combination of psychological and social factors
responsible for the well being of people. The term directs attention towards
totality of people's experience and emphasizes the need to view psychological
aspects of health and wellbeing within the interpersonal contexts of the wider
family and community networks in which they are located (Silverstain, 1990).
This means looking at an individual's behavior and how it affects the people
he/she interacts with in the family, work place and society at large. Social effects
of alcohol include drunken driving, crime, violence, rape, accidents, lost
productivity etc. These effects turn psychological when it causes stress, fights,
quarrels, anger, isolation, depression, anxiety, shame etc.
Studies indicate that intoxication is the most common cause of alcohol-related
problems, leading to injuries and premature deaths (Basangwa et ai., 2006) thus
affecting their families. A dead husband, father, wife or mother is a high cost to the
family. It means death of a breadwinner, a role model and a parent which may result
in children dropping out of school due to lack of basic needs like food, shelter or fees.
According to WHO (2002, 2004), alcohol causes 1.8 million deaths (3.2% of
total) one third (600,000) of which result from unintentional injuries. It also
causes a loss of 58.3 million (4% of total) of Disability-Adjusted Life Years
(DAL Y) of which 40%, are due to neuro-psychiatric conditions. Neuro-
psychiatric conditions impacts on the family in two ways: first, it leads to
2
economic difficulties since the resources of the family are directed to treating the
problem. A psychiatric parent will be taken to hospital and this will drain the
family finances; secondly, roles of the sick person will have to be taken over by
the spouse which may lead to emotional problems like stress, depression etc.
In Australia, a research done by the Government of Australia shows alcohol
intoxication is responsible for 30% of road accidents, 44% of fire injuries, 34% of
falls and drowning, 16% of child abuse cases, 12% of suicides, 10% of industrial
accidents and 67% of the years of life lost from drinking (Government of South
Australia, 2010). These injuries and accidents drain family resources. It also
affects the people who need to take care of the injured and in this case the family
members. The research also shows that alcohol leads to criminal behaviour - in
Australia over 70% of prisoners convicted of violent assaults have drunk alcohol
before committing the offence and more than 40% of domestic violence incidents
involve alcohol (Health Department of Western Australia, 1998). Life
imprisonment moves responsibility from two spouses to one spouse because as
the convicted spouse serves his/her term in prison the remaining spouse takes over
responsibility of the absent spouse. Court fines also drain the family resources
that would have been used to provide for the family causing resentments and
quarrels. These statistics show that alcohol affects the country adversely in terms
of deaths, accidents and crime; and as the country loses so is the family.
Disability, life imprisonment or court fines and deaths does not only impact on the
. country but also family resources, roles and responsibilities and could affect the
family relationships.
3
The United States has not also been spared the alcohol menace. In the United
States, alcohol and drug abuse by employees is estimated to contribute to
company loss of $100 billion a year (Buddy, 2003). This is as a result of loss of
work productivity through absenteeism, lateness or leaving early, feeling sick at
work, having problems with job tasks, accidents, and damage to co-worker and
customer relations (Blum, Roman and Martin, 1993). This effect of alcohol on
work productivity could lead to loss of jobs which have a direct effect on the
family. Loss of job means that the family will not have a source of income and
lack of income results in failure to meet daily needs as a result there will be so
many blames, quarrels and fights.
The relationship between marnage and alcohol abuse has been the topic of
numerous studies over the past three decades. These studies reveal that alcohol
abuse affects millions of families either directly or indirectly, and the abuse of
legal substances is a prominent concern for public health officials throughout the
world (Corroa, et aI., 2000; WHO, 2004). According to the 2004 National Survey
on Drug Use and Health (SAMHSA , 2005), of the 3.8 million persons who
received treatment in the U.S. for alcohol or drugs in the past year, more than half
(2.4 million) were treated for alcohol abuse (Grant, Stinson, Dawson, Compton,
2004).Mac Gee 2009 summarized the effects of alcohol dependence on families
and loved ones as: high rates of divorce, separation, marital strive, wife abuse,
and child neglect and abuse (Me Gee, 2009).From these effects it is obvious that
the family relationship is affected and when the relationship suffers so is
4
communication. Before a separation or divorce there are many things that take
place and family members suffer in different ways. These problems are as a result
of conflict as a result of alcohol abuse and it obviously affects the families
concerned.
Many studies that have been done in Kenya reveal devastating effects of alcohol
abuse on the family. In a research by the Kenya Medical Research Institute,
alcohol abuse is shown to affect 70 percent of families in Kenya (Barasa, 2006)
and although it shows that the family is affected little is known on how the spouse
of the alcohol addict is affected. Research done on the effects of alcohol use on
gender roles by Kathungu, Wasanga, Sirera and Karega (2011) in , Embu, and
Busia, Kenya revealed that alcohol affects traditional gender roles which are still
very prevalent in the communities under study. Although the study shows that
there is clear effect on the roles it does not reveal how this affects the spouse who
takes over the responsibilities of the alcoholic spouse.
Alcohol use has also led to so many deaths in Kenya. In the year 2010 alone, the
cases of large number of people dying out of a single episode of drinking
poisonous illicit liquor have occurred in Shauri Moyo and Laikipia, Kenya
(Mureithi, 2002). Other most conspicuous cases include the use of kumi kumi in
November 2000 which resulted in 140 deaths and lose of sight among some users
in poor Nairobi neighborhoods (Mukuru kwa Njenga and Mukuru Kaiyaba);
(WHO, 2004). Similar incidents have also been in Muranga (Muthithi and Kabati
areas), Naivasha and Machakos, Kenya (Mureithi, 2002). The hazardous drinking
5
behavior and deaths must be causing emotional, physical, mental, financial effects
on the families affected. This may leave a family with responsibilities they were
not prepared for. In such situation the spouses may be affected from extra
responsibilities they carry to provide for the family.
Ainamoi Division is like anywhere in the world when it comes to alcohol use with
many people abusing alcohol. For this reason Ainamoi division, Kericho County,
Kenya could be facing threats of alcohol related challenges like other parts.
However, little research had been carried out to determine the effects of alcohol
abuse in the division and specifically in the family. It is due to these reasons that
this research was undertaken to assess the impact of alcohol abuse in the family.
1.2 Statement of the Problem
Although effects of alcohol on the institution of the family have been widely
researched, few studies have focused on the effects of alcohol on the spouse.
Many studies that have been done on the effects of a~cohol show that alcohol
addiction has adverse effects on the user and family. This is evident in many of
the studies given below: A study done in Nandi, Rift Valley Province by Birech
(2006) found that alcohol abuse has affected marriage stability and emotional
wellbeing of the children. They concluded that in many households alcohol
generates socio-economic problems; however, the study did not show how the
socio-economic problems affect the spouses.
6
Another study by Miswazeddie and Bowen (2011) conducted in Kangemi
Informal settlement; Kenya shows that the impact of alcohol in the family is
devastating. Close family members reported a number of problems which include:
domestic violence, divorce, lack of communication, confusion, and involvement
with the police (Miswazeddie, and Bowen, 2011). However, though it reveals so
many problems it did not show how these problems affect the spouse. Another
study undertaken in Kalawani location, Mbooni district in 2007 Eastern province
in Kenya revealed that Alcohol Abuse has led to domestic violence, poverty and
death (Katee, 2007). This information is supported by a study done by Atetwe
(20 II) in Luanda, Kenya showing that there is a significant relationship between
drug abuse and domestic violence with alcohol and bhang having the strongest
relationship.
While there is increasing information regarding the effects of alcohol on health
and on marriage as suggested above there were still gaps on the effects of alcohol
on the wellbeing of the spouse and on rural areas. Studies that have focused on
the spousal relationships have generally examined the role of the spouse in
facilitating or curtailing the partner's drinking and not on how they are affected
by alcoholism. The current study was aimed at understanding how the non
alcoholic spouse is affected and the challenges they go through as a result of the
drinking habit of the spouse. Specifically the study was aimed at filling the gap
on the psychosocial effects of alcoholism on the non alcoholic spouse in the rural
areas.
7
1.3 Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to explore the psychosocial effects of alcohol
abuse on the non-alcoholic spouse in Ainamoi Division, Kericho County, Kenya
1.4 Objectives of the Study
Specifically the study sought:
1. To find out how alcohol abuse affect performance of social roles in the
family in Ainamoi, Division; Kericho County
11. To establish alcohol related challenges III a marital relationship III
Ainamoi, Division; Kericho County
111. To establish effect of alcohol abuse on the psychological wellbeing of the
non-alcoholic spouse in Ainamoi, Division; Kericho County.
IV. To find out the coping strategies employed by non-drinking spouses in
Ainamoi, Division; Kericho County.
v. To establish what intervention measures can be put III place to help
spouses cope with alcohol abuse.
':,> •.••
oil. 'f' " #' .~
1.5 Research Questions
The following research questions guided the study
1. What is the effect of alcohol abuse on performance of social roles?
11. What are the challenges faced by the non-alcoholic spouse in a marital
relationship with alcohol abuse?
111. What effect does alcohol abuse have on the non-alcoholic spouse
psychological wellbeing?
8
IV. What mechanisms do non-alcoholic spouses use to cope with alcohol
abuse by their spouse?
v. What intervention measures need to be put In place to help the non-
drinking spouses cope with alcohol abuse?
1.6 Justification and Significance of the Study
Since studies show that alcoholism does not only affect the drinker but all of the
drinker's relationships, then there was need to determine how it affected their
spouses so that interventions could be put in place that would help spouses to
deal with or cope with alcohol abuse. It is only through research where we could
establi h empi ical information that could be used to devise methods to assist
spouses affected by alcohol abuse. This information would help hold families
together since the spouse would be helped to deal with the effects of alcohol and
to put up with it in a more healthy way. When spouses are helped through
counselling the family will be saved and without this help many families may
break because of the devastating alcohol effects.
The findings of the study are important and relevant to counselors who work with
alcoholics since the support of the spouse is important for a full recovery to be
made. The findings are also important for rehabilitation centers to design more
effective programmes that include the family to increase success in rehabilitation
by reducing relapses. The findings are helpful for it may give an opportunity for
the formation of support groups similar to Al-non that will help the affected
people in the rural areas. The findings are also beneficial to government agencies
such as NACADA. The study was also intended to contribute to and enrich the
9
current documentation of local research studies on the influence of alcohol abuse
in the family. Lastly it will inspire more research work into this field.
1.8 Scope and Limitations of the Study
This study was mainly concerned withpsychological and social effects of.alcohol
abuse on the spouses in Ainamoi Division, Kericho County. The variables looked
at was psychological and social. It did not look at physical, biological and health
effects of alcohol. It also did not look at the effects of alcohol abuse on other
people like the user and the children. Alcoholism was the only area taken up for
this study and not any other substance abuse. Findings from this study can be
generalized to other areas with caution because the situation in other places may
not be similar to what happens in Ainamoi Division.
1.7 Assumptions of the Study
The assumptions of the study included:
• Alcohol abuse was causing psychosocial effects in Ainamoi division.
. .'
• That alcohol abuse affects marital relationship.
• That the participants would be willing to reveal their true personal
experiences without feeling intimidated by the very nature of the subject
of inquiry.
10
CHAPTER TWO
LITERA TURE REVIEW
2.0 Introduction
This research was aimed at exploring the psychosocial effects of alcoholism on
the non-drinking spouse with an intention of finding interventions.of.helping them
deal with or cope with alcoholism in their families. This chapter presents the
theory guiding the research, review of literature by different scholars and
researchers and their relevance to the study and the conceptual framework guiding
the study.
2.1 Theoretical Framework
This research was guided by family systems theory by Murray Bowen (1966)
The key tenet in this theory is a family is a system. Every system is made up of
component parts that are linked together in a particular way to accomplish a
common purpose (Wegscheider, 1984). In a family the components are the
members. All the component members are linked together by unwritten family
rules. The family rules reveal the family values, help set up family roles
consistent with these values. These rules determine the functions of each person,
the relationship between persons, the goals toward which they are all heading, .
how they intend to get there, and what will be required and forbidden along the
way (Wegscheider, 1984). However, alcoholism is likely to make family
members violate the family rules. For example, an alcoholic family member may
fail to observe some family rules by using family resources for alcohol at the
expense of other needs which will interfere with these rules. This theory informed
I 1
research as it addressed the family responsibilities that families come together to
accomplish. Family systems theory highlights the importance of the functional
roles and emotional relationships among family members and their reciprocal
interactions in the context of family process (Kerr & Bowen, 1988). This means
''';.- .,," "- ,,_ that when ·onec of'fhe spouses fails .In .their .social roles then the ..emotional,
relationship is affected and once the relationship is affected so is communication.
What makes life frustrating is the tendency for a person's needs to polarize
him/her (Nicholz, 2006). In a family where a member is alcoholic the need to
meet the need for alcohol may affect all the needs of the family.
In addition, the family systems perspective emphasizes family organization and
the need for balance or homeostasis. Homeostasis is the family's self regulating
efforts to maintain stability and accept change (Nicholz, 2006). A well
functioning family is resilient and able to achieve change without forfeiting long
term stability. In a family where a person is alcoholic, homeostasis may not be
achieved because alcohol becomes an organizing principle, for example, when the
person directs all resources to alcohol. Family systems theory argues that an
identified patients symptoms often have a stabilizing influence on the family. In a
family with an addict, the person is the identified patient and the other family
members are hidden patients.
12
2.2 Review of Related Literature
The literature was reviewed and their implication to the research was discussed.
2.2.1 Effects of Alcoholism on Gender Roles
Gender refers to the socially constructed roles, behaviour, activities and attributes
,that a particular society considers appropriate for men and women (Tanya, 2012).
This means that there are some behaviors and roles deemed appropriate for both
male and females for example males should dig, provide security and discipline
boys while females should cook, clean the horne, take care of the children and
train girls (Kathungu, Wasanga, Sirera and Karega, 2011(unpublished). These
roles when they are accomplished help to ensure provision for the family leading
to improving their living standards and keep the family together (Kathungu et al
2011). Failure in one spouse to accomplish his/her role may lead to fights for the
spouse will feel overwhelmed by the responsibilities they have been forced to take
over. In an alcoholic family literature review reveals that drinking can impair
performance as a parent, spouse or partner, and as a contributor to household
function (Doweko, 2002 ).
Family members take on new roles as the addicted person gives up the power and
responsibility that he would normally exercise within the family (Doweko, 2002).
To start with, Alcohol abuse makes a spouse unable to carry out everyday
household responsibilities e.g. cleaning, cooking, taking care of the children etc.
Research carried out by Kathungu, Wasanga, Sirera and Karega in
2011 (Unpublished) on the effects of alcohol use on gender roles revealed that
13
alcohol affects traditional gender roles which: are still very ..prevalent 111 the
communities under study with ideas that men should be authoritative, courageous,
aggressive and strong while women should be faithful, submissive and motherly.
The study also found out that 51% wives of spouses who abuse alcohol shoulder
the responsibilities of their spouses (Kathungu et aI, 2,0.11). ThisInformation ....
reveals that it is important to have empirical information on the psychosocial
effects of carrying extra responsibilities of the drinking spouse.
The non alcoholic spouse takes over responsibility of playing the father and
mother, breadwinner and homemaker; and as a result they may deteriorate
physically and enjoy little fun or relief thus feels very tired (Tanya, 2012). The
non-alcoholic parent, who is subjected to, and controlled by, the inconsistent
nature of the alcoholic, may be so engrossed in trying to fulfill two roles, that he
or she or she is unable to fulfill one role adequately and consistently (Ackerman,
1991). As a result the non-alcoholic parent may be inconsistent, demanding, and
often neglect the children (Leonard & Mudar, 2003). Children may become
problematic and the non-alcoholic spouse maybe the one trying to solve these
problems by disciplining and correcting them which could lead to stress.
The above studies reveal that children are affected very much in a family where
the parent(s) is alcoholic - their social life, their health, and self esteem is
affected- and as the children suffer so is the spouse. That is why it is important to
have empirical studies on how alcoholism affect the spouses as they try to balance
between all the roles of providing for the family and being a parent. A study
14
carried out in Kaplamai location, Nandi? Kenya by Birech, (2006) 'established that
marriage stability and emotional well-being of the children have been adversely
affected. 57.3% of the spouses complained about their husbands drinking habits .
. The economic consequences of chronic alcohol use are shown to be devastating
and can seriously hinder any sense .of development (Rockville, 2004). Money
being used for alcohol takes away from the family and everyday expenses, which
may cause bills to go unpaid. In a study of alcohol use by Molamu & MacDonald
(1996) among the Basarwa of the Kgalagadi and Ghanzi districts in Botswana,
informants stated that since a significant proportion of household income was
spent on liquor, less cash was available for food, clothing and other essential
items (Molamu & MacDonald 1996). The participants argued that a person who is
regularly under the influence of alcohol will have little motivation or interest in
working, unless it is to obtain money to buy more alcohol. One particular problem
the researchers noted is that a regular drinker can easily become economically tied
and indebted to alcohol vendors who are only too pleased to provide alcohol in
credit (Molamu & MacDonald, 1996). This means that all the resources of the
alcoholic are targeted to alcohol at the expense of the family. As a result the
family and especially the spouse may suffer from taking extra responsibility to
make sure that the family needs are provided for.
In addition, the alcoholic may get arrested for drinking and committing offences
like drinking and driving; in turn they have to pay substantial fines and a court
cost. Court fines and hospital bills drain the finances of the family. The alcoholic's
mistakes cost the entire family, adding to the stress for the non- alcoholic spouse
15
KENYATTA I fIVER tTY
or partner.: Because of this the family may have to give up certain privileges
because of the large amount of money spent on alcohol and also possible
joblessness (WHO, 2004).This turns psychosocial because of stress and fights
caused by lack of enough resources the family needs.
2.2:2 Impact of Alcoholism on Psychological Wellbeing of the Spouse.
Implicit in the habitual drinker's potential impact on family life is the fact that the
drinking and its consequences can result in substantial mental health problems of
family members. The stress of living with an alcoholic in combination with the
effects of the drug itself can lead to frequent conflicts and turmoil between
spouses (Ackerman, 1991). Studies that identified psychological distress among
non-alcoholic spouses include Wiseman (1991) who compared the nature of the
impact in the USA and Finland. The author interviewed the wives of male
alcoholics and identified a number of forms of distress. She found that 'wives
report a veritable roller coaster of emotions ... hating their husband and, at the
same time, worrying that he may be in serious danger or trouble and/
or hurt' (p.166). For example one wife said
In the evenings, I would sit and brood about how he left me alone so much,
and Iwas angry and hurt. Then, as time wore on, Iwould start worrying that
he had been in a car accident. (p.166)
Participants explained that a range of problems acted as disincentives to
separation.
These included fears of poverty, being considered a social outcast for 'deserting'
their husband, the difficulty in finding a job, the interests of the children, the
problem of finding suitable accommodation and the fear of resulting legal fiances
(Wiseman, 1991). Thus a number of important things can be identified from these
16
studies. First, alcohol abuse is:often associated with psychological distress within
the family. Second, there is a strong relationship between alcohol abuse and
family breakdown.
Other rese~r.~hes 01) the ..reJatjpnship, between alcohol abuse and marital violence
reveal a strong relationship. The likelihood of battering increases as drinking
increases. There are so many examples showing a relationship between alcohol
abuse and domestic violence in Africa. For example, a study conducted in Nigeria
by Obot in 2000 showed a strong association between domestic violence and
alcohol use. Alcohol use was involved in 51% of the cases in which a husband
stabbed a wife (Obot, 2000). To add to this, in a 1998 cross-sectional study of
violence against women undertaken in three provinces in South Africa, it was
found that domestic violence was significantly positively associated with the
women drinking alcohol and conflict over the partner's drinking (Jewkes, Levin &
Penn-Kekana 2002). This may result in physical injury and/or emotional
problems leading to depression leading to doctor's visits or hospitalization. Also
in, a 2000-2001 survey in Uganda, of 5109 women of reproductive age in the
Rakai District by Koenig et aI., 2003, it was found that the strength of the
association between alcohol consumption and domestic violence was particularly
noteworthy. Of women who experienced domestic violence, 52% reported that
their partner had consumed alcohol and 27% reported that their partners had
frequently consumed alcohol. This finding supports the conclusion that alcohol
may playa direct precipitating role for domestic violence (Koenig et aI., 2003).
Added responsibilities and domestic violence may affect the marital relationship.
17
Spouses who may have taken over all responsibilities and is a victim of violence
suffer a lot and this suffering may not only be physically but also emotionally.
Their marriage is then affected.
Studies also show an association between alcohol use and diminished sexual
activity in several areas of sexual functioning (Rockville, 2004). Families have
broken down due to alcoholism and couples especially women report that
drinking puts them off sexually, because of the smell, and alcohol induced
impotence among men (Musikoyozuuu). There are several media reports of
women protesting about neglected sex roles by their husbands, for example:
women in Kangemi, Muranga and Limuru, Kenya have raided local brew dens as
well as regular bars, complaining that their men are becoming economically lazy
and sexually inactive(Barasa 2006). Key political figures have also complained of
alcohol ruining their men and making them impotent (Kathungu, Wasanga, Sirera
and Karega .(2011). This can cause added stress on an already unsteady
relationship. The non- alcoholic spouse may start to develop negative feeling
toward the alcoholic due to his or her undesirable appearance or the smell of stale
alcohol on their breath. One may feel repulsed or even disenchanted toward the
spouse or partner. In addition, when there are feelings of resentment and anger
toward the partner, the desire to be intimate may be lost and sexual attraction for
them may gradually disappear (Rockville, 2004).
18
2.2.3 Alcohol Related Consequences. .
Marital satisfaction is related strongly to a couple's ability to communicate
effectively (Fals-Stewart, 2006), but heavy alcohol use is associated with more
negative and hostile communication, more expressions of anger, and less warmth
and unity in the relationship (.Jacob, Leonard & Haber (200 I) Thes C t. . . , , . e lac ors
decrease a Couple's satisfaction in their marriage and create greater tension. A rift
in the marital communication pattern almost always occurs with alcoholism in
marriage, as the non-alcoholic spouse may pull away from the alcoholic and vice-
versa, or because they lose their skills and ability as a couple to communicate or
too much resentment and unresolved conflict has accumulated (Jacob et al, 2001).
Lack of communication in the relationship will lead to loss of emotional and
sexual intimacy, abundant misunderstandings, lack of satisfaction and depth, more
conflict and a less fulfilling relationship (Fals-Stewart, 2006). The more
alcoholism progresses, the less communication that will be taking place. The less
communication taking place, the more the quality of the relationship will
deteriorate (FaIs-Stewart, 2006) .: As' a result alcohol problems are related to
increased rates of marital violence, poor communication, and feelings of marital
distress that lead to a greater risk of divorce (Leonard, & Mudar, 2003).
Alcohol consumption has many social consequences. In addition to the fact that
drinking can severely impair the individual's functioning in various social roles
like as a parent, as a spouse and as a contributor to household functioning; there
are also other aspects of drinking which may impair functioning as a family
19
member. When drinking is carried out outside the home and the family, time
spent while drinking often competes with the time needed to carryon family life
(Global Status Report on Alcohol, 2004), Drinking also costs money and can
impact upon resources particularly of a poor family, leaving other family
members destitute (Bonu et aI, 2004). MOI1eythat would be used for other things
like seeking health care is used for drinking and this leads to delay in seeking
medical care resulting in bigger problems.
Also, it is worth noting that specific intoxicated events can have everlasting
consequence, through home accidents and family violence (Room et el 2002).
This increases medical expenditure and loss of wages. An increase in medical
expenditure brings hardship upon both spouses and children who will be denied a
normal way of life. Apart from loss of wages because of accidents and violence,
heavy drinkers may receive lower wages because of missed work and decreased
efficiency in the job. This means that they may not have money to provide for
their families because the little they get is spent on alcohol. Decreased efficiency
and sometimes absenteeism may also result in losing employment 'opportunIties
and as a result decreased eligibility for loans. This causes fights in the family
because of failure to meet the daily obligation of providing for the family. This
affects the marriage relationship leading to psychosocial problems.
A study done by Asunta 2001·2002 in Malaysia; showed that alcohol is a major
factor in exacerbating poverty. Alcohol abuse was shown to lead to wife battery,
discord in the home, abused and deprived children, non-working or
20
chronologically ill husbands who become a burden to both the family and society
(Asunta200 1-2002). The research concluded that the alcohol menace ruins
families and contributes to the breakdown of the social fabric of the society. This
maybe true because a family is the basic unit of the society. It holds the society
together anq ~~~l) .th,ef~;n.ily is united the-,society is well. When there are fights in .
the family the society is also affected, for example screams will interfere with
peace and people will go to solve the problems in the family. Sometimes money
need to be collected to help pay fees for the children or for hospital bills.
2.3 Coping Strategies used by Non-Alcoholic Spouses
Attempts have been made to control the use and abuse of Alcohol the world over.
Some of the approaches used include legislation and licensing policies, taxation,
rehabilitation of victims and education. The latest legislation in Kenya is The
Alcoholic Drinks Control Bill, 2010 commonly known as Mututho Laws. The
Bill's purpose is to provide for the control of the production, sale, and use of
alcoholic drinks, in order to protect the health of the individual; inform and
educate the public on the harmful health, economic and social consequences' of
the consumption of alcoholic drinks; promote and provide for treatment and
rehabilitation programmes for those addicted or dependent on alcoholic drinks;
and promote research and dissemination of information on the effects of alcoholic
drink consumption, in particular the health risks that may arise there from (The
Kenyan Alcohol Supplement Law 2010).
21
The objectives of the law look good and are intended to impact positively on the
society, families and individuals. Since the laws will control the production, sale
and use of alcoholic drinks then excessive consumption and abuse is expected to
reduce. However, the impact of controlling access and availability of Alcoholic
drinks may forcesome people to take .home alcoholic. drinks because' bars 'close"
early and this may cause more conflicts in the family. This is because although
they have controlled the hours in the bar they have not controlled the hours one
can take at home. Although there are laws that control alcohol consumption they
are not explicit on how to control their effects on families. This research is timely
for it comes in the background of the bill and will bring to light what happens in
families so that laws may also be enacted to protect the families.
Despite legislation put in place, the partner of the alcoholic suffers greatly from
the behavior of the partner who is alcoholic. The key to surviving is adaptation in
order to minimize the effects of alcoholism. Coping strategies are efforts by non-
alcoholic family members to survive the situation while denying its existence to
others. Coping strategies can either be verbal or behavioral. Verbal strategies are
~ efforts to communicate effective with the alcoholic but the ~lcohoiic' may perceive
this as 'nagging' (Ackerman, 1991). The non-alcoholic then resorts to morality
lectures pleas for self-respect, threats, promises etc. Behavioral strategies are
behaviors the non-alcoholic-knowingly or unknowingly adopt to cope with the
situation (Ackerman, 1991). They may include manipulation, tolerance,
withdrawal and constructive help.
22
", ,'. ~ t , c" ••
Manipulation embraces a number of behaviors, such as seeking to shame the
drinker, with the woman showing her own distress or emphasizing the children's
suffering, while the wife may get purposely drunk 'to show him what it is like'
(Edwards et al, 2003) Tolerance includes self-sacrifice, acceptance and inactivity
(Edwards et ~.I,,20.Q3)_fo.r instance the, spouse may 'nurse her husband through-his: .,
hangovers, and keeps the dinner warm for him or may choose to accept the way
things are without question. Withdrawal is where contact is minimized as far as
possible and there is emotional as well as physical avoidance (Edwards et al,
2003). For example the wife adopt an approach of constructive management: she
retains her own sense of worth and protects and looks after the family by making
sure that the finances are as in as good order as possible while she goes out to
work and provide for the children. (Edwards et al 2003). Constructive help
seeking is a pattern characterized by behavior such as the wife going to see the
family doctor and asking him to speak to the husband, she finds out about
Alcoholic Anonymous and leaves pamphlets around for the husband to come
upon, or goes to the library and reads books on alcoholism, so as to help her own
understanding (Edwards et al, 2003).
From the above information it is evident that spouses try all they can to cope with
alcohol abuse. Some of these behaviors may work for some time but may only
provide temporary relief. The disease of alcoholism will continue and its effects
will still be felt. It is because of this reason that this research need to be carried
out since the spouses are the ones who are affected, they will provide useful
information that will enrich knowledge and will be beneficial in bringing timely
23
and successful intervention to help them deal with or cope with the psychological
effects of alcoholism in the family unit.
2.4 Summary of Literature Reviewed
This SW9;Y ~as ,undertak~n with .the • primary purpose of exploring 'the - .
psychosocial effects of alcohol abuse on the non-alcoholic spouse and discussing
the implications of its findings to counselling. From the foregoing theoretical
explanations and related literature, it is apparent that the impact of alcohol
problems on families can reach into every area of life- physical, psychological,
health, finances, employment, social life and relationships. Within the academic
literature there is evidence of alcohol abuse having a significant negative impact
on the family, its structures and functions. In particular a number of studies
identify the psychological distress that the family suffers which can often cause
family breakdown.
24
2.5 Description of Conceptual Framework
It shows how roles, communication, emotions are affected by alcohol abuse and
how spouses try to cope with the situation. Alcohol abuse by a spouse may have
different effects on the non-alcoholic spouse. These includes: failure in social
roles, communication breakdown, and effect on emotional wellbeing. In a healthy
family, thereis ,c;lA7'i,s.~onf labour .with specific duties being assumed to be'·male
and other for females. This is not the case in an alcoholic family where an
alcoholic member neglects their roles thus affecting the relationship. When the
relationship suffers so is communication between family members. Failure in
communication affects the emotional wellbeing of the members of the family,
especially the spouse. This may lead to depression, anger, bitterness etc. When the
emotional wellhf'ing is affected it leads t~ more communication breakdown which
leads to more failure in roles. Thus there is a reciprocal relationship between
failure in social roles, communication breakdown and emotional which all affect
the marital relationship. There is some legislation that has been put in place to try
and reduce the effects of alcohol abuse on the family and to an extent they help to
counter the effects mentioned above on the family. Counselling helps families to
deal with the situation or to cope with it hence holding families together,
25
Conceptual Framework
Alcohol abuse
Failure in roles/
neglect
-Parenting
-disciplining
. -providing
-modeling
Legal
Interventions
MARITAL
RELATIONSHIP
, .
Communication
Breakdown
- Resentment
-quarreling
-silence
26
:, -,
Emotional
distress
-anger
-Depressior
-denial
-rejection
Counselling /
Recovery
Figure 2.1: Relationship between variables
Source: The researcher
CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction
The purpose of this study was to explore the psychosocial effects of alcohol
abuse of? the It?n-alc;Q~olicspouse in Ainamoi Division, Kericho County, Kenya . .,
This chapter describes research methodology for the study. This includes a
detailed description of the research design, study area, target population, sampling
and sample procedures, instrumentation, validity and reliability of instruments,
methods of data collection and data analysis.
3.2 Research Design
The research was undertaken using descriptive survey design. In a descriptive
survey design, researchers collect data from members of a population in order to
determine the current status of that population without manipulating any variables
(Mugenda & Mugenda, 1999). The research sought to obtain information that
described existing phenomena by asking individuals about their behavior,
perceptions attitudes and values with an aim of answering some research
questions hence the decision to use it as a design for the present study. Surveys
also aim at obtaining information, which can be analyzed, patterns extracted and
comparison made (Bell, 1993), hence its choice for this study
3.3 Location of Study
The research was undertaken in Ainamoi division, Kericho County. Kericho East
district has two divisions: Ainamoi division and Soin division. Kericho district
. was chosen because one of the major challenges facing families in the district and
affected development is alcoholism. Others include poverty, divorce and violence.
Ainamoi division has 11 locations and 22 sub locations. It has a total of 32 965
households. This area was chosen because alcoholism which is the area of this
27
study is identified as a major problem and the challenges of alcoholism were
prevalent.
3.4 Population of Study
The target population is defined as all the members of a real or hypothetical set of
, ' . ,. .people, events or objectives, which a researcher wishes to generate the research
study (Borg and GaIl1970). The target population for this study consisted of
people who have spouses who abuse alcohol in Ainamoi Division, Kericho
County. The spouses were targeted because they are the ones who are affected
when there is alcohol abuse and 'HQU!!:! give the required informat« '11.
3.5 Sample size and Sampling Technique
To select the region for study the researcher used stratified sampling. Ainamoi
division has 11 locations and 22 sub locations and they form stratus for sampling.
Stratification was employed to categorize each location into urban and rural areas.
Five locations from each strata was sampled randomly and selected. This was to
ensure that all the area was covered to yield the most information about the
phenomenon under study.
In selection of respondents the study adopted the purposive and snowballing
sampling technique. Purposive sampling was used to obtain a sample of four
community leaders, four assistant chiefs who are key informants in the interviews.
Snowball sampling sometimes reffered to as network or chain sampling
(Patton,2002) was employed to select the participants in the study. Spouses whose
28
• '~. j • •
To ensure methodological validity of the study, the researcher triangulated data
sources as well as data-collection procedures. This meant gathering data from
multiple sources(spouses, elders, chiefs) and by multiple methods for instance:
data from focused group discussion, interviews- and questionnaires were' compared
to to yield a fuller and richer picture of the phenomenon under review.
3.8.2 Reliability
Reliability enhances the dependability, accuracy and adequacy of the instruments
through piloting. Mugenda and Mugenda (1999) argue that reliability is a measure
of the degree to which a research instrument yields consistent results or data after
repeated trials. To ensure reliability the researcher used split halves method. The
test items were divided into halves, each half scored independently of the other
with the items of the two halves matched on content and difficulty. The findings
from the two tests were correlated to ensure the tests were reliable. This was
aimed at finding out if the results were consistent to determine the reliability of
the instrument.
3.9 Pilot Study
Piloting was carried out in Tenwek location, Bomet county a different county
from the one sampled and the findings were not included in the study. This was to
help the researcher in ensuring that the questions were measuring what they were
supposed to measure. It also ensured that the wording was clear and that there was
no confusion over any phrases. In addition, it helped in identification of the items
30 .
in the research instrument that were ambiguous in eliciting relevant' information.
Lastly, it ensured that the questions provoked a response, for example if some
questions were left out without being answered then it needed to be revisited.
Modifications of the items were then made where necessary. Respondents
contacted, <;luring ~he ..piloting phase .were .. deliberately excluded during -the
administration of the instrument.
3.9 Data collection Procedures
The researcher distributed the questionnaires to the respondents already selected
with the help of the chiefs. The questionnaires were administered on site to avoid
pollution of the data. The information was then collected from the individuals for
the purpose of the proposed study only. The interviews were done by research
assistants for those participants who were illiterate.
3.10 Data Analysis and Presentation
This study generated both qualitative and quantitative data; hence descriptive and
inferential statistics were used to analyze the data obtained. Descriptive statistics
involved the use of means, frequencies, percentages and tabulation. Inferential
statistics were analyzed using Pearson's Correlation Coefficient. Data analysis
was performed using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 17
for windows. The data was further subjected to significant test using Pearson
product-moment correlation technique to establish linear relationship between the
variables.
31
~;. t 1" i ..
• 4 ; ••
Qualitative data was cleaned, coded and summarized into working themes in line
with the study objectives. Key words related to the research objectives were
identified for example: role and responsibilities, challenges faced, psychological
effect, copying mechanisms etc. Codes were then given in line with the
themesand all material.s/.elated were placed together. A summary report was then
developed identifying the major themes and the relationship between them.
3.11 Data management and Ethical Considerations
Permission to carry out research was obtained from National Council of Science
and Technology. Permission and introduction letter to tLc chiefs and sur- chiefs
was obtained from the Division office. The researcher obtained a letter from the
Ministry of Education authorizing research. The researcher then visited the
locations notifying them of the research intentions
Secondly, the researcher sought Informed Consent from the participants. The
researcher and the assistants explained to the participants what the research was
about and once they understood they gave informed consent. In addition, the
researcher assured the participants of treating the information with utmost
confidentiality. Names were not indicated anywhere in the questionnaire. The
researcher helped debrief the participants who may have been affected by the
nature of the topic.
32
CHAPTER FOUR
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS
4.1 Introduction
. The main purpose of this study was to explore with a sample of non-alcoholic
spouses the psychosocial effects of alcohol abuse on the spousal relationship. The
~t • _. " ' _,!" _. , .-{ • \ • ~
objectives guiding the study were: (l)To find out how alcohol abuse affect
performance of social roles in the family, (2) To establish alcohol related
challenges in a marital relationship, (3) To establish effect of alcohol abuse on the
psychological wellbeing of the non-alcoholic spouse,( 4) To find out the coping
strategies employed by non-drinking spouses, (5) To establish what intervention
measures can be put in place to help spouses cope with alcohol abuse. This
chapter presents the key findings of the study based on the research objectives.
The findings of the study provided a better understanding of the psychosocial
effects of alcohol abuse on the spousal relationship, thus giving an insight about
how to encourage and support the non-drinking spouse. The chapter is organized
into five sections.
33
4.2 Demographic Characteristics
Demographic characteristics of the respondents including the age, gender, length
of marriage, highest educational level and the frequency of spouse abuse of
alcohol were established. The information is presented in tables 1 to 6.
Table 4.1: Gender of the Respondents
Frequency Percent
Male 24 16.7
Female 120 83.3
Total 144 100.0
From table 4.1, the majority of the respondents were female (83.3%). This implies
that there are more males who use alcohol than females. This is agreement with
NACADA'S, 2007 findings which indicate a significant alcohol usage with
males' consumption being 29% and female consumption beingS.9% NACADA,
(20007).
34
The age of the respondents was established and the findings are summarized in
table 2 below.
Table 4.2: Age of Respondents
Age Frequency Percent
18-24 22 15.3
25-30 37 25.7
31-35 46 31.9
35-40 23 16.0
41.00 16 11.1
Total 144 100.0
As shown in Table 4.2, most of the respondents are below 35 years old (72.9%)
This means that most of the respondents are in their early adulthood which is a
critical stage in family life. This results are similar to those revealed by a survey
done in Uganda whish showed that 47% of the 1,479 people interviewed were
drinkers aged betwee 18-35 years. The survey showed that in this group, 22.3%
engaged in frequent heavy drinking and a third drank daily (Tumwesigye &
Kasirye,2005). Couples who are 35 years and below are likely to have young
children and thus heavy responsibilities related to family demands .Absentism of
one parent could place a lot of emotional demand on the parent that is present this
is because all the parenting responsibility including disciplining will fall on one
35
parent. This could lead to anxiety and stress which could affect the spousal
relationship.
The research wanted to know for how long the respondents have been married.
The findings is shown in the following table
Table 4.3: Length of Marriage
Frequency Percent
0-5
6-10
11-15
40
41
45
27.8
28.5
31.3
Above16 18 12.5
Total 144 100.0
The results in Table 4.3 reveal that 56.3% of the couples had been married for less
than 10 years with 27.8% being married for less than 5years. The majority of this
people are in the young adulthood stage (below 35 years) as revealed by Table
2.According to Corey (2000) this is the time to form intimate relationships. With
alcohol abuse by a spouse the formation of intimate relationship may be affected.
This is because the time spent in consuming alcohol competes with the time spend
with the spouse. This means the non-alcoholic spouse may feel lonely, unwanted
and this may affect their self-esteem. This affect the spousal relationship.
36
The respondent educational levels were established and table 4.4 gives the
findings:
Table 4.4: Educational level of Respondents
Frequency Percent
College 23 16.0
Secondary 50 34.7
Primary 41 28.5
None 10 20.8
Total 144 100.0
The results from table 4.4 reveal that most respondents have attained the
secondary level of education (34.7%). This is followed by those who attained
primary level education (28.5%). Those who have no formal education scored a
significant percentage of 20.8%. This is characteristic of the rural population in
Kenya and in the rest of the world. Rocha .silva (2001) made a similar
observation in South Africa when he noted that heavy illicit drug use has spread
from urban and historically advantaged groups to rural areas and disadvantaged
groups i.e poor communities. This implies that most respondents have attained the
basic education and may not be in a position to have full time employment. Their
low education could also lead to ignorance about effects of alcohol abuse by their
spouses on the spousal relationship. Failure to have full time employment coupled
with the effects of alcohol use by the spouse could cause great effect on the non-
drinking spouse and affect the spousal relationship.
37
The study sought to find out the years the spouse has used alcohol. This was to
establish whether alcohol abuse started before marriage or after marriage as a
result of marital challenges faced during marriage.
Table 4.6: Years the Spouse has used Alcohol
Frequency Percent
1-5
6-10
11-15
16-20
43
32
18
25
29.9
22.2
12.5
17.4
Above21 26 18.1
Total 144 100.0
From the above table it is seen that the highest number of spouses have used
alcohol for between one and five years (29.9%). This means that they may have
started alcohol use without knowing the effects. When compared with the number ,.
of years they have been married one realizes that their spouses may have started
drinking before they married. This show that alcohol use may not be as a result of
the challenges encountered during marriage it was started before marriage. This
agrees with a study done in Butere- Mumias by Musikoyo (2004) which shows
that young people start using alcohol within the family for fun but end up going
into addiction at an early age. So although marriage may not be the cause of
alcohol use, its use has competed with other responsibilities for resources in the
38
family and affects the marital relationship. This is similar to several studies from
Africa that have noted increasing consumption of alcohol that has competed with
resources in the family thus affecting families.
From the d~mogr~phic characteristics, it can be concluded that more males abuse
alcohol than females in Ainamoi Division. In addition, most of the respondents
are in early adulthood stage, a stage where most relationships are nurtured.
However, alcohol abuse has not given a chance to nurture this relationship and
thus the spousal relationship is affected. It was also revealed that alcohol abuse
by a spouse does not begin during marriage but may have begun before they got
married. Alcohol is likely to have posed a challenge since the establishment of
their marital relationship. Lastly it was established that many of the respondents
have attained basic or no education. This may have resulted in lack of knowledge
about the effect of alcohol on their spouses and themselves as the non-alcoholic
spouse.
39
4.3 Findings of the-Study
The findings of the study will be presented following the research questions
study.
4.3.1 What is the effect of Alcohol Abuse on Performance of Social Roles in
the Family?
In objective one the study sought to find out how alcohol abuse affects
performance of social roles. This means that there are some behaviors and roles
deemed appropriate for both male and females for example males should dig,
provide security and discipline boys while females should cook, clean the home,
take care of the children and train girls (Kathungu, Wasanga, and Karega, 2011).
These roles when they are accomplished help to ensure provision for the family
leading to improving their living standards and keep the family together
(Kathungu et al 2011). Failure in one spouse to accomplish his/her role may lead
to fights for the other spouse who may feel overwhelmed by the responsibilities
they have been forced to take over.
This study sought to determine if the alcohol users perform 'their roles a~d if not
then who performs those roles. In determining these the research would be
seeking answers to the question: What is the effect of alcohol abuse on
performance of social roles? The results revealed that most of the people who
abuse alcohol fail to accomplish their roles and responsibilities. The table below
shows effects of alcohol on some of the roles expected to be performed by the
spouse.
Table 4.7: Effect of Alcohol on Social Roles
40
ROLES SD D U A SA
F F F F F
My spouse provides money for basic 45 42 11 31 15
needs % 31.3 29.2 7.6 21.5 10.4
We share household responsibilities 43 37 15 20 29
with my spouse % 29.7 25.7 10.4 13.9 20.1
Alcohol has affected my spouse 27 17 13 35 52
responsibilities % 18.8 11.8 9.0 24.3 36.1
My spouse does not spend money on 47 61 11 12 13
alcohol % 32.6 42.4 7.6 8.3 9.0
I do not carry my spouse roles 60 35 11 13 25
% 41.7 24.3 7.6 9.0 17.4
On one hand, 31.3% strongly disagree and 30% disagree with the statement that
their spouses give them money for basic needs. On the other hand about32.6%
strongly disagree with the statement that their spouse does not spend money on
alcohol. These results show that an alcoholic partner 'spends their income in
alcohol use at the expense of the family. This implies that money being used for
alcohol takes away from the family and results in limited resources. Lack of
resources in a family could lead to disagreements as the non-alcoholic spouse may
blame the alcoholic spouse of misusing the resources. This could lead to stress or
physical fights which may lead to hospitalization which will strain the resources
of the family further. This means that the non-alcoholic spouse may be forced to
take extra responsibility to provide family needs. Extra responsibility makes the
41
non-alcoholic spouse overwhelmed and this may cause exhaustion and
resentments which strains the spousal relationship.
In addition, from the table majority of the respondents strongly agree with the
statement that alcohol abuse by the spouse had affected their responsibilities
(36.1 %). This is followed by 24% which makes a total of over 60% who agree
that alcohol abuse had affected their spouse responsibilities. This means that the
non-alcoholic spouse has to take over the other's responsibility making them feel
tired and lack time to have fun. This may lead to neglect of self since there is
something more important to do than eat or groom. And with the family budget
more squeezed she makes do with an old coat for another year. This may be a
source of conflicts which turns psychological when it causes quarrels, stress and
depression. This is supported by the statement that 36.1 % strongly agree that
alcohol has affected their spouse responsibility. This is followed by 24.3% who
agree that it has affected their responsibility. This irresponsibility for the alcoholic
spouse means more work for the non-alcoholic spouse, less time spent together,
physical and psychological fatigue which negatively affect the spousal
relationship.
To add to these majority of the respondents 42% strongly disagree and 42%
disagree that they do not carry their spouse roles. This means that they carry out
their spouse roles which may include being a parent and a breadwinner. Too many
roles may cause stress which may affect her health. Poor health saps the non-
alcoholic spouse energy and sense of wellbeing leading to failure of roles thus
42
affecting the spousal relationship. These findings are emphasized by the
comments made in the focused group discussion below
"He is married to alcohol. He fails to recognize he has a family and
responsibilities. His roles have had to be taken over by me and the
children." (43 years female)
"He fails to provide for the family I do everything and he is no longer the
head of the family"(30 year old female)
"I have had to carry out household chores. We sometimes fail to eat because
she cannot arrive on time to prepare meals. It is like I am married to her" (
42 year old male).
The findings also reveal that the economic effects of alcohol abuse are
devastating. The majority of the respondents (85%) agree that alcohol by their
spouses has affected their finances. This is in agreement with the findings of a
study of alcohol use by Molamu & MacDonald (1996) among the Basarwa of the
Kgalagadi and Ghanzi districts in Botswana, informants stated that since a
significant proportion of household income was spent on liquor, less cash was
available for food, clothing and other essential items (Molamu &
MacDonald 1996). Lack of basic needs does not only deprive the family , but it
leads to anger. The non-alcoholic spouse feel angry that the partner misuses the
resources at the expense of family needs. This forces the non-alcoholic spouse to
seek for ways to provide these needs which causes fatigue and quarrels which
affects the spousal relationship.
In summary, the findings of this study reveal that most of the alcoholics spouse's
roles are left undone and as a result the family members take over. to ensure that.
the work is done. This is in agreement with what Doweko, (2002) noted that
43
family members take on new roles as alcohol dependent gives up the power and
responsibility that he would normally exercise within the family.
The research sought to establish who in particular takes over the roles that have
been left by the alcoholic spouse. In determining this the research would be
seeking answers to the question: who has taken over the performance of social
roles left by the alcoholic spouse? The table below shows the people who have
taken over the roles not done by the alcoholic spouse.
Table 4.9: Person who has Taken over Responsibility
--'-"Person Number Percentage
Wife/Husband 72 50.0
Parents 37 31.9
Others 10 6.9
Sisters 7 4.9
Brothers 6 4.1
Total 144 100
Table 4.9 shows that the non alcoholic spouses shoulder the responsibilities left
by the alcoholic spouses (50%). These findings are comparable to the findings of
Kathungu, Wasanga, and Karega done in 2011 in Embu, Nyeri counties
(unpublished) on the effects of alcohol use on gender roles which revealed that
alcohol affects traditional gender roles which are .. still very prevalent in the
: ~ ..•. ' I \. ", •..". • • '.
communities under study. The study had found out that 51% wives of spouses
who abuse alcohol shoulder the responsibilities of their spouses.
44
The study sought to establish whether there is a significant difference between
gender and effect of alcohol on social roles. The study sought to test the
hypothesis: There is no significant relationship between alcohol use by a
particular gender and social roles. The chi-square was used to analyze the
relationship and the following table summarizes the findings .. .. . . . ' ;. ..
Table 4.10: Chi-Square Tests for how Alcohol Affects Social Roles
L I~~~~,p·Sig. (2-1. ~-. · ...•:ut;;;Uj
Pearson Chi-Square 135.447a 16 .000
Likelihood Ratio 154.481 16 .000
Linear-by-Linear Association 58.435 1 .000
N of Valid Cases 144
From the table the results reveal that ate P<O.05, a 135.447; df=16), the
relationship was higly significant meaning that whether it is a male or female who
abuses alcohol affects the gender roles. This implies that the non-alcoholic spouse
whether the husband or wife is affected by the use of alcohol by their spouse. The
table value was 12.2 thus the null hypothesis was rejected.
The study also sought to establish the relationship between effect of alcohol
on gender roles and the effect on the relationship. A correlation coefficient
was analyzed and the findings are as follows.
45
(' • It
Table 4.11: Symmetric Measures
Value Approx. Sig.
Nominal by Nominal Phi .825 .000
Cramer's V .825 .000
Contingency Coefficient .636 .000
N of Valid Cases 144
. ., .' ..~. ~
The results from the table show a strong relationship between the effects of
gender roles on the marital relationship ( P<0.05, 0.825). This means that
also suffers. This may lead to anger, resentment, quarrels thus causing
dissatisfaction. Dissatisfaction affects the spousal relationship. These findings
provides insight to this research main objective that alcohol abuse causes
psychological effects on the non-drinking spouse and thus affect the spousal
relationship.
46
4.3.2 What are the Alcohol Related Consequences on the Spousal
Relationship?
Objective two sought to find out the consequences of alcohol abuse on the marital
relationship where one spouse abuse alcohol. The analysis of the results are
shown in table 4.12
Table 4.12: Effects of alcohol on the marital relationship
CONSEQUENCES SD
F
D
F
U
F
A
F
SA
F
1
I
Alcohol use has helped us communicate 12
effer.tiv~!y /(j &.3
We are not able to discuss and resolve conflicts 15
0/0 10.4
Alcohol use has enhanced sexual activity 42
% 29.3
There are many conflicts in our family 8
% 5.6
Alcohol has made us close to each other 51
% 35.4
There are no misunderstanding In our family 51
35.4
36
~5.5
37
25.7
32
22.2
24
16.7
40
27.8
40
27.8
13
9.0
8
5.6
23
16.0
5
3.5
10
6.9
10
6.9
44
3U.b
43
29.9
25
17.4
32
22.2
18
12.5
18
12.5
39
27.1
41
28.5
22
15.2
75
52.1
25
17.4
25
17.4
I,
II
Results from table 4.12 above shows that 57% disagreed with alcohol use has
helped us communicate effectively and express our feelings freely. This means
that alcohol abuse by a spouse creates a rift in their marital communication
47
pattern. This may create resentment and this could lead to fights, quarrels etc. The
findings also showed that over 59% agreed with the statements: " we are not able
to discuss and resolve conflicts. These results reveal that one of the challenges
faced in a marital relationship where one spouse abuse alcohol is breakdown in
communication. This means that the non-alcoholic spouse may pull away from
the alcoholic and vice-versa, or they may lose their skills and ability as a couple to
communicate or too much resentment and unresolved conflict has accumulated
(Jacob et ai, 2001). When there is a rift in communication the spousal relationship
is affected negatively. This results in failure to resolve conflicts. This concurs
with what Fals-Stewart, 2006 observed that lack of communication in the
relationship will lead to loss of emotional and sexual intimacy, abundant
misunderstandings, lack of satisfaction and depth, more conflict and a less
fulfilling relationship. The more alcoholism progresses, the less communication
that will be taking place. The less communication taking place, the more the
quality of the relationship will deteriorate (FaIs-Stewart, 2006).
The findings also show that alcohol use has caused many conflicts in the
marital relationship. A majority (74%) of the respondents agree with the fact
that their marriage has many conflicts. This implies that when people fail to
communicate many conflicts arise and as a result it is likely that important
issues such as family finances, sexual intimacy and child rearing decisions go
unresolved. When these decisions are not made it turns psychological as it
causes complains, quarrels and fights which may affect the non-alcoholic
spouse and the spousal relationship.
48
On the other hand, over 51% of the respondents disagreed with the statements:
alcohol abuse has enhanced our sexual intimacy. This implies that alcohol use
diminishes sexual activity in a family. This maybe due to failure in responsibility
by the alcoholic spouse shown above which makes the non-alcoholic spouse take
extra responsibility to provide for the family. The non-alcoholic spouse maybe too
excausted for intimacy or may have internal anger as a result of the spouse love
for alcohol. To add to these, the spouse may also feel neglected since there is
little time spent together. The alcoholic on the other hand may be suffering from
impotence from the drug and their sexual relationship is affected. This is
consistent with what Musikoyo'(2000) observed that families have broken down
due to alcoholism and couples especially women report that drinking puts them
off sexually, because of the smell, and alcohol induced impotence among men
(Musikoyo'ZfXfl). The findings of this study explain why there are several media
reports of women protesting about neglected sex roles by their husbands, for
example: women in Kangemi, Muranga and Limuru, Kenya have raided local
brew dens as well as regular bars, complaining that their men are becoming
economically lazy and sexually inactive(Barasa 2006). It also shows that in
Ainamoi division drinking by their spouses has affected intimacy in the marital
relationship.
The results also show that about 62% disagreed with there are no
misunderstandings in our family and 63% disagreed with alcohol has made our
relationship closer. These findings show that alcohol abuse by a spouse causes
49
negative consequences In a family. and are in agreement with those from
interviews and focused group discussion. For example those frequently mentioned
include: financial constraints,. lack of trust between spouses, lack of
communication, loneliness, poverty, children lacking role models, parent has no
time for children, fights and lack of trust between spouses. Their sentiments are
captured in the following excerpts derived from the focused group discussions:
'There is no development in our home. Although we have a tea
plantation but all the money is spent in alcohol. He sells it and spends
all; he does not even buy clothes for himself' (female, 42 years)
"He has drained our resources I have to do everything" (31years female)
Lack of develooment of the familv can he ~ source of stress ullU strain in the- .
relationship between man and wife especially when resources are poorly
used. This is because growth is a basic human need and lack of social or
economic development can be a source of a lot of psychological challenges.
Another participant had this to say:
"Alcohol has caused many fights in our home. It has made me very
bitter. We once fought and I hit him hard and had to be judged in a
court of law."( 54 year female) .
"There are many problems in this home. The food isn't enough we sometimes
sleep without eating."( 47 years female) .
Her drinking has caused so many conflicts in our home. She sometimes
sells farm produce to finance her drinking sprees. I have lost face in this
village. Many wonder why i am still married to her. I do it for the
children" ( 40 year old male)
In conclusion, from the findings and the discussion above, it can be seen that
when a spouse fails to accomplish their responsibilities it causes many
challenges in the family. One, it causes failure in communication. The
addicted member is not willing to be questioned about failure in the roles so
they may fight or remain silent. These may cause resentment, quarrels or
50
· ...{.~ ... ' .
fights. Second, it causes financial problems. Alcohol use shares resources
with other family needs and sometimes it may take a bigger percentage at the
expense of other needs causing quarrels in the family. Thirdly, it affects
intimacy. Alcohol abuse by a spouse may cause resentment which may affect
their sexual activity. The challenges highlighted concurrs with Koenig et aI.,
2003 who argued that alcohol problems are related to increased rates of
marital violence, poor communication, and feelings of marital distress that
lead to a greater risk of divorce. It shows that alcohol abuse affects the
spousal relationship.
4.3.3 What is the effect of Alcohol Abuse on Non-Alcoholic Spouse
Psychological Wellbeing?
Objective three aimed at establishing the effect on the non-alcoholic spouse
psychological wellbeing. The research wanted to establish whether alcohol
abuse affect the behavior of the alcoholic spouse and how it impacts on the
non-drinking spouse psychological wellbeing. The findings revealed that
alcohol abuse causes both physical and emotional abuse in the family as
shown in the table 4.14.
51
Table 4.14 Aggressive Behavior of Spouse
Behaviour Very rare Rarely None Often Very often
F % F % F % F % F %
Fighting 16 I 1.1 14 9.7 19 13.2 40 27.8 55 38.2
Pushing 20 13.9 18 12.5 17 11.8 64 44.4 2~ 17.4 .
Arguing 20 13.9 20 13.9 5 3.5 36 25.0 63 43.8
Yelling 37 25.7 26 18.1 4 2.8 20 13.9 57 39.6
Verbal insults 12 8.3 25 17.4 7 4.9 45 31.3 55 38.2
Threatening 13 9.0 II 7.6 12 8.3 36 25.0 72 50.0
Others 69 t!7.9 1 C ~ 1 . . !':.0 .. ;u, 21 14.61··
From the above table it is evident that alcohol use by a spouse causes
different forms of abuse. The findings reveal that there is both physical and
psychological distress and these affects the spouses. The majority of the
respondents identified threats (75%) to be very common followed by yelling
(54 %) and then fights 38.5% and verbal insults both at 38.2%. This means
that failure in roles revealed in objective, one above causes conflicts in a
family. These conflicts may be cause physical and psychological abuse and
the results of the study confirm that both physical and psychological abuse is
very common in a family where a spouse abuse alcohol. A study conducted
in Nigeria by Obot in 2000 also showed a strong association between
domestic violence and alcohol use. Alcohol use was involved in 51% of the
cases in which a husband stabbed a wife (Obot, 2000).
52
Physical and psychological abuse are very damaging because they endanger a
person's feelings of self-worth leading to stress and depression. The findings
resonate with a cross-sectional study carried out in 1998 on violence against
women undertaken in three provinces in South Africa, where it found that
domestic violence was significantly positively associated with the women
drinking alcohol and conflict over the partner's drinking (Jewkes, Levin &
Penn-Kekana 2002). Due to regular fights some spouses have been greatly
affected. Some have harboured bitterness in their hearts and sometimes
resorted to fighting back. The following is a one of the respondents
revelation;
"He used to beat me a lot but with time Istarted to fight back. Ionce felt the
only thing was to kill him and end all my problems, I hit him hard one day
and was jailed for seven years but I soon realized Iwas the one to suffer. So
although Iam still bitter Ichose to forgive him."(53 year old lady)
Domestic violence may cause injuries that may cause hospitalization or it
may cause crimes which may be charged in a court of law. These will drain
the family resources that could have been used for other needs. This may lead
to blaming each other which may cause strain in the relationship thus
affecting the marital relationship.
Since the social norms expect women to tend the house and mind the
children and show their partnes obedience and respect so failure in this
expectations as a result of alcohol abuse by a spouse causes physical abuse
and psychological abuse. The results of this study show that alcohol abuse by
53
a spouse contributes to domestic violence.It is likely that abuse of alcohol by
a person makes them courageous to fight, push, yell and quarrel.
Since the spouses are exposed to both physical and psychological distress
then the research sought to find out how they felt about the aggressive
behaviour meted on them and how it affected them. Various indicators of the
psychological wellbeing of the respondents were determined and their
frequency of occurrence assessed. Table 4.16 summarizes the findings
Table 4.16: Effect of Aicohoi Abuse on Spouse Psychoiogicai Wellbeing.
Feeling v. Rare % Rarely % None % Often %. V. Often %
It has made me angry 18 12.5 22 15.3 13 9.0 50 34.7 4 I 28.3
It has caused bitterness 28 19.3 27 18.6 13 9.0 37 25.5 39 26.9
I feel betrayed 30 20.7 13 9.0 I I 7.6 55 38.0 3524.2
lam confident 49 33.3 35 24.2 I 17.6 26 17.9 23 15.9
lam not affected 39 29.9 50 34.7 I I 7.6 23 15.9 21 14.5
I feel very hurt 17 11.7 23 15.9 7 4.8 39 26.9 58 40.2
From the table most participants agree that alcohol abuse by their spouses has
caused anger 40%, bitterness 55% hurt and betrayal 43%. While most
respondents disagree with the statements that their feelings are not affected
I 89% and that they feel confident about themselves 57%. Other forms of
psychological distress were captured through FGD"s as indicated by the
following excerpts from the respondents.
54
"My spouse use of alcohol has caused many problems. It has caused my
ulcers." (Female 37years)
"It's extremely stressful ... you don't really know from one minute to the
next just how things are going to be. There's never any consistency."
(32years old female)
This exerpts reveal that the respondents undergo various problems. As revealed
alcohol abuse may cause illnesses like ulcers which will reguire medical attention.
This will divert resources that were to be used for other family needs to pay for
hospital expenses.
"I fi d h' J' h'l' J., h 'T'" • •••In irn 8 1~. uitv rat ..er t ..an i:•• asset. 1illS is IG m (in that 1 no longer see
the ambitious, confident and strong man in him but one with no direction and
focus." (43 years old female)
"I have lost morale and motivation to progress in my family i.e. to achieve
my life dreams and goals."(40 years old female)
Lack of morale and motivation implies that this respondents self-esteem has been
affected. Another effect of alcohol revealed here is that it affects the self esteem
of the non-drinking spouse which is one of the psychological challenges.
"He has caused a lot of bitterness. I have to look for work outside home to
avoid quarrels." (27 years old female)
"I lose sleep because of worrying about him. He comes home late and
sometimes he does not turn up at all. The following day 1 go round looking
for him in drinking dens until 1 find him" (67 years female)
These excerpts reveal the sense of hurt wives felt and the loss of any positive
feelings that they might have felt for their husbands. Problems such as appetite
change, altered sleep patterns, loss of appetite, diminished activity to think or
concentrate, self reproach, revenge puts them at a risk of variety of mental health
problems like depression, post-traumatic stress disorder and others. These are
psychological effects revealed by the findings which illuminates the research
55
objective: the psychosocial effects of alcohol abuse on the non- drinking spouse
emotional wellbeing. The results reveal that the psychological wellbeing of the
non-drinking spouse is affected.
This findings are reinforced by interviews with men whose wives abused
alcohol revealed that they also suffer psychological distress. Respondents
reported periods where they did not speak to their wife, avoiding their wife
by taking up additional activities, anxiety, and fears of the impact of the
mother's behavior on their children. Feelings included, fear, anger, pity and
hopelessness. Comments included
"I hated to see someone I loved so much destroying herself; 'I tried to
correct her drinking and found I couldn't'; and ' I don't know whether to
keep trying or to tell her to pack her bags and get away" ( 55 years old
male).
From this exerpt it is revealed that the non-alcoholic spouse can go to great
lengths to try and stop their spouses from abusing alcohol. This can cause stress
which may lead to depression if they fail to change their spouses. Another
respondent revealed that alcohol use has led to a separation;
"We had to separate. I couldn't stomach her drinking. The children were
'suffering and I decided to raise them up alone." (38 year old male)
This implies that alcohol abuse can lead to separation, divorce or even death.
From the above discussion, it shows that the data collected from the
questionnaires, interviews and focused group discussion are consistenly showing
that alcohol by a spouse causes psychological disress on the non-drinking spouse.
When a spouse is sressed, anxious, fearfull, hurt, resentful, bitter etc the spousal
56
relationship is affected. Thse findings agree othe studies that identified
psychological distress among non-alcoholic spouses. For example Wiseman
(1991) who compared the nature of the impact in the USA and Finland identified
a number of forms of distress. She found that 'wives report a veritable roller
coaster of emotions ... hating their husband and, at the same time, worrying that he
may be in serious danger or trouble and/or hurt' (p.166). This means that what is
happening in Ainamoi is not an unusual experience- it happens in other parts of
the world. These findings confirm the main objective of this research that
psychosocial effects of alcohol by a spouse affects the spousal relationship.
57
4.3.4 Coping strategies Employed by Non-Drinking spouses
The study also sought to find out how the non-alcoholic spouses are able to
cope with adverse effects of alcohol abuse.
Table 4.18: Coping strategies
Coping strategy Frequency
Percentage
Turn to family, friends and neighbors
Seeking employment outside home
65 24.5
4R 10 1: u.
36 13.6
27 10.2
31 11.7
18 6.8
24 9.1
13 4.9
3 1.1
Reading information about alcohol
Suffering without seeking help
Hiding !Pouring alcoholic drink
Telling spouse to stop drinking
Bringing pamphlets for him to read
Going for counselling
Drinking also to punish him
Total 265 100
These findings reveal that spouses try all they can to cope with alcohol abuse.
From the table, the most common coping mechanism is turning to family, friends
and neighbors with 25% respondents identifying it. This means that some spouses
are supported by their families. This implies when alcohol abuse strains the
relationship, they turn to other people to help them cope with alcohol abuse. This
58
was followed by seeking employment outside home (18.1%). Finding
employment is a means of empowering themselves so as to provide for their
families. Seeking employment could also a way of reducing contact with the
alcoholic spouse. Thirdly is reading information about alcohol (14%) and
hiding/pouring the alcoholic drink. Going for counseling was only mentioned by
5% of the respondents implying that many of them do not know the existence of
such services and the importance. These results lay emphasis on the importance of
social support system in a situation where there is alcohol abuse. This could be
because most of the respondents may not know the importance of counseling in
l-;c1riiig Spo:'Ll:::C:::: cepe with aicoi 01 abuse. This is why there IS need for psycho-
education on importance of counseling in helping spouses cope with alcohol
abuse. This will help them be aware and cope with it in a healthy way and save
their families from disintergrating, From these information it can be concluded
that non- alcoholic spouses in Ainamoi division are doing everything everything
possible to curb or cope with alcohol abuse by their spouses.
59
4.3.5: Intervention Measures.
The respondents were requested to give suggestions on how the affected spouses
can be assisted. Since they have experience on the challenges faced in such
families they would give timely and effective suggestions which will assist them
and others. Table 4.3.13 gives a summary of the suggestions given.
Table 4.19: Suggestions on how to Help Non-Alcoholic Spouses
Suggestion Frequency 0/0
Create jobs/ income generating projects 64 39.4
Guidance and Counseling 50 30.5
Organize awareness programs/ seminars) 42 25.6
Enforce strict laws on alcohol consumption! brewing 23 14.0
Monitor alcohol consumption 31 18.9
Monitor beer prices 21 12.9
Spiritual intervention 13 7.9
Total 164 100
Table 4.19 gives the suggestions that were given by the non-alcoholic spouses.
The table shows what needs to be done to help them cope with alcohol abuse in a
more healthy way. Majority of the respondents feel that jobs should be created for
the non-alcholic spouses so that they can earn a regular source of income (40%).
Since alcohol abuse strains the resources of the family so a source of income
60
would be very beneficial. It could also be a defense inechanism (sublimation)
which may affect the relationship. This is because the spouse may be running
away from a problem and thus the problem may not be resolved. This is followed
by guidance and counseling suggested by 30.5% respondents which would help
them admit that there is a problem and learn to live with it in a healthy way. There
is need to sensitize the non-alcoholic spouses on the psychosocial effects of
alcohol abuse on their emotional wellbeing.
In conclusion, the findings above reveal that alcohol use by a spouse affects
. performance of SOCIalroles which are still prevalent in the community under
study. Secondly, alcohol use by a sposuse causes several challenges in the family
and these challenges affect the marital relationship.In addition, alcohol use causes
psychological effect and this affects the spousal relationship. The findings of this
study reveals that the non-alcoholic spouses do everything to cope with alcohol
abuse by their spouses. This maybe beneficial or sometimes not beficial. Lastly
the non-alcoholic spouses gave suggestions on what could be done to help them
cope with alcohol abuse in a healthy way.
61
CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY, CO CLUSION AND RECOMME DATION
5.1 Introduction
This chapter summarizes the findings of the study and makes recommendations.
The purpose of the study was to investigate the psychosocial effects of alcohol
abuse on the non-alcoholic spouse.
5.2 Summary and Conclusion of the Findings
5.2.1 Effect of Alcohol Abuse on Performance of Social Roles
Fir .iir gs [rom the study indicated that indeed alcohol abuse affects the
performance of social roles. The study established that though division of labor
was encouraged with specific duties assumed to be male and other for female,
alcohol abuse had affected these roles. Majority of the respondents strongly agree
that alcohol abuse by their spouse had affected their responsibilities (60%). The
results show that most of the spouses who abuse alcohol spend their income on
alcohol at the expense of family needs. This makes them irresponsible and this
strains the relationship thus affecting the spousal relationship.
In addition, the findings of this study show that most of the alcohol abuser's
roles had been taken over by the family members with the biggest percentage
taken by their spouses (50%). Findings from the study have confirmed the related
literature and theoretical framework. Family systems theory that guided this
research addresses the responsibilities that family members come together to
accomplish. Each member of the family has a responsibility to accomplish.
62
However, the findings of this study reveal that alcohol use by a spouse has
affected the social roles and responsibilities. As a result the non-alcoholic spouse
is affected by the many roles they have had to take to ensure that the family is
provided for thus the spousal relationship in Ainamoi Division, Kericho County,
Kenya is affected.
5.2.2 Alcohol Related Consequences
The study revealed that there are many challenges in a family where one or both
spouses abuse alcohol. These challenges are both short term and long term. The
folic .iug ~meIgtJ as the main challenges taced in Ainamoi Division, Kericho
. .
County, Kenya: First, there is communication breakdown. Failure in roles and
responsibilities causes quarrels, fights which leads to anger and resentment. As a
result the partners are not able to discuss and resolve conflicts pertaining to
finances, sexual intimacy and child rearing decision. Failure to resolve these
issues causes a further rift in marital communication pattern which affects the
spousal relationship. Secondly, it causes financial problems. Alcohol abuse
competes with other needs for resources in the family. This 'leads to limited
resources which could strain the spousal relationship.
Thirdly, alcohol abuse diminishes sexual intimacy. This is as a result of fatique,
impotence, failure to groom, resentment and the bad smell of alcohol, which puts
the spouse off. Other challenges that were mentioned include: lack of trust,
loneliness, failure to have time together, children lacking role models and lack of
development in the family. These findings is to a great extent consistent with the
63
existing body of literature. They support the fact that alcohol abuse by a spouse
cause several challenges. It can be concluded that these challenges affect the
spousal relationship and therefore confirms that psychosocial effects of alcohol
abuse has affected the spousal relationship in Ainamoi Division, Kericho County,
Kenya.
5.2.3 Effect of Alcohol Abuse on Non-Alcoholic Spouse Psychological
Wellbeing
Findings of this research showed that that alcohol abuse in a family causes
frequent conflicts and turmoil between spouses. These conflicts include
threats, yelling, verbal insults and fights which affects the emotions of the
non-alcoholic spouse. This leads to fear, anger, bitterness, resentments and
stress which affect the spousal relationship.
The results also show that alcohol abuse by a spouse plays a precipitating
role for domestic violence. Domestic violence endangers a person physically
and affects their emotions thus reducing their feelings of self-worth. This
could lead to physical injury which may cause hospitalization and/or being
charged in a court of law. Continous exposure to domestic violence was
shown to cause separation, divorce and even death which affects the spousal
relationship.
The themes in the questionnares, interviews and the focused group discussion
emphasises that the non-alcoholic spouse does not only suffer physically but
64
also the psychologically. This leads to stress related problems like lack of
sleep, appetite change, altered sleep patterns, loss of appetite, diminished
activity to think or concentrate and revenge. These findings have therefore
established that alcohol abuse affects the psychological wellbeing of the non-
alcoholic spouse. It therefore confirms the main objective of this research that
psychosocial effects of alcohol abuse affects the spousal relationship.
5.2.4 Coping Strategies
The most common coping mechanism is turning to family, friends and seeking
employment outside home. Other respondents engage in constructive ways of
coping with alcohol abuse by their spouses . This include reading information
about alcohol is where the spouse seeks to understand more about alcohol and its
effects. Going for counseling has only been mentioned by 5% of the respondents
implying that many of them do not know the existence of such services and the
importance. Other hide or pour the drink and try to tell their spouses to stop
drinking. A small percentage also drink to punish their spouses. all means to curb
or cope with alcohol abuse. These' results lay emphasis on the importance of
psycho-education on importance of counseling in helping spouses cope with
alcohol abuse. These research suggests that seminars be organized in the division
and the church to educate non-alcoholic spouses on the psychosocial effects of
alcoholism and the importance of counseling in helping to curb or cope with
alcohol effects.
65
5.3.4 Intervention Measures
The research gave the respondents a chance to make suggestions on what needs to
be done to help them cope with alcohol abuse in a more healthy way. Majority of
the respondents feel that jobs should be created for the non-alcoholic spouse to
earn a regular source of income (40%). Since alcohol abuse strains the resources
of the family so a source of income would be very beneficial for it will not only
save them from the effects of alcohol abuse but it will also help them provide for
the family. This is followed by guidance and counseling suggested by 30.5%
respondents which would help them admit that there is a problem and learn to live
o;i:!::: i. in ~ healthyway. the alcoholic spouses may be helped to stop using
alcohol or reduce it so as to reduce its effects. Other suggestions made include:
organize awareness programmes, enforce strict laws on alcohol consumption,
increase beer prices and spiritual intervention.
5.3 Conclusion
The study was designed to explore the psychosocial effect of alcohol abuse on the
non-drinking spouse. Based on the study the researcher arrived at the following
conclusions: First, Alcohol is frequently abused by both male and female in
Ainamoi Division. Since it is frequently abused then the effects felt in other areas
of the country and the world is also felt in Ainamoi Division. Secondly, Alcohol
abuse is a challenge in rural area despite the government's efforts to curb it
through legislation. Thirdly, Alcohol abuse has a significant negative impact on
the family. The findings reveal many challenges ranging from lack of
communication to financial constraints, to lack of trust among spouses among
66
others. In addition, Alcohol abuse causes both physical and psychological distress
and has an effect on the psychological wellbeing of the spouse. These findings to
a great extent confirm the main objective of this research that psychosocial effects
of alcohol abuse has affected the spousal relationship in Ainamoi Division,
Kericho County, Kenya. Despite the many challenges, it was revealed that
spouses try all means to cope with alcohol abuse; although, some of their
mechanisms are not very successful.
5.4 Recommendation For Ainamoi Division
Based on tire: Iiudings, the following recommendations were made
1. There is need to sensitize non-drinking spouses on the psychosocial effects
of alcohol abuse on the spousal relationship.
II. There is need for psycho-education programs on importance of counseling
to help spouses cope with alcohol abuse. This will help them to seek
counseling.
Ill. There is need for establishment of counseling centers in more places in
order the address the alcohol problem.· This will assist non-alcoholic
spouses to cope with alcohol abuse in a more effective way.
IV. The government should come up with laws to regulate consumption of
alcohol use in the family. This will reduce the effects discussed above.
v. Community Development funds should be put into properly appraised
community projects that will empower spouses financially.
67
5.4.2 Recommendations for further research
1. The researcher suggests that there is need for similar studies using a larger
sample to test the generalizability of these findings.
11. There is also need to extend this study to other communities in Kenya to
find out whether similar findings will be obtained.
111. There is also need for studies to analyze the impact of alcohol abuse on
other aspects of family life.
68
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72
APPENDICES
Appendix 1
QUESTIONNAIRE FOR NON-ALCOHOLIC SPOUSES MARRIED TO
ALCOHOLIC SPOUSES
PART A: DEMOGRAPHIC DATA
Please tick in one oj the response boxes in each case, as it applies 10·You (or fill
in the blank space)
I. Give your gender Male ( ) Female ( )
2. Please give your age 18-24 yrs ( ) 2S-30yrs 31-3Syrs 3S-40yrs above 40yrs ( )
3. How long have you been married? l-Syrs ( ) 6-IOyrs ( ) 11-ISyrs ( ) 16-20yrs
( ) over 21yrs ( )
~LWhat is your "highest educati nal level? r-oilege/caInpus ( ) Secondary level ( )
Primary level ( ) none ( ) No response ( )
S. What is your spouse highest education level? College/campus ( ) Secondary
level ( ) Primary level ( ) none ( ) No response ( )
6. For how long has your spouse been using Alcohol? O-Syrs ( ) 6-10yrs ( ) 11-
lSyrs ( ) Above 16yrs ( )
7. How frequently does your spouse drink? Frequently ( ) occasionally ( ) Always
( ) No response ( )
Section B Effect of Alcoholism on Roles and Responsibilities
Question I-S contains questions measured on a Five Point Likert Scale namely
SD- Strongly Disagree, D-Disagree, Undecided, A-Agree and SA-Strongly Agree.
Please kindly respond to these questions by placing a tick on the appropriate
response.
1. My spouse provides money for basic needs.
SD [ ] D [ ] U [ ] A [ ] SA [ ]
2. We share household responsibilities
SD [ ] D [ ] u [ ] A [ ] SA [ ]
3. Alcohol abuse has affected my spouse responsibility
SD [ ] D [ ] u [ ] A [ ] SA [ ]
73
4. My spouse spends all his money in alcohol
SD [ ] D [ ] u [ ] A [ ] SA [ ] .
.- k .' ~ .:r,'
5. I have had to take over my spouse roles
SD [ ] D [ ] U [ ] A [ ]
6. Who performs the roles! duties of the alcohol user
Wife ( )
Parents ( )
Brothers ( )
Sisters ( )
Others ( )
7. In your opinion, how has alcohol abuse made your husband!wife fail in any of
those roles?
SA [ ]
.....................................................................................................................................
9 Please explain how you feel about taking over these roles
74
_KENYAT iA Ut l)VEl\vt I / LI
Section B Alcohol related challenges in a marital relationship
Question 1-5 contains questions .measured on a Five Point Likert Scale namely
SD- Strongly Disagree, D-Disagree, Undecided, A-Agree and SA-Strongly Agree.
Please kindly respond to these questions by placing a tick on the appropriate
response.
1. Alcohol use has affected our finances
S D [ ] D [ ] U [ ] A [ ] .SA [ }
2. We are not able to discuss and resolve conflicts
SD [ ] D [ ] U [ ] A [ ] SA [ ]
3. Alcohol use bymy spouse has enhanced our sexual intimacy
S D [ ] D [ ] U [ ] A [ ] SA [ ]
4. Alcohol use has caused many conflicts in our relationship
T T r ,
L' l j A [ J ,....... r: ,2:f\' l j
5. We are able to communicate and express our feelings freely
S D [ ] D [ ] U [] A [ ] SA [ ]
6. There are no misunderstandings in our family
S D [ ] D [ ] UI] A [ ] SA [ ]
7. Alcohol has made our relationship closer
S D [ ] D [ ] U [] A [ ] SA [ ]
8. In your opinion what are the challenges that are faced in a relationship where
one or both spouses abuse alcohol
75
SECTION C: Effect of Alcoholism on Psychological Wellbeing
Q A: The following questions seekto determine the effect of alcohol abuse on the
emotional wellbeing of the spouse. Question 1-5 contains questions measured on
a Five Point Likert Scale namely SD- Strongly Disagree, D-Disagree, Undecided,
A-Agree and SA-Strongly Agree. Please kindly respond to these questions by
placing a tick on the appropriate response.
1. Alcohol use has mademy spouse pull away from me
SD [ ] D [ ] U [ ] A [ ] SA [ ]
2, Our relationship has pulled apart and deteriorated
SD [ ] D [ ] u [ ] A [ ] SA [ ]
3. There are many misunderstandings in our family
SD [ ] D [ ] u [ ] A [ ] SA [ ]
4. Alcohol has made our relationship closer
SD [ ] I? [ ] U [ ] A [ ] SA [ ]
Q B: The following table seeks to find out aggressive behaviour meted out by
your alcoholic behaviour on you. Please tick the appropriate response.
Behavior Very Rarely none Very often
rare often
Fighting
Pushing
Arguing
Yelling
Verbal insults
Threatening
Others
Total
76
Q C: The "following statement seeks to determine how alcohol abusehas affected
your emotions. Please tick the appropriate response
Emotions Very Rare None Often Very
rare often
I feel very angry
Alcohol use has made me bitter ... :
I feel betrayed .
I feel confident about myself
My feelings are not affected
I feel very hurt
Total
Section E Spouse Coping Mechanisms
This section seeks to find out how you cope with alcohol abuse
1. How do you respond or cope with alcohol abuse/ drinking behaviours of your
drinking spouse? Tick any that applies to you (You may tick more than one)
a) I suffer without seeking help [ ]
b) Seeking employment outside home []
c) Turn to family, friends or neighbours []
d) Pouring the alcoholic drink down the sink [ ]
e) Telling my spouse to stop drinking [ ]
f) Drinking also to punish my spouse [ ]
g) Withdrawing sex from my spouse []
h) Reading information about alcohol []
i) Bringing pamphlets for spouse to read []
j) Going for counselling [ ]
2. From your experience what should be done to help non-alcoholic spouses
living with alcoholic spouses
77
3. Other than what you have answered above, please explain how else alcohol
abuse by your spouse has affected your emotions/feelings
78
APPENDIX II
Interview Schedule for non-alcoholic spouses
Instructions
a) The information you will provide is meant for research purposes only.
b) There are no correct or wrong responses.
c) Your responses will be treated with utmost confidentiality.
Q 1. a) Are there roles which you have taken and you feel your spouse should be
carrying out?
b). In your opinion, how has alcohol abuse affected your spouse responsibilities?
c). Please explain how this has affected you as a spouse.
Q2. Has your spouse ever been convicted of an offence /court fines/imprisonment
as a result of alcohol? Yes ( ) No ( ). If yes explain how this has affected you
b) Please explain how alcohol abuse affected your spouse productivity
79
c)Has your spouse been involved in any accident at home or in work as a result of
alcohol? Yes ( ) No ( ). If yes explain how this has affected you
d). Has your spouse become physically or emotionally abusive? Yes ( ) No ( ). If
yes explain how this has affected you
Q3.In your opinion what are the challenges facing a relationship where there is
alcohol use
Q4. How do you respond or cope with alcohol abuse/ drinking behaviours of your
drinking spouse
Q5. From your experience what should be done to help non-alcoholic spouses
living with alcoholic spouses
80
RESPONDENTS INTRODUCTORY LETTER '.
I ama student pursuing a master's degree in Kenyatta University. I am carrying
out a research on psychosocial effects of alcoholism on the family relationship.
This questionnaire has been designed to find out the effects of alcohol abuse
among spouses/partners of the dependants. The information that you will provide
will be treated with utmost confidentiality and strictly for the p.urposes ,oX the,
above named study. All trust has been put on you for honest answers to the
questionnaires. Kindly do not write your name anywhere in the questionnaire.
Read the questions and any accompanying instructions carefully before you
answer. Once you have read and understood what the questionnaire is about you
please sign here to show that you accept to answer on your own free will
Tf\ I I:KENYAT H\ vi"
NAKURU CA PU
81
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