c;;L- j OV v .
\
CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT OF SANDALWOOD
TREES: (Osyris lanceolata Hochst & Steudel,) IN CHYULLU HILLS
KIBWEZI DISTRICT, KENYA It
~CHAND Khasenye Valentine (Bsc.Forestry)
Reg. No NSOll0419/06
A RESEARCH PROJECT SUBMITTED, IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT FOR THE
DEGREE OF MASTER OF ENVIRONMENTAL PLANNING AND
MANAGEMENT
SCHOOL OF ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES
KENYATTA UNIVERSITY
BOX 43844-00100
NAIROBI, KENYA
DECEMBER, 2009
Ochanda, Khasenye
Conservation and
management of
1111~lllllllllmllmUII
2011/353104
KENVAlTA UNIVERSITY llBRARV
DECLARATION BY STUDENT
This~ft.or""is my original re~earch work and has not been presented or submitted for any
degree or any other award in any university.
KHASENYE, Ochanda Valentine
Reg. No. N50/l0419/06
Department of Environmental Planning and Management
DECLARATION BY SUPERVISORS
We confirm that the work reported in this ~~ was carried out by the candidate with our
--;approval as university supervisors.
5S h~~S.~~~=---__ ·Date.;2:2.-')"- Q.O'Oj
Prof Shyam Manohar
Signature
Department of Environmental Sciences
Kenyatta University
~t2
Signature_-"'-- __ -t--==~F=_'~-------Date \\ ~~. ~O \ ~
Prof James.B. Kung'u
Department of Environmental Sciences
Kenyatta University
ii
DEDICATION
I dedicate this precious work to my two sons, Sifa and Amani Epari who by Gods Grace
will live to write superior theses than this and to the Lord for giving me the grace to write
it.
iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First and foremost my heartfelt gratitude goes to my supervisors Professor S. Manohar
and Professor J. Kung'u for their meticulous planning, advice and healthy criticism
during preparation of the research proposal and the final report that invoked my thoughts
towards preparation of a good report. Many thanks go to Dr. Paul Ogungo of KEFRI for
his support during the early stages of proposal development.
I also acknowledge the financial support extended to me by ANAFE for data collection
activities, the forest officers and staff in the Kibwezi Kenya Forestry Research Institute
that helped with the planning of field activities. I appreciate the role of the Chair,
Department of Environmental Planning and Management, Dr.Kamau to support the
research work and the Postgraduate coordinator for the constant reminders and healthy
criticisms.
Finally; I appreciate the effort and support of my family and husband Epari and the
,departmental secretary Nyawade for your support during this strenuous time, God bless
you and to all others who participated in one way or the other thank you.
IV
TABLE OF CONTENTS
DECLARATION BY STUDENT ii
DEDICATION iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS v
LIST OF TABLES viii
LIST OF FIGURES ix
LIST OF PLATES x
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS/ ACRONYMS xi
ABSTRACT : xii
CHAPTER ONE 1
INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Background to the Study 1
1.1.1 Description of the plant... 2
1.1.2 Habitat and Geographic Distribution of Sandalwood trees in Kenya 3
1.1.3 Properties of sandalwood tree 4
1.2 Problem Statement. 4
1.3 Main Objective : 5
1.4 Specific Objectives of the Study 5
1.5 Research Questions 5
1.6 Significance of the Study 6
1.7 Assumptions of the Study 6
1.8 Scope and Limitations of the Study 7
CHAPTER TWO 8
LITERA TURE REVIEW 8
2.1 Introduction and background information : 8
2.1.2 Definition of Forest 9
2.1.2 Forest Resources 10
2.2 Biological diversity 10
2.3 Global essential products 12
2.4 Sandalwood in United States of America 14
2.4.1 Sandalwood in Hawaii 14
2.5 Sandalwood in Europe 16
2.5.1 Sandalwood in Tahiti and Marques 16
2.6 Sandalwood in Asia 17
2.6.1 Indian Sandalwood 17
2.7 Sandalwood in Australia 20
2.8 Sandalwood in Africa 22
2.9 Sandalwood in Kenya 22
2.9.1 Management of Economically viable trees in Kenya 24
2.9.2 East African Sandalwood 25
v
CHAPTER THREE 28
MATERIALS AND METHODS 28
3.1 Study Area 28
3.1.1 Location and size 29
3.1.2 Geology and Soils 30
3.1.3 Topography 31
3.1.4 Vegetation 32
3.1.5 Livestock and Crops 32
3.1.6 Demographic and Settlement patterns 33
3.1.7 History of Settlement 33
3.1.8 Economic profiles 34
3.2 Sampling and Sample design 35
3.2.2 R~search Design : 35
3.2.3 Target population 36
3.2.4 Sample and Sampling Procedures 37
3.3 Research Instruments 39
3.4 Data Sources 39
3.5 Pilotingthe Research Instruments 40
3.6 Data Collection Procedures 40
3.7 Methods of Data Analysis 41
CHAPTER FOUR 42
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 42
4.1 Introduction 42
4.2 Household characteristics 42
4.2.1 Gender 42
4.2.2. Age 43
4.2.3 Education levels of respondents in Kibwezi 44
4.2.4 Household dwelling units 45
4.2.3. Income levels source of Household Heads 45
4.2.4 Energy source for residents in the study area 47
4.2.5: Settlement pattern 48
4.3 Osyris lanceolata Growth, Morphology, Development and Distribution 49
4.3.1 Tree Morphology 49
4.3.2 Osyris growth and development in Kibwezi 50
4.3.3 The different habitats of Osyris plant within Kibwezi 52
4.3.4 Sandalwood diseases and pests 55
4.3.5 Osyris lanceolata tree density and cover 57
4.3.6 The identified types of the Osyris Tree 58
4.3.7 Regeneration Potential 59
4.4. Propagation and utilization of sandalwood in Kibwezi 60
4.5 Osyris lanceolata Oil Content 61
4.5.1 Average oil Yield (%) 61
4.6 Distribution of Sandalwood Trees in Kibwezi 63
4.6.1 Availability ofOsyris on respondents' Farms 63
VI
4.7 Mode of exploitation of Osyris lanceolata 68
4.7.1 Local Community Knowledge and Involvement in Propagation 70
4.8 Management of sandalwood and its associated challenges 71
4.8.1 Poverty of communities living adjacent to the protected areas 71
4.8.2 Nature and accessibility of Sandalwood seeds 72
4.8.3 Government ban 73
4.8.4 Lack of information to the residents 74
4.8.5. Theft and destruction 74
4.8.6 High market demand for sandalwood products 75
4.9 Local and international utilization of sandalwood 76
4.9.1 Local uses of sandalwood in Kibwezi 76
4.9.2 International uses 79
4.10 Steps towards better management of the sandalwood tree 79
4.11 The effect of market forces on sandalwood utilization 80
4.12 Adequacy of policy in the management of Osyris lanceolata 81
4.12.1 Legal, policy and institutional framework 81
CHAPTER FIVE 83
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATJONS 83
5.1 Overview 83
5.2 Summary of the study findings 84
5.3 Conclusion 87
5.4 Recommendations 87
5.5 Areas for further research 89
REFERENCES 90
APPENDICES 94
Appendix 1: Budget. 94
Appendix 2: Map Showing Study Areas Topography with Contours 95
Appendix 3 :Topographical Map of Study Area (Sheet 175-3, Masongaleni) 96
Appendix 4:Topographical Map of Study Area (Sheet 182-2, Chyullu Hills) 97
Appendix 5:Topographical Map of Study Area (Sheet 183-1, Mtito Andei) 98
Appendix 6: Questionnaire 99
Appendix 7:Questionnaire codebook 107
Appendix 8:The % of Kibwezi Population living below the Poverty line 120
vii
LIST OF TABLES
Table Number Page Number
Table 2.1 List of essential oils obtained from wild/cultivated Forest plants 13
Table 2.2. Geographical distribution of Santalum insulare variety in Eastern Polynesia 16
Table 3.1 Kibwezi district population projections based on 1999 census 33
Table 3.2 Rural Poverty Estimates For Kibwezi Divisions and Locations 35
Table 3.3.Target population (households) 36
Table 3.4: Target population (households) 37
Table 4.1. Household Composition in the sample .42
Table 4.2 The distribution of age within the study area 43
Table 4.3 The education level of the household head and spouse 44
Table 4.5: Sandalwood distribution in a quadrant by sub location 58
Table 4.8 Percentage oil yield from different parts from Kibwezi Samples 62
Table 4.9. Distribution of tree species in Makindu (zone 1) 64
Table 4.10. Distribution of tree species in Kisingo (zone 2) 64
Table 4.11. Distribution of tree species in Kikumbulyu (zone 3) 65
Table 4.12. Distribution of tree species in Ngwata (zone 4) 66
Table 4.13. Distribution of tree species in Utithi (zone 5) 66
Table 4.14. Distribution of tree species in Muthingini (zone 6) 67
Table 4.15. Distribution of tree species in Mangelete (zone 7) 67
Table 4.17.Common Uses of sandalwood In Kibwezi by the local community 70
Table 4.18. Number of trees harvested by households the last time they did so 70
Table 4.20. Distribution of Age and utilization priorities of different age groups within the study
area 76
Table 4.21. Chi Square distribution of Age and Utilization priorities of different age groups in
Kibwezi 77
Table 4.22 Community suggestions of solving sandalwood problems in Kibwezi District 80
VIII
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Number Page Number
Figure 4.1. Characteristics of household dwelling units of the target population .45
Figure 4.2. Households' major source of income in the study area 46
Figure 4.3. Energy Sources for Households in the target population 47
Figure 4.4. Number of years that the household has stayed in study area .48
Figure 4.5. Availability of Osyris lanceolata on respondents' farms 63
Figure 4.6. Sandalwood distribution in Kibwezi District. 68
Figure 4.7 Preferred parts harvested for sale in Kibwezi District. 69
Figure 4.8 Hindrances to sandalwood propagation in Kibwezi District. 73
Figure 4.9. Cost of fresh sandalwood per kilogram of green stems and woody branches 75
Figure 4.10. Local uses of sandalwood after harvesting 78
Figure 4.11. Income realized from the sale of green sandalwood chips 78
Figure 4.12. Sandalwood harvesting trends before and after presidential ban 81
ix
LIST OF PLATES
Plate Number Page Number
Plate 1.1 Mature Sandalwood tree growing in a residential area in Kibwezi (Kenya) 2
Plate 1.2 Sandalwood distribution pattern in Kenya 3
Plate 2.1 Santalum freycinetianum var. lanaiense leaves and flowers growing in Hawaii. 14
Source: Mark et. al2006 14
Plate 2.2 Photo of leaves and seeds of Santalum freycinetianum var. lanaiense 15
Source: (Mark et.aI2006) 15
Plate.2.3. Santalum insulare flowers and fruit, Source: (jean-Francois, 2004) 17
Plate 2.4 Photograph of S. album multilayered stem 18
Source (Gupta, 2006) 18
Plate 2.5 Photograph showing Santalum album fruit; Source Mark (2006) 19
Plate 2.6 One-year-old Indian sandalwood seedlings beneath host plants, within an FPC
plantation Source: (Gupta, 2006) 19
Plate 2.7 A photograph of S. Speciesicatum fruit growing in Western Australia 21
Source: Leithbridge (2001) 21
Plate.2.8 A photo of sandalwood products-woodcarvings, essential oil and Incense 22
Plate 3.1 Map of Kenya showing the study area 28
Plate 3.2 A map showing the Study Area and its divisional and district boundaries 29
Plate 3.3 Map showing the soil types of Study Area 31
Plate 3.4 Map showing the zones of the area for sandalwood vegetation covers identification 38
Plate 3.5 Photo illustrations of Commiphora association 39
Plate 4.1 Shows Osyris lanceolata leaves with ripe and green young fruits in Kibwezi 50
Plate 4.2 Showing the flowers of Osyris lanceolata in Utu of Kibwezi District 50
Plate 4.3 Photo of Osyris seeds A-collected from Utu and B-collected from Mbui Nzau in Kibwezi.
...................................................................................................................................................................... 52
Plate.4.4 Young Sandalwood seedling growing between rocks in Chyullu hills Kibwezi District. 53
Plate 4.5 Osyris growing in association with Cajanus cajan on a residential farm in Kibwezi 54
Plate 4.6: Photograph A showing sandalwood tree on a farm with Cajanus cajan 55
Photograph B showing sandalwood tree growing under Ficus tree Chyullu Hills' forest. 55
Plate 4.7 Sandalwood's pests and disease as seen in Kibwezi.(Chyullu Hills) 55
Plate 4.8: Photo A, showing sandalwood powder from the roots and B, the bark of the tree 56
Plate 4.9: Map of density and distribution of sandalwood in Kibwezi zones 58
Plate 4.10: Photograph showing sprouting from root cuttings 59
Plate 4.11: Sandalwood oil sold in Kenyan shops and Indian sandalwood oil... 62
Plate 4.12 Stack of harvested sandalwood from Chyullu hills in Kibwezi District. 75
x
ANAFE
ASALS
CBD
DBH
FAO
FD
GOK
ICRAF
KEFRI
KFS
KWS
LATF
NMK
NWFPS
SPSS
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS/ ACRONYMS
African Network for Agriculture and Forestry Education
Arid and Semi Arid Lands
Convention on Biological Diversity
Diameter at Breast Height
Food and Agricultural Organization
Forest Department
Government of Kenya
International Centre For Research in Agro forestry
Kenya Forestry Research Institute
Kenya Forestry Services
Kenya Wildlife Services
Lusaka Agreement Taskforce
National Museums of Kenya
Non-Wood Forest Products
Statistical Package For Social Studies
xi
ABSTRACT
Sandalwood trees are valuable because of their highly priced aromatic oil and durable
wood. Sandalwood can be found in Africa, Asia, Europe and Central America. As a result
of over-exploitation, Sandalwood is now an endangered species with countries banning
its trade. This study sought to establish whether there were any efforts to conserve
sandalwood within the Chyulu hills in Kibwezi division. It also sought to study
sandalwood morphology, growth, development and distribution within the division as
well as the propagation methods adopted by the locals in an effort to come up with better
management of sandalwood trees, including domestication. Other objectives were to
assess local and international utilization of Osyris and how the market forces of the
demand and supply of its products was driving its harvesting. The study also sought to
find out the role of policy and legal framework in the conservation of sandalwood within
Chyullu Hills. Data were collected through questionnaires and field surveys in individual
farms and within Chyullu hills where quadrants were laid to establish the density of
sandalwood in the area. The measures of central tendency were used to present the
results. The study found that although the tree is dioecious and it produces seed three
times a year, the community members have been trying to propagate it using the seeds,
and the main challenge was low survival rate as most of the seedlings died in the nursery
and after transplanting. A large population of the residents (64%) of Chyulu hills used
sandalwood for commercial purposes; and 21.2% use the tree for medicinal purposes for
the treatment both for animals and human beings such treatment of snake bites. The study
also established that internationally, the tree is mainly used in the perfume industry as a
fixative since the oil produced from the tree is an essential oil. Due to illegal harvesting,
most of the mature trees have been removed but young trees are now sprouting from the
stumps. The study found out that sandalwood was available in Kibwezi although
scattered in smaller portions and under threat from wood collectors, loggers and
poachers, due to the ready market in Tanzania. There is underground harvesting, which
are being driven by exports for the production of sandalwood oil. The study also
established that in harvesting, the entire tree was uprooted, as the roots were the main
targets. In Kenya for instance, trade in sandalwood is now illegal following a Presidential
ban in February 2007.1t is imperative however, that the domestication of the
economically viable species through community sensitization be the long-term solution,
vegetative propagation can also be seen as an option since the tree is semi parasitic and
may require a nurse plant for it to survive, to enable better management of the tree at the
same time enabling households generate income from the sale of sandalwood products.
Xli
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
This chapter deals with the background to the study, the description of the sandalwood
tree and its distribution, the statement of the problem, study objectives, research
questions, significance of the study, assumptions and scope and limitations.
1.1 Background to the Study
The sandalwood tree is highly priced globally for its oil which is valued as an aromatic
fixative. As a result, there has been overexploitation of the tree leading to a drop in its
population globally; with its search now expanding to Africa in such countries as Kenya
and Tanzania. In these countries, the tree can be found in gazetted forests as well as on
private land.
According to Ombahu (1997), sandalwood is an evergreen tree that grows up to six
metres in height in Kenya but up to 20 metres in India. Sometimes it attains a Diameter at
Breast Height (DBH) of 2.4 metres. Its bark is dark brown, reddish, and dark grey or
nearly black in younger trees.
The species was not considered important, until recently when it captured the limelight
due to it's over exploitation to meet the international demand for its perfumery and
medicinal products. Sandalwood is harvested by uprooting the whole tree. This mode of
harvesting has raised concern on its survival. In Kenya, the tree is endangered and this
threatens not only the survival of the species, but also the sustainability of the trade in the
species and its products.
In India however, the tree's products have attained sacred status. When harvested, the
stem, which is known as heartwood, is ground and its steam distilled into oils for use in
manufacturing cosmetics, soaps, candles, medicines and perfumes. Because of the
sacredness and the depleted status sandalwood in India, smugglers have now found East
Africa an easy source of its products. In Kenya, trade in sandalwood and its products is
now under presidential ban through a gazette notice since February 2007. This has
however not stopped the harvesting and marketing of sandalwood and its products as its
lucrative trade has forced people to target isolated forests and bushes where it is found,
especially in Kibwezi and Chyullu hills in Kenya (Opal a 2006). Plate 1.1 shows mature
sandalwood trees growing in a homestead in rural Kibwezi.
Plate 1.1 Mature Sandalwood tree growing in a residential area in Kibwezi (Kenya)
1.1.1 Description of the plant
Osyris lanceolata (East African Sandalwood) is a shrub or small tree, 1-6 metres in
height. It is evergreen and belongs to the family, santalaceae. The tree has small
branches measuring up to 25cm in length. The leaves are dark-green or light-green and
slightly fleshy, simple, alternate, lanceolate in shape, and crowded along the stern. The
leaves become tough and leathery when mature. They are narrow and oval, 1-7cm long
with a fine sharp tip. The edge of the leaves is tightly rolled under. The 2rnrn stalk runs
down the stern forming a ridge. The flowers are small, pale yellow to green in colour and
are on few flowered short heads from the leafaxils. The sepal tube is pale green with 3-6
2
lobes that are yellow green like the disk, the anthers are dull orange green in colour. The
flowers are mainly in the inflorescence auxiliary cymes. The fruits are a drupe and orange
or red in colour. They are waxy, oval-rounded with berries that are about lcm long. The
margin is waged, 5-8mm and somewhat thickened and glabrous (Beentje 1994).
1.1.2Habitat and Geographic Distribution of Sandalwood trees in Kenya
In Kenya, sandalwood is found in rocky sites, forest margins, bush land, grassland and
thickets. It is widely distributed in the Arid and Semi Arid areas (ASALs) of Kenya
within an altitude of900-2550ft. It grows in Kibwezi (Chyullu Hills), Taita Hills, Ngong
hills, Karai, Marsabit, and Gwasi hills. Other areas include Narok, Kajiado, Turkana,
Mbeere, Makueni, Nakuru, Laikipia, West Pokot, Koibatek and Meru North Districts.
Plate 1.2 shows the sandalwood distribution pattern in Kenya.
~~-------+--------~--------4---------H6
rnreatened I
, Natural Range
_ Lake
District Bound ry
11~~~~~~~~~6~O~_=_~~~6~~~._.;1~O=K=mS==~========~6'
c~ ~ ~ ~ d
Plate 1.2 Sandalwood distribution pattern in Kenya
3
1.1.3Properties of sandalwood tree
The stem, roots and heartwood of the trunk, and main branches contain essential aromatic
oil whose concentration is more in the roots and may reach 10%, followed by trunk (4-
8%). Heartwood development accelerates when the tree is about 20 years old, (Rai 1990)
the oil blends so well with many fragrance materials that it has become a common
blender fixative used in many perfumes. Hindus, Buddhists, Chinese and Muslims use
sandalwood as incense in their prayers and ceremonies because of its sweet fragrance.
The tree oil is used to treat a variety of ailments such as skin diseases, sexually
transmitted diseases, coughs and colds among others
1.2 Problem Statement
The unsustainable harvesting technique that involves complete clear cuttings and
uprooting of the tree has led to the massive overexploitation of sandalwood. It is
therefore prudent that a domestication pro$ram for the species is put in place to offer
products for the market. However, due to the fact that the species has not been a
mainstream plantation, very little is locally known on its ecology, morphology
reproduction and propagation. Little has been done to demonstrate how the species could
be cultivated on farms.
Over-exploitation coupled with strict surveillance in India and Tanzania has led to
extensive exploitation and illegal exportation of sandalwood from Kenyan Forests. Since
Tanzanian authorities banned the export of sandalwood from their ports, traders have
therefore shifted their export base to Kenyan ports where such controls are less enforced.
The products sourced from East African countries are semi-processed and exported to
Indonesia, India, South Africa, France, Italy, Brazil, Belgium, England and Germany for
the cosmetic and pharmaceutical industries (Beentje, 1994).
The Forest Department (FD), the Kenya Wildlife Service (KWS), and the National
Museums of Kenya (NMK) suggest that commercial exploitation of sandalwood in
Kenya may have started in the early part of 2004 in the ranches along the border with
4
Tanzania at Kuku and Kimana in Kajiado District. These organizations also suggest that
cross border trade between Kenya and Tanzania may have started as early as 2004.
Because of the high value of sandalwood, illegal logging has almost depleted the species.
This study seeks to add to the limited existing knowledge on sandalwood morphology
growth and development, its local and international values and utilization as well as its
propagation techniques; this will explore opportunities of the tree which will in turn raise
land productivity, ecosystem restoration and the improvement of the livelihoods of the
inhabitants.
1.3 Main Objective
To understand the conservation of sandalwood and how it can be better managed using
either in-situ or ex-situ management plan in view of exploitation threats.
1.4 Specific Objectives of the Study
The study sought to achieve the following objectives
1. To understand sandalwood morphology, growth, development and distribution in
Kibwezi Kenya.
2. To find out the local community involvement in propagation of sandalwood.
3. To study the techniques and methods used to manage sandalwood and its
associated challenges
4. To understand the local and international utilization of sandalwood products.
5. To assess the adequacy of legal and policy framework in the management of
sandalwood in East Africa.
1.5 Research Questions
To achieve its objectives the research was guided by the following questions.
1. How does sandalwood grow and how is its distributed within the study area and
the country.
2. Which are the common propagation methods used by community members in
Kibwezi and other areas of Kenya?
3. Is the local community in Kibwezi District aware about the common use of
sandalwood?
5
4. What are the major problems and challenges facing the communities In the
management, conservation and utilization of sandalwood in the study area?
5. What can be done to improve the propagation techniques, conservation methods,
and public awareness about the importance of this plant species?
6. How are the market forces influencing the harvesting and utilization of the
species?
7. How adequate is the policy framework to support sustainable use of the tree, in
terms of incentives for production and marketing?
1.6 Significance of the Study
This study seeks to contribute to the literature on the conservation, management and
utilization of sandalwood. This will also contribute to policy options and debate on
economic propagation of sandalwood in Kenya. Poverty has been claimed to inhibit
investment in environmental conservation and it also induces survival strategies
detrimental to natural resource base. Successful knowledge, plantation management and
propagation strategies for sandalwood that can involve ex-situ conservation, the
economic gains from the harvest of sandalwood can help to alleviate poverty in the local
communities living around forests with this species. These efforts can also assist the
government in its efforts towards achieving the United Nations millennium development
goals relating to poverty, environment and biodiversity conservation. Finally the study
may also help to spur the development of sandalwood in the ASALs.
1.7 Assumptions of the Study
The study assumed that the local communities around the Chyullu hills forest appreciate
sandalwood's economic value and are aware that it is threatened and therefore see the
need to conserve and manage the tree. The study further assumed that the government,
community and donors are interested in conserving this important tree species in Kenya
because of its economic benefits to the developed countries.
6
1.8 Scope and Limitations of the Study
The study was carried out in the five locations around the Chyullu hills in Kibwezi. These
include Makindu, Ngwata, Kikumbulyu, Masongaleni and Mtito Andei locations. The
main focus of the research was to study the conservation and management of sandalwood
in these locations.
7
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction and background information
This chapter reviews literature from across the globe on the conservation and
management of sandalwood. Literature is from the United States of America (USA),
Europe, Asia, Australia and finally Africa. The chapter begins with the background
information on sandalwood forests and biodiversity.
The increased wanton destruction of forest resources among the poor who live around
this resource has drastically increased in Kenya and the world. This has been largely
caused by poor institutional framework or management of natural resources in particular
lack of basic scientific information on better management strategies of important
naturally occurring tree this destruction is in the country. This destruction is expected to
result in adverse global climate changes due to the deforestation and severe
environmental consequences.
Evidence strongly suggests that deforestation has adverse effects on the environment
where food and economic security of the rural poor will be affected and this will further
drive the communities into the destruction of the forests leading to more environmental
consequences; this has been attributed to environmental education because of
environmental perceptions by farmers. Consequently, several studies have been
conducted to investigate environmental perceptions and education worldwide (Napier and
Napier, 1991; Hartup, 1994; Colchester, 1996; Jacobson and Marynowski, 1997; Furman,
1998; Hill, 1999). A common finding following from these studies is that conservation
attitudes reflect resource-use benefits.
It's in the light of the potential of negative economic and environmental consequences
that UNEP agreed on a strategy to avert deforestation and avert water and natural
resource depletion. The Kenyan government has also been able to heed the advice from
professionals on conservation with better outcome for the example the present Mau forest
8
conservation process in place. Other interventions by the government on conservation of
economically important tree species like sandalwood include the presidential ban on the
harvest and sale of the tree and a joint secretariat comprising of National Museums of
Kenya, Kenya Forest Service and Kenya Wildlife Service are in place to gather
information on sandalwood conservation and management which will shade more light
on the management of the tree and generally conservation of biological diversity in the
country.
2.1.t Definition of Forest
There are varying definitions of a forest. Ecologists have defined forests as terrestrial
ecosystems generated and maintained primarily through natural, ecological and
evolutionary processes. These are home to most of the world's biodiversity. The working
definition of forests adopted by the parties to the Kyoto Protocol, based on the Food and
Agricultural Organization (FAO) includes both ecosystems that contribute to biodiversity
conservation and tree monocultures that are said to contribute to threats on biodiversity
(United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, 2005).
Other institutions have also come up with their own definitions of forests. For example
the Subsidiary Body on Scientific, Technical and Technological Advice (SBSTT A) has
defined a forest as one that may be afforested land or a secondary forest established by
planting or direct seeding. A gradient exists among plantation forests from even-aged,
single species monocultures of exotic species with a fiber production objective to mixed
species, native to the site with both fiber and biodiversity objectives. This gradient will
probably also reflect the capability of the plantation forest to maintain 'normal' local
biological diversity (United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, 2005).
The FAO defines a forest as any land with greater than 10% cover by woody and
perennial plants. It may also be land that has more than 10% crown cover on an area of
more than 0.5 hectares excluding land predominantly used for agriculture. For a tree
plantation to be defined as a forest, it should ideally be on more than 0.5 hectares. The
proportion of the land area under forests is also used in the Millennium Development
Goals indicator process (United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs,
9
2005). For a working definition of forests, this research adapted FAO's definition where
it includes both the planted and natural trees in a given region at a given point in time.
2.1.2 Forest Resources
Forest resources have direct products such as timber as well as non wood products such
as moderation of global climate. The extent of forest resources is the first and the most
important element characterizing sustainable forest management. It refers to the overall
goal of maintaining adequate forest cover and stocking of various forest types and
characteristics to support the social, economic and environmental objectives related to
forestry within a country or region.
The ultimate aim of having knowledge about the extent and characteristics of forest
resources is to reduce unplanned deforestation, restore and rehabilitate degraded forest
landscapes, manage forests sustainably and evaluate the important function of production
of direct and indirect forest products and services (Food and Agriculture Organization,
2000).
Forest resource assessment is also important in enhancing strategies that will reduce
pressure on gazetted forest by encouraging agro forestry practices and on farm tree
technologies that is able to produce consumable resources and increased incomes for
farmers. A forestation and re-a forestation programmes are critical in natural resource
management, this programmes were approved during the ninth conference of parties in
Marrakech morocco in 2001 (Marrakech accords) (F.A.O, 2004)
2.2 Biological diversity
Biological diversity concerns the conservation and management of ecosystem
(landscape), species and genetic levels. Such conservation, including the protection of
areas with fragile ecosystems, ensures that diversity of life is maintained, and provides
opportunities to develop new products in the future, including medicines.
The term biological diversity entered the public vocabulary only about 21 years ago. Its
arrival signalled a new and more comprehensive approach to conservation that brought
10
together information, knowledge, awareness, related to forestry, protected areas,
agricultural practices, economics, intellectual property rights (IPRs), land tenure, trade
and other elements for the holistic management of ecosystems (Food and Agriculture
Organization, 2000). The concept has encouraged land-use planners to revise outdated
approaches, such as excluding people from their traditional lands in the name of
conservation or focusing on one forest benefit to the exclusion of others. It also led to the
adoption of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), which has now been ratified
by more than 180 countries (Food and Agriculture Organization, 2000).
The CBD therefore defines biological diversity as the variability among living organisms,
including diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems. It is thus an
attribute of life and a property of assemblages of organisms. This therefore means that
what is used, misused, conserved or destroyed is not biological diversity itself but
biological resources, which CBD defines as genetic resources, organisms or parts thereof,
populations or any other biotic component of ecosystems with actual or potential use or
value for humanity (Food and Agriculture Organization, 2000).
Forest experts and ecologists considered the holistic approach of biological diversity for
the first time through the CBD. The intrinsic value of biological diversity has been
recognized, along with its ecological, genetic, social, economic, scientific, educational,
cultural, recreational and aesthetic value. However, the main focus is on benefits to
people from the sustainable use of biological resources. Biological diversity provides
many benefits to humans, supporting the systems that store and cycle nutrients essential
for life, absorbing and breaking down pollutants, recharging groundwater, producing soil
and protecting it from excessive erosion. This provides the basis for all improvements to
domesticated plants and animals as well as numerous raw materials for industry and
medicine. The variation in life provides the basis for adapting to changing conditions
(United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, 2005).
Genetic improvement is also a means of increasing forest productivity, for example to
ensure high wood production levels in intensively managed forests. Biological diversity'
11
encompasses the variety of existing life forms, the ecological roles they perform and the
genetic diversity they contain.
In forests, biological diversity allows species to adapt continuously to dynamically
evolving environmental conditions and needs, to maintain the potential for tree breeding
and improvement (to meet human needs for goods and services and changing
consumption requirements), and to support their ecosystem functions. While timber
production often dominated the way in which forests were managed in the twentieth
century, new pressures in the twenty-first century drive a more balanced approach,
calling for delivery of multiple goods and services. The process towards sustainable
forest management is now considered consistent with the conservation of biological
diversity. Conservation of biological diversity is important at guiding sustainable forest
management. Monitoring of biological diversity and of the changes caused by forestry
practices is important in assessing the effectiveness of management and the cumulative
changes brought about by forest use. The variables measured with relevance to forest
biological diversity include:
• Threatened forest tree and animal species,
• Number of native tree species and indigenous animal species,
• Area of primary forests; and forest area designated for conservation of
biodiversity.
2.3 Global essential products
Most plant species produce oils and other products that are used for several purposes.
These include medicines, spices and perfumes. Table 2.1 shows some selected products
and essential oils as well as the plants and countries of origin associated with them.
12
Table 2.1 List of essential oils obtained from wild/cultivated Forest plants.
No Product Main Origin
I Amyris
2 Anise/Star anise
3 Anise, Star
4 Bay/laurel leaf
5 Abreuva
6 Caraway Seed
7 Cedarwood
8 Cinnamon/cassia
9 Citronella
10 Davana
II Eucalyptus
12 Lavender
13 Lemon grass
14 Litsea
15 Muhuhu
16 Nutmeg/Mace
17 Palmarosa
18 Patchouli
19 Pimento (all species)
20 Rosewood
21 Sandalwood
22 Sassafras
23 Tagetes
24 Ylang- Ylang
Source: ITC (I 986a)
Botanical Source
Amyr is balsam ifera
Pimpinella anisum
Anisum verum
Pimenta racemosa/laurus nobilis
Myrocarpusfrondosus
Carum carvi
Cedrus species./juniperus species.
Cinnamomum verumlc. cassia
Cymbopogon species
Artemisia species
Eucalyptus species
Lavendula species
Cymbopogon flexuosus
Litsea cubeba
Brachyleana hutchinsii
Byri stica fragrans
Cymbopogon martini
Pogostemon cablin
Pimenta dioica
Aniba rosaeodora
Santalum album/Osyris lanceolata
Ocotea pretiosa
Tagetes glandulifera
Cananga odorata
Haiti
Soviet union, Poland
China, Vietnam
Dominica, Turkey,Italy, Cote d'ivoire
Brazil
Many Asian, Western Europe and North African countries, U.S.A
India, Sri lanka, Guatemala,U S.A China, Kenya
Sri lanka (cinnamon), China (cassia)
Indonesia, China, Sri lanka, India, Taiwan, Guatemala
India, Pakistan
China, Portugal, South Africa, Brazil, Australia
France, Italy, Hungary.
India, Guatemala, China
China
Tanzania, Kenya
Indonesia, Grenada, Sri lanka
India
Indonesia, China
Jamaica, U.S.A
Brazil, Peru
India, Indonesia,Australia,Kenya
Brazil
Southern Africa, Kenya, Tanzania
Comoros, Madagascar, Indonesia
As one of the economically viable tree species III the world, Osyris lanceolata has
received protection in some countries such as India and Australia where it is greatly
valued and well managed. Consequently, local communities have benefitted from it.
Some countries in Africa such as Tanzania realized the value of the tree much earlier and
put in place strict measures to avert unsustainable harvesting. Following the presidential
ban on trade in sandalwood in Kenya, foresters and conservationists are now establishing
effective management guidelines and practices. The process is however slow and
cumbersome, with illegal trade still going on.
13
2.4 Sandalwood in United States of America
2.4.1 Sandalwood in Hawaii
The Hawaiian sandalwood has different species and names. The most commonly used
tree is Santalum freycinetianum (Viell) genera santalum var which is distributed in the
Hawaiian Islands, where it has various species with the common Santalum genera. These
species include S. haleakalae (Hillebr), S. freycinetianum (Gaud). S. elliptic (Gaud), and
S. paniculatum (Hook. & Amott) (Mark et.al 2006).
The tree is small and grows from 5-10 metres or may be taller at maturity. The leaves are
fleshy with a dominant pale green colour, the flowers are bright green and arranged in
clusters, the back of the tree is grey when young and darkens to a reddish brown color
when mature as seen in plate 2.1. The plant produces the essential oil mainly from the
roots while the sterns are used in the production of Joss sticks as it contains some small
amount of industrial oil.
Plate 2. J Santalurn freycinetianurn var. lanaiense leaves and flowers growing in Hawaii.
Source: Mark et. al2006
14
S. freycinetianum grows well in sub-humid or humid tropics with a distinct dry season of
3-5 months, mostly in open-dry forests and woodlands. It grows well on clay and sandy
red soils that are light to medium in terms of heaviness and well drained. Its Growth rate
is slow to moderate, of about 0.3-0.7 mlyr (1-2.3 ft/yr). S. freycinetianum is widely
distributed in the Hawaiian Islands, and varies by the four species with small shrubs or
trees, typically 5-10 m (16-33 ft) or larger at maturity. The habitat of the species varies
but is mainly found in xeric, sub humid or humid tropics with a distinct dry season of 3-5
months. In Hawaii, the trees thrive well in light to medium well drained soils.
Herrera et al. (1988) suggest that under good conditions, S. freycinetianum begins
flowering at an early age of about 3--4 years, but heavy flowering and fruiting may take
7-10 years. There is considerable variation in seasonality of flowering and fruiting. Trees
flower and produce fruit throughout the year, usually with two peaks. Most species have
a fruiting season throughout spring and fall.
Plate 2.2 Photo ofleaves and seeds ofSantalum freycinetianum var. lanaiense
Source: (Mark et.al 2006)
The main uses of Santalum freycinetianum in Hawaii include agro forestry as Home
gardens, mixed species forestry and heart-wood for making of crafts, and the extraction
of the essential oil. The tree yields mature heart-wood up to 30 years. Hawaiian
15
sandalwood needs intercropping because it is parasitic and requires one or more host
plants. (Mark, et al. 2006)
2.5 Sandalwood in Europe
2.5.1 Sandalwood in Tahiti and Marques
Sandalwood in Europe (Santalurn insulare, L.), is found in the eastern parts of the Pacific
(8-28°S and 128-158°W). It has nine sub species as seen in table 2.2 and grows well up to
altitudes of2234 metres above sea level close to Mount Orohena in Tahiti.
Table 2.2. Geographical distribution of Santalun? insulare variety in Eastern Polynesia
Variety Territory Archipelago Islands
Alticola French Polynesia Society Tahiti
Deckeri French Polynesia Marquesas Nuku
Hendersonense Pitcairn Islands Pitcairn Henderson
Insulare French Polynesia Society Tahiti
Marchionense French Polynesia Marquesas Nuku
Margaretae French Polynesia Austral Rapa
Mitiaro Cook Islands Cook Mitiaro
Raiateense French Polynesia Society Raiatea,
Raivavense French Polynesia Austral Raivavae
Source: Jean-Francois Butaud (2004)
In Europe, the Mean annual rainfall of the areas where sandalwood is found ranges from
900mm to 1200mm on the leeward slopes of Marquesas Islands and the summit of Mount
Orohena. The tree is found in areas with as low mean annual temperatures as 14°C on the
summit of Mount Orohena as well as in the Marquesas Islands with mean annual
temperatures of up to 27°C (Butaud, 2004). Sandalwood in Eastern Polynesia can grow
on both coral gravel and coral sand on the rnotu (small coral islets, a few meters high
located close to the coral reef) of Raivavae, or the rnakatea (coral limestone plateau) on
uplifted island (Herrera, 1988). Plate 2.3 shows flowers and fruits of santalurn insulare in
Europe.
16
Plate.2.3. Santalurn insulare flowers and fruit, Source: (Jean-Francois, 2004)
Polynesian sandalwood is used for carving. Its powder can also be mixed with coconut
oil (rnonoi ahi or Pani Puahi) for cosmetic and medicinal purposes.
2.6 Sandalwood in Asia
2.6.1 Indian Sandalwood
The Indian sandalwood (Santalurn album Linn) is a root hemi-parasite that can grow up
to 20 m in height. The sandal tree, botanically known as Santalurn Album belongs to the
family Santalaceae. The sandal tree grows almost exclusively in the forests of Karnataka,
followed by Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Andhra Pradesh as well as in the Timor Islands of
Indonesia.
17
Plate 2.4 Photograph of S. album multilayered stem
Source (Gupta, 2006).
The tree occurs naturally within semi-tropical regions of India, Indonesia and the
Northern Territory (Jon and Peter, 2006). The species is found on the Deccan Plateau
approximately covering 9000 km2 of which 8200 km2 is located in the states of Karnataka
and Tamil Nadu. The tree is medium sized 12-15 meters tall. It reaches its full maturity in
60 to 80 years, which is when the centre of the heart-wood has achieved its greatest oil
content. As the tree grows, the essential oil develops in the roots and heartwood, which
requires at least 15 to 20 years. The core of dark heartwood gradually develops, which is
covered by outer sapwood. The sandalwood tree is never felled, but uprooted in the rainy
season, when the roots are richer in the precious essential oil. Vietnam and New
Caledonia have well controlled plantations of genuine Sandalwood. The best quality oil
comes from the Indian province of Mysore and Tamil Nadu where the harvest of
Sandalwood trees is protected by the state government (Coppen, 1995).
Santulum album thrives best in altitudes of between 650-1200m and rainfall conditions
of between 500-2000mm. The dry habitat makes it prone to fire damage. The tree grows
in various types of soils like the black and red soils and clay. It can thrive well at an
average temperature of 35°C to 40°C during hot season and 5°C to lOOCduring cold
seasons.
18
Plate 2.5 Photograph showing Santalurn album fruit; Source Mark (2006)
Plate 2.6 One-year-old Indian sandalwood seedlings beneath host plants, within an FPC
plantation Source: (Gupta, 2006).
In India, the heartwood of the sandal tree is considered sacred and prized. According to
Jon et al. (2006), about 60 kilograms of oil are distilled from a ton of heartwood. The oil
is used in the formulation of perfumes, body lotions, air sprays, soap, candles, scented
19
burning sticks and aromatic carvmg wood. Mashed into a paste, it is used in folk
medicine and spread on the skin to purify the complexion and to heal rashes. It is dabbed
on the forehead during religious ceremonies and burnt as incense in temples. The
sandalwood industry employs thousands of people, especially in Mysore, known as
"Sandalwood City." Employees work in incense factories, rolling sandalwood paste on
bamboo skewers and craftsmen carve the hard yellow wood into boxes, combs, beads and
statue of Hindu Gods and elephants in India, commonly known as 'Chandan' (Rai, 1990).
Other uses of the sandal tree include the treatment of ailments such as acne, coughs,
depression, diarrhoea, insomnia, restlessness and problems with the nervous system,
stress/anxiety, varicose veins, eczema, sore throat, scabies and nausea among others.
2.7 Sandalwood in Australia
According to Frontier (2008), Australian sandalwood is mostly referred to as Santalum
speciesicatum (R Br) A DC: Santalaceae). There are five native species in Australia but
two are commercially viable. These are S. speciesicatum and S. lanceolatum. According
to Nott (1998), there are several different types of sandalwood trees that belong to the
family Santalaceae. In the genera speciesicatum, there are about 29 different genera but
only two have been extensively studied for their economic value.
S. speciesicatum grows to a height of about 3 to 12 meters and a diameter of about 0.1 to
0.3 meters. The heartwood matures at about 30 years but depends with the environmental
conditions. For instance, it can mature at 100 years in the drier areas of Western and
Southern Australia with an altitude of between 0 to 500 meters above sea level. The
rainfall condition suitable for this tree is usually between 150 to 500mm annually.
The tree grows in various types of soils like the calcareous red soils and red clay soils. It
can thrive well at an average temperature of 32°C to 38°C during hot season and 3°C to
JOCduring cold seasons (Rai, 1990). Plate 9 shows santalum speciesicatum in Australia.
20
Plate 2. 7 A photograph of S. Speciesicatum fruit growing in Western Australia
Source: Leithbridge (2001)
The tree was introduced into agricultural land under share fanning agreements. The
benefits of this program yield both conservation and economic dividends by
reintroducing it to its native habitat where population size has previously been reduced.
The tree has provided an alternative high value, low maintenance crop with a well
established market for land owners. The program has helped the conservation efforts of
sandalwood to date by gradually decreasing the harvest in natural stands whilst increasing
harvest from the plantation based resource.
Western Australian sandalwood was first exported from Western Australia to America
and China in 1845 and for most of this industry's history, the resource has been derived
from natural stands. While the current harvest levels are sustainable and will continue to
provide most of the resource available for harvest, the growing of this native species has
created a sense of excitement as its production enters a new phase in Australia.
Sandalwood was traditionally associated with the rangelands of Western Australia where
the species occurs across a wide range of land systems. However the prime range of
sandalwood occurred within the wheat belt of Western Australia. Between 1892 and 1901
more than 50,000 tons were exported from this area with nearly all this wood derived
from the wheat belt as agricultural Western Australian sandalwood is presently exported
21
to South-East Asia for the manufacture of incense or joss sticks. Within domestic markets
it is used by a number of Western Australian crafts people and furniture manufacturers
for incorporation with other timbers. It is also used for the production of essential oil
facility that not only extracts sandalwood oil, but uses the oil in a wide range of cosmetic
and therapeutic products (Lethbridge, 2001). Plate 2.8 shows some of sandalwood
products.
Plate.2.8 A photo of sandalwood products-woodcarvings, essential oil and Incense
Source; Leithbridge (2001)
2.8 Sandalwood in Africa
The African sandalwood has different genus and species known as Spirostachys
Africana(L) also called Tambotiesl Tamboote or the Coco bola of Africa which is mostly
found in Mozambique ( Madeiras 2008). The other species found in Tanzania are called
the Osyris lanceolata (0. tenuifloia) which is mainly distributed around the Sagassa area.
It is also, referred to as Carratt or carrat or Kitandae (Chagga) or Kipaat (lraqw). Other
countries that have the Osyris tree include Zimbabwe and South Africa.
2.9 Sandalwood in Kenya
Sandalwood in Kenya grows naturally in the arid and semi arid lands which cover over
82% of the total surface and the present point for sustainable extensive agro forestry
interventions to address the problem of deforestation (Bondi & Mugambe, 1996). These
areas are inhabited by impoverished population with one half of the population living
22
below the poverty line (lama & Zeila, 2005). The areas are also characterized by poor
and erratic rainfall patterns poor soils leading to low crop productivity. Poverty is known
to inhibit investment in environmental conservation inducing survival strategies
detrimental to natural resource management.
However the availability of land in these areas has encouraged immigration into the areas
leading to severe land pressure since most agricultural land elsewhere is overpopulated,
this has led to overpopulation, continuous cropping of fragile ecosystems and
deforestation resulting to severe mismanagement of natural resources importantly
effective management of sandalwood will assist the global community efforts towards
environmental conservation at the same time contributing to the government efforts
towards achieving the MDGs relating to poverty, environmental and biodiversity
conservation.
For smallholder farmers to engage in any tree planting as an economic activity IS
determined generally by the sure available opportunity for income generation a viable
option with sandalwood. Any sandalwood growing intervention must therefore be
justified in light of competing household demands and land capacity (Bass et al, 2000).
In Kenya the East African sandalwood species is called the Osyris lanceolata. It is known
by different local names this includes .Msandali (Swahili), Muthithi (Kikuyu) Ndonga
(Kamba) and Olasasia (Maasai) or the Muhuhu oil (Wanjohi 2005; Gupta 2006). The
species, Spirostachys africana found in Mozambique is known to produce the best
heartwood products. According to Madeiras (2008), the African sandalwood (S africanai
is dark brown and has darker longitudinal streaks which make very beautiful markings. It
has a mottled figure as well as banded. It has got incremental marks that can easily be
seen with naked eyes. The heartwood has an average density of 1041kg/m3, is lustrous
with powerful persistent and very pleasant scent which is sweeter than other
sandalwoods. The scent is known to last for a long time after the wood has been freshly
harvested. When a piece of furniture is made from it, the scent is said to remain for a very
long time and can be smelled in a considerable large room.
23
KENYAITA UNI~ERS~TVLiBRA V
The University of Princeton defines African sandalwood as a small shrub that has
heartwood used as the dye wood and produces a red dye and the plant belongs to the
family, Santalaceae. The tree grows to a height between 25 to 40 feet and a girth of
between 4 to 6 inches. The trees are a hardwood, heavy and require high polish when
processed. The main characteristics of its heartwood include a light yellow to brown
colour when fresh and turns to dark brown when exposed to sunlight. As the tree grows
older, the colour changes to dark brown while its sapwood looks whitish (Madeiras
2008).
Generally, the tree is evergreen often growing to over 6 meters high. The young branch
lets are angular. The leaves are simple, lanceolate to elliptic, leathery to fleshy, bright
grey-green or blue-green, with a dull, waxy coating, apex pointed, with sharp tip. Its
Flowers are small, mostly yellow-green; with small ovary with the Fruit being a fleshy
stone-fruit (drupe) crowned by a persistent calyx; elliptic to almost spherical, red to dark
purple when ripe. The African sandalwood is said to be poisonous when burnt in the
house (Beentje 1994).
2.9.1 Management of Economically viable trees in Kenya
Innovations in forest management has enabled dry land farmers optimize integration of
trees and crops by diversifying the consumptions of products t, this permits the farmer to
accumulate capital and provide a wide range of environmental services such as protecting
the soils from erosion agents.
Successful management strategy for these trees has the potential to improve households
incomes raise land productivity and improve adoption of farm forestry techniques where
the trees are introduced to offer both productive and protective functions. Increased tree
productions in the farmlands will help in conservation of gazetted forest areas which have
traditionally provided most of the environmental services for households.
Traditional income sources have been through the sale of forest wood and non wood
products, therefore proper management of sandalwood will provide an added bonus to the
24
farmers while developing their resources for other uses hence they stand to gain more. A
proper management scheme for the tree will also offer a progressive sustainable
harvesting technique hence reduce the rampant harvest of forest products(sandalwood) to
enable tree resources provide their environmental functions for a longer time than is
conventionally the case at the moment.
Kenya is developing management systems of economically viable tree species. The
challenge has been that these systems are slow and in most cases only seem to start to
function after much damage has already been done. An evident example is the unplanned
management of the aloe vera plant, an economically viable shrub where a presidential
ban came into force after it had already been over-exploited. As has become evident, such
bans rarely stop illegal trade in these endangered trees with large benefits going to
middlemen as compared to the local farmers. Economic benefits of trees must be weighed
against demanding resources and needs to offer lasting economic solutions.
Generally a well managed and planned sandalwood scheme will offer an extra income to
the impoverished rural farmers in the arid and semi arid lands which will help in
alleviating poverty; as well as high rate of deforestation and corresponding land
degradation that is prevalent in this area.
2.9.2 East African Sandalwood
The East African Sandalwood is known as Osyris lanceolata Hochst & Steudel, and
belongs to the family santalaceae commonly known as the African Sandalwood. As seen
by (Dale 1961; Breitenbach 1963), it is a an evergreen dioecious shrub or small tree
growing to a height of 1-7 meters depending on soil-type, climate and genetics of the tree
(Beentje 1994). The Leaves are bluish green or yellow green arranged in an alternate
manner. Its Flowers are small, pale yellow green, inconspicuously borne in an
inflorescence that develops from the axial of leaves. According to miller (1989), female
flowers develop to fleshy single seeded fruits. This plant is known to produce fragrant-
scented wood from which sandalwood essential oil is extracted (Herrera 1988; Miller
1989; Mbuya, Msanga et al. 1994).
25
The East African Sandal wood found in Tanzania is also called the Osyris lanceolata and
belongs to the family Santalaceae. It has wavy green leaves with inflorescence of yellow
flowers and bright red fruits. It is common among the forests in Eastern Africa like those
in Sagassa. The tree grows to a height of 8 meters in a solitary place. It is also identified
with its greenish to yellow inconspicuous flowers and berry-like red fruit. It is estimated
that the oil extracted from it can be equivalent to 5% of its heartwood (Gupta, 2006).
According to Srinivasan et al.(1992) Sandalwood oil is used in the production of various
luxurious cosmetics, perfumes and fragrances. The tree has excellent blending and
antiseptic properties. The oil is valuable as a fixative for other fragrances e.g.
frankincense. Tanzanian authorities imposed a ban in the export of the raw chips from the
tree which led harvesters and traders across into Kenya. The oil is exported to the Middle
East and fetches up to 15000 US$ per 50kg powder (Walker, 1966). Other countries in
Africa that possess the species include Namibia, South Africa and Kenya (Ombahu,
1997).
In Kenya, especially along the expansive Tsavo East National Park, in Chyullu Hills,
there is unregulated harvesting of the tree. It is believed that Indian traders in conjunction
with Kenyans and Tanzanians are involved in this syndicate. The trees are harvested in
Kenya, shipped to Tanzania for semi processing and exported to India and other Asian
countries. From there, the product is repackaged and sold to America and Europe.
America and Europe are major importers of the sandalwood products.
For instance, a simple carving from Sandalwood is sold at over $100 in South Africa and
between $185 and $5200 per kilogram of heartwood in other international markets
(Wanjohi, 2005). In order to maintain the survival of the tree, the Kenyan government
imposed a ban on sale of Sandalwood tree in February of 2008. This led to the search and
arrest of individuals dealing in the illegal trade. It is estimated that about 20 tons of
sandalwood are recovered on weekly basis.
Due to the increased shortage of sandalwood in the world market with little alternative
sources provided, there has been a marked rise in prices over the past few years.
26
Currently, the price of sandalwood in the world is not less than $770 per kilogram.
Similar to illegal traders in India, their counterparts' in Kenya have established mobile
stores that help them evade government inspectors. Sandalwood seeds seem to have some
special need in terms of seed handling and pre-treatment as they are mostly challenged
when it comes to seed propagation techniques as witnessed by Mwang'ingo et al. (2004).
27
CHAPTER THREE
MATERIALS AND METHODS
3.1 Study Area
This chapter provides the background information of the district in terms of its
geographical location, area, administrative divisions, and main physiographic and natural
conditions critical to the overall development strategy of the district. Kibwezi is an
upcoming town off the Nairobi-Mombasa highway and has recently become the district
headquarters. The population projections for the district for the period 2003-2010 has
been seen to be increasing, in the year 2008, Kibwezi district's population stood at
141,011 people and is projected to grow to 149,130 in 2010.
N
+
Plate 3. J Map of Kenya showing the study area.
This study was carried out within a radius of five kilometres of the Chyullu Hills
conservation area. Areas on either sides of the main Nairobi-Mombasa highway were
also studied. Kibwezi district is in Kenya's Eastern province as shown in plate 3.1.
28
3.1.1 Location and size.
N
KEY
1'\vI K..ibwezi District boundar9
N Makueni District
1\'1 Divisional boundar9
Mixed farming coffee/irrigation
Mixed farming; food crops/livestock
~l:Yl~;':Marginal mixed farming
.;rv'7;;r.l'.v.
Ch9ullu conservation area
o 18 1~~j
••••-=-<=I•••""""'-=tt
Plate 3.2 A map showing the Study Area and its divisional and district boundaries
Kibwezi district is situated about 200Km south east of Nairobi. The altitude of the area
varies from 600m to 1100m above sea level (ASL). Kibwezi covers 47% of the province
and has a total area of 3,400 Km2 according to Central Bureau of Statistics. It has five
locations including Makindu, Kikumbulyu, Ngwata, Masongaleni and Mtito Andei. The
area lies under the agro-climatic/ ecological zone V of Kenya (Pratt and Gwynne, 1977).
It is characterised by low and unreliable rainfall, marginal agricultural lands, dispersed
population and low fertility soils. The principal means of communication in the area is
29
>,
the Nairobi-Mombasa road and railway line and many dry weather roads adjoining them
(Republic of Kenya, 1999).
3.1.2 Geology and Soils
Geologically, the District is composed of recent volcanic rocks under the basement
complex system. Granitic rocks are found around the Chyullu Hills. Half of the area
belongs to the erosional plain of undifferentiated basement system gneiss which is of
Achaean age. The rest of the area is almost entirely built up of recent lava flows and
some volcanic cones. Flood plains and bottomlands occupy only minor portions. The
rocks of the area can broadly be subdivided into basement system rocks, volcanic and
superficial deposits (Touber, 1983).Recent volcanic rocks are represented by the string of
ash and cinder cones of the Chyullu range and its surrounding lava flows, which consist
of various olivine basalts, partly covered by ash deposits of various texture and thickness.
The finer textured ashes flow many miles along stream courses (Saggerson, 1963).
Volcanic ash is evident up to today which has been associated with the distribution of
sandalwood trees. Superficial deposits are present in the form of various lacustrine,
colluvial, alluvial and Aeolian deposits. Geology and especially the volcanic ash is one of
the main determinants of vegetation types.
According to Michieka and Van Der Pouw (1977), red to brown to black sandy clay
(allophone) soils prevail in the erosional plain. They are mainly Ferralsols, andosols
alfisols and oxisols but Nitosols, Luvisols, and Cambisols also exist. Most of these soils
are compact and have a massive structure with strong surface sealing, which causes much
runoff during heavy rains. The soils are clayey in nature and includes sandy clay, silty
clay and clay of diverse textural classes (Montmorillonitic) in the larger part of Kibwezi.
The soils are majorly of volcanic origin on the slopes of Chyullu Hills, the soil PH
around the hills is at about 6.7 which are neutral. These soils are shallow to very shallow
(moderately deep) extremely stony to rocky and are highly permeable. The soils of the
flood plains and bottom lands range from calcareous and non-saline to extremely
calcareous and saline (Michieka& Van Der Pouw, 1977).
30
Oxisols To Mombasa
From Nairobi
KEY
Alfisols
N
+
•• Towns
AI Railway line
/\I Main Road
IV Study area Map
_ Andosols
Plate 3.3 Map showing the soil types of Study Area
3.1.3 Topography
The major land form in the Kibwezi area includes the Chyullu Hills which lie along the
south-western border of the District. The land rises slightly below 600m ASL in the
Tsavo area at the southern end of the District to about 1100m in the northern part
(Republic of Kenya, Makueni District Development Plan, 2004) the regional slope is
steep with a gradient of 30-60%. The Athi River is the major perennial river in the
District and its tributaries Kambu, Kibwezi, Kiboko and Mtito Andei Rivers drain into
the Kibwezi River. The District is characterised by savannah vegetation with mostly low-
lying, gently eastward sloping plains towards River Athi, broken by occasional hills and
seasonal and perennial rivers (Ferguson, Absalom et al. 1985).
31
3.1.4 Vegetation
The vegetation distribution in the area is controlled by a number of complex interrelated
factors such as, climate, geological formation, soil types and the presence or absence of
ground water (Pratt and Gwynne, 1977). Through cutting trees, clearing, burning and
grazing, man is the most important factor which has modified the original vegetation.
According to Pratt and Gwynne (1977) and Touber (1983), Kibwezi is a semi-arid
rangeland dominated by Commiphora, Acacia and allied genera, mainly of shrubby
habitat. Baobab trees (Adansonia digitata) are also common. Perennial grasses such as
Cenchrus ciliaris, Enteropogon macrostachyus and Chloris roxburghiana can dominate
but many are destroyed due to continuous abuse over a long period. Intermediary or
several stages of succession exist with herbaceous woody vegetation and grasses such as
Eragrostis superb a in previously cleared sites.
3.1.5 Livestock and Crops
Livestock herds are composed of cattle, sheep and goats. During the wet season, the
animals depend on free access grazing for sustenance. Physical overlapping of the
pastoral and agronomic sectors takes place in the dry season when livestock are
temporarily moved into cultivated fields to utilize crop residues (Republic of Kenya,
2004). Rabbits, poultry and beekeeping production are also undertaken. Majority of
farmers (97 %), keep poultry, a few (9%) keep donkeys for transport and about 35 %
keep bee hives constructed from hollowed out logs (Mbithi & Barnes, 1975).
Crop production is minimally undertaken with crops such as Katumani, especially the
composite B hybrid which is preferred and includes HB 511 and HB 513 maize (Zea
mays), pigeon peas (Cajanus Cajan) and sorghum (Seredo Spp). Small scale irrigation of
horticultural crop production is carried out in some parts of the Division especially along
the Athi River and its tributaries that include Kibwezi, Kambu, Mtito-Andei, and
Makindu and Kiboko streams (Republic of Kenya, 1999).
32
3.1.6 Demographic and Settlement patterns
The Kamba make up the largest ethnic group in the study. From the pre-colonial times,
the Kamba depended partly on a pastoral and agronomic economy to meet most of their
needs. Most production systems include cultivated plots and access to communal grazing
lands. Other activities are bee-keeping and charcoal making. The projected population of
the District for 2009 is 149,130 as seen in Table 3.1.
Table 3.1 Kibwezi district population projections based on 1999 census
1999 census and population projections
MTITO ANDEl DIVISION Households Area (Km2) 1999 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
Ngwata location
Mukange Sub-location 1,878 198.2 9,697 11,797 12,132 12,476 12,830 13,195
Kambu location
Kambu Sub location 1,179 38 6,594 8,022 8,250 8,484 8,725 8,972
Kitengei Sub-location 552 62.8 2,976 3,620 3,723 3,829 3,938 4,049
Mtito Andei location
Kathekani Sub-location 4,543 344 20,031 24,368 25,060 25,772 26,504 27,256
r
Nthongoni location
Mangelete Sub-location 3,096 165.2 16,25719,777 20,339 20,916 21,510 22,121
i Nzambani location
Muthingini Sub-location 2,106 123 11,108 13,513 13,897 14,292 14,697 15,115
KIBWEZI DIVISION
Kikumbulyu location
Ngandani Sub-location
Mbui Nzau Sub-location
Ndetani Sub-location
Masongaleni location
Masongaleni Sub-location
Utithi location
Thange Sub-location
Utithi Sub-location
Kinyambu location
Kinyambu Sub-location 1,315 57.9 6,880
1,663
421
499
53.3
19.9
18.1
6,813 8,288 8,524 8,766 9,014 9,270
2,518 3,063 3,150 3,240 3,332 3,426
2,217 2,697 2,774 2,852 2,933 3,017
963 41 5,163 6,281 6,459 6,643 6,831 7,025
1,895
1,627
67.2
59.9
10,802 13,141 13,514 13,898 14,292 14,698
8,543 10,393 10,688 10,991 11,303 11,624
8,370 8,607 8,852 9,103 9,362
Source: Central Bureau of Statistics (2004) , Makueni District
3.1.7 History of Settlement
Tiffen (1991), Mbithi & C. Barnes (1975) and Rostom and Mortimer (1991) in their book
Spontaneous settlement in Kenya, state that between 1925 and 1936, the colonial
government declared parts of Kamba land to be crown land. These included the Ngulia
33
hills (present day areas of Ngulia Lodge in Tsavo National Park). Although most of the
people migrated due to pressure by the Government, some people remained especially in
Chyullu hills. Before 1961, most of the areas in Kibwezi Division were unoccupied and
uncultivated. As early as 1948, the Ngwata location which is mainly made up of
bush\scrub\grazing land and forest was virtually unoccupied. After 1961, most of the
forest in the Division and around the District had been cleared to pave way for
cultivation. In 1978, a wave of settlements from the north of the District and the
neighboring districts of Machakos and Kitui had brought 20% of the area under
cultivation out of the possible 58%. In the same period (1961-1978), bush encroachment
increased from 52-62 % and the amount of forest cover decreased by 62% (Rostom; and
M. Mortimore 1991; Tiffen 1991).
In 1964, the people began returning to the area between Kibwezi and Mtito Andei. This
had now been declared and designated for settlement. No other section in Ngwata (part of
the project area) had been formally settled although squatters had established their own
administrative system for settling new comers. This unorganized settlement due to
partially an ineffective Planning department then led to the present land deterioration
prevalent in the area (Mbithi and C. Barnes, 1975). The newly opened settlement
schemes in Kibwezi Division (Kibwezi, Masongaleni, Kiboko and Nguu Ranch) have
caused a large influx of people from other divisions and surrounding districts. As seen in
table 3.1, and according to the Makueni District Development plan of 2004-2008, the
population density in the Division has soared to 145,012 from 35,012people ten years
ago. A case in point is the settlement of squatters in the Masongaleni and Kiboko
settlement schemes where squatters from Machakos and other surrounding areas were
settled in 1992 (Republic of Kenya, 2004).
3.1.8 Economic profiles
In 1997 for example, 49% of the Kenyan population was estimated to be poor (Central
Bureau of Statistics, 1997), the government of Kenya has tried to improve the livelihoods
of the poor through several programmes such as youth and women development funds as
well as the constituency development funds,
34
The funds have helped ease the poverty but still they are faced with malpractice in the
distribution of the funds to the locals. Kibwezi district is not an exception. Poverty levels
in the Kibwezi constituency for instance are said to be as high as 58% with more than
half of the people living below the poverty line (Central Bureau Of Statistics, 2008) as
seen in table 3.2.
Table 3.2 Rural Poverty Estimates For Kibwezi Divisions and Locations
Division/ Headconnt Standard Poverty Standard Number of Estimated Standard
Location Index: Error of Gap as Error of Individuals Number of Error of
Percent of Headcou Percent of Poverty from 1999 Poor Estimated
Individuals ntlndex Poverty Gap census* Individuals Number of
below Poverty Line Poor
Line Individuals
MTITOANDEI 55.07 4.66 19.37 2.48 61,332 33,777 2,858
DIVISION
Kambu 58.30 7.64 20.82 4.13 9,518 5,549 727
MtitoAndei 57.22 9.22 20.53 5.31 15,089 8,634 1,391
Ngwata 50.70 10.13 17.05 5.12 9,611 4,872 973
Nthongoni 54.19 9.39 18.89 5.06 16,073 8,710 1,509
Nzambani 56.88 9.56 20.20 5.08 11,041 6,280 1,055
KIBWEZI 51.84 4.01 17.92 2.04 73,661 38,189 2,953
DIVISION
Kikumbulyu 48.84 4.24 16.25 2.02 29,653 14,482 1,257
Kinyambu 48.76 9.57 16.16 4.58 6,360 3,101 608
Masongaleni 56.72 5.45 20.94 3.12 19,665 11,153 1,071
Utithi 53.41 8.19 17.99 4.05 17,983 9,605 1,472
Source: Central Bureau of Statistics (2008)
3.2 Sampling and Sample design
The section elaborates the research design, study area, the sample and sampling
procedures. Also covered is the rationale used for sample selection, research instruments,
the piloting of the research instruments used to interview the local community on their
use and knowledge of Sandalwood (Questionnaires), field sampling design to ascertain
the distribution of Sandalwood (Quadrants) and other quantitative data collection
methods that include photography. The section also deals with the data collection
procedure and methods of data analysis.
3.2.2 Research Design
The study used the survey design which helps obtain pertinent and precise information
concerning the current status of Osyris and its uses and trade in the Chyullu area. Surveys
allow the collection of large amounts of data from a sizeable population of at least 30% in
a highly economical way. This design allows easy comparison of data and many people
35
perceive it to be authoritative and easy to understand. It also gives the researcher more
control over the research process (Saunders, & Lewis 2000). In this study, the research
examined the current status of conserving and utilizing the East African Sandalwood in
Kibwezi district and the methods that could be employed to improve conservation and
management of the tree. Questionnaires were administered to the community members
living in the area bound by the main Nairobi-Mombasa highway and the Chyullu Hills
Conservation area. The forester in charge of the Kibwezi forest station, the KEFRI
research forester, the ranger in charge of the Chyullu Hills conservation area, the district
officer and the local Chiefs were purposively sampled and in-depth interviews conducted
to find out the conservation status of the tree in the District.
3.2.3 Target population
The study targeted the 1957 households living on the western side of Kibwezi town
between the Nairobi-Mombasa highway and the Chyullu hills conservation area. This
area falls within seven sub-locations in both Kibwezi and Mtito Andei divisions of
Kibwezi district. This area was chosen because sandalwood grows here naturally,
supported by the volcanic ash soil (called Kivuthii in the local Kamba language), a by-
product of volcanic activity on the Chyullu hills. The area also has favourable
temperatures for the growth of sandalwood. The study area was also chosen because
sandalwood in this area is threatened following heavy harvesting for commercial
purposes driven by lucrative markets across the border in Tanzania. Table 3.3 presents
the total number of households in the seven sub-locations as drawn by the Assistant
Chiefs.
Table 3.3.Target population (households)
Name of sub-location Total households
Kikumbulyu 227
Kinyambu 90
Mangelete 167
Masongaleni 260
Muthingiini 363
Ngwata 157
Utithi 693
Total 1957
36
3.2.4 Sample and Sampling Procedures
Gay (1992) points out that a 20% sample size may be considered as minimum for smaller
populations. Since the researcher was a student with limited financial resources and only
one month between semesters to collect data, there was need therefore for a manageable,
but representative sample. For these reasons, the desired sample size for this study was
capped at 30% of the 1957 households which totalled to 587 households. The researcher
employed multi-stage sampling techniques to draw the sample. First, the 1957
households were stratified by Sub-location before proportionally drawing out the desired
30% in each of the Sub-locations. After obtaining written consent to proceed with the
study from the Kibwezi District Commissioner and the Kibwezi District Forest Officer,
the researcher worked with respective Chiefs in Locations and Assistant Chiefs in Sub-
locations to draw a listing of household-heads in each of the seven Sub-locations. These
household-head names were then sorted in ascending order alphabetically before being
assigned numerical numbers from the first to the last. After calculating what 30% would
yield in respective Sub-locations, the researcher then wrote out the household-head
numbers per Sub-location on small separate sheets of paper which were folded and
placed into a shopping bag. The desired 30% in the first alphabetically arranged Sub-
location was then randomly picked from the bag and the names of the household-heads
written in a final list. This process was repeated until the entire sample of 587 households
had been picked from the seven Sub-locations. Table 3.4 shows the final sample from
each of seven Sub-locations.
Table 3.4: Target population (households)
Name of sub-location
Total
households
30% of
households
Kikumbulyu
Kinyambu
Mangelete
Masongaleni
Muthingiini
Ngwata
Utithi
227
90
167
260
363
157
693
68
27
50
78
109
47
208
Total 1957 587
Professional staffs in charge of the forests and related organisations were purposively /
/
sampled. This included officers from local institutions such as the Kenya Forestry /
/
/
I
37
Research Institute (KEFRI), Kenya Wildlife Service (KWS) and the Kenya Forestry
Service (KFS). For the vegetation cover density and sandalwood distribution data
collection, the area was divided into zones according to the agro-climatic divisions and
the divisional boundaries as illustrated in plate 3.4.
Ten by five metre quadrants were used to assess the vegetation cover and density. Three
quadrants were randomly administered in each zone resulting into 24 vegetation
identification quadrants; The quadrants were taken to the randomly selected area, laid
down and the trees that were within that area counted. This also gave data on the trees
growing alongside sandalwood in these areas since sandalwood prefers host plants. Plate
15 shows one quadrant laid in Utu at the foot of Chyullu Hills.
TO NAIROBI
r
~.:'.' " ..~ /
\,
\. MAKINOU
\, ZONE 1
\\'\
'--""'~~~~'.""\'", -v.. ,.-", -,
MAt(INOU "
MA.NGELETE
N
MTITOANOEI
LEGEND
ZONE BONDERY
TO MOMBASA
MAIN ROAD
o ~o l~K"'"
Plate 3.4 Map showing the zones of the area for sandalwood vegetation covers identification.
38
Plate 3.5 Photo illustrations of Commiphora association .•
3.3 Research Instruments
The study used questionnaires for collection of household-based data with in-depth
interviews being used with key informants. The household questionnaires were translated
into Swahili then administered in Kamba language by seven native Kamba speakers
recruited from each of the Sub-locations that constituted the study. These were first
degree holders in social sciences. Comprehensive training of the field interviewers was
done prior to piloting of the instruments and data collection in order to harmonize the
understanding of the instruments and interviewing procedures. Geographic Information
Systems and remote sensed data and images were also used to ascertain the distribution
of the species in the area, in addition to the quadrants that gave the amount of
sandalwood vegetation cover in the area.
3.4 Data Sources
The study collected primary data and utili sed available secondary data. Primary data were
collected through questionnaires, key informant interview schedules, quadrants,
photography and researcher observation. Competent household members such as
household heads or their spouses answered the household questionnaires. Key informants
included forest officers, KWS rangers, KEFRI staff in Kibwezi, provincial administration
39
officials, and business people involved in sandalwood trade. Observation walks and
photography were used to collect visual data such as sandalwood seeds in different
ecological zones, quadrant area and cover, plant associations with sandalwood and the
general vegetation cover in the study area. These data walks also helped verify data
collected from households on the tree associations, differences between the male and
female plants and the diseases and pests that attack the trees.
Secondary data were sourced from relevant reports found in the field forestry-related
offices such as the Kibwezi District Forest Office, Kibwezi KEFRI sub station, and KWS
station located in the Chyullu Hills. These reports helped gather data on forestry policy in
Kenya, among other relevant data.
3.5 Piloting the Research Instruments
Piloting of instruments was done to help eliminate ambiguities, misunderstandings and
help focus the items and coding options (Wiersma 1985). In order to enhance reliability
and validity, the research instruments were all piloted and tested prior to data collection.
3.6 Data Collection Procedures
An introduction letter from the school of environmental studies, department of
environmental planning was sought in order to carry out the research. Further consent
was sought from the Kibwezi District Commissioner, KEFRI and Kibwezi District Forest
Officer before data were collected. These letters paved the way for meetings with the
Chiefs and their Assistants in the administrative Locations and Sub-locations of interest.
With permission granted up to the Sub-location level, seven native Kamba-speaking field
interviewers with first degrees in social sciences, one from each of the seven Sub-
locations were recruited and trained prior to data collection. The field team then moved
into one Sub-location at a time for data collection. Data were collected in order to answer
and understand;
a) Osyris morphology growth, development & distribution within Kibwezi District.
b) The level of local community involvement in propagation of sandalwood by the
use of in depth interviews.
c) The techniques and methods used to manage Osyris and its associated challenges
40
3.7 Methods of Data Analysis
All quantitative data collected were entered into a Microsoft Access database and
exported into STATA version 10.1 for cleaning and analysis. Computers have the
advantages of saving time and labour, and being able to work with bulk information and
data, reducing errors and allowing easy graphical display of the data and providing better
management of large data sets. Today, almost all research data in the behavioural
science~ are analyzed using statistical computer packages (Pagano, 1998). Descriptive
statistics such as means and percentages as well as bivariate analysis were then used to
summarize the data and facilitate coherent presentation of the results as well as provide a
quick comparison between different sets of data. Results were presented in figures,
tables, graphs and charts. Qualitative data gathered from research questions on
distribution of the tree, the influence of market on sandalwood harvesting, and the effect
and suitability of policy in the management of the tree were edited, organized
descriptively into themes, coded and presented in discussion, narrative form and citations.
This facilitated a better way of discussing the findings, drawing conclusions, and making -
recommendations. Data gathered from research questions on plant growth development
and distribution within Kibwezi, community involvement in propagation of Osyris
lanceolata and local use of the tree were edited, coded and subjected to descriptive
statistics for calculation of frequencies, means and percentages.
41
CHAPTER FOUR
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.1 Introduction
This chapter presents the results of the study. The purpose of this research was to study
the conservation and management of sandalwood and how this could be improved, either
in-situ or ex-situ- in view of exploitation threats. The study employed the survey design
and used questionnaires, key informant and focus group interviews to collect relevant
data. Quantitative data were keyed into a Microsoft Access data base then exported to
STATA version 10.1 data analysis software for cleaning and analysis. Quantitative
results are presented through frequencies, percentages, sums, and means while qualitative
data were categorized into themes relevant to the research questions and presented in
discussion form.
4.2 Household characteristics
4.2.1 Gender
During this study, 587 households were interviewed which were composed of a total of
3584 individuals. Out of thesetotal human population of the study area 51.2% of the
respondents were female and 48.8% were male.
Table 4.1. Household Composition in the sample.
Gender of respondent Number Frequency (%) Household head
Female 1835 51.2
Male 1749 48.8
49.5
50.5
Th~l ~M 100 100
There were marginally more female respondents at 51.2% compared to the male, just as
there were marginally more male-headed households at 50.5%. Our results suggest that
the percentage of female-headed households (49.5%) in our sample is much higher than
what other studies have found, which is between 25 and 33 percent of households in the
world (Mayra & Gupta, 1997; Central Bureau of Statitics, 1997). This rate varies from
continent to continent and individual countries. Gender issues are important in planning
interventions and programmes for communities.
42
Female headed household as indicated by Mayra (1997) and are generally less
advantaged as compared to male headed ones because more often, the females are
generally less educated and provide most of the household labour in the rural settings
which leaves them with little time for any other paid labour (Franzel, 1999). For instance,
any reforestation measures that are likely to exert more labour demands on women
without immediate outputs are most likely not going to be appealing to them.
4.2.2. Age
Table 4.2 presents a categorization of the age of members of the households visited. As
can be seen from this table, children and youth aged below 18 years constituted the
largest proportion of the sample at 45.4%. At age 18 years, the law in Kenya deems an
individual independent and mature enough to make decisions.
Table 4.2 The distribution of age within the study area
Age Number Freq.(%)
18 yrs and below 1,628
Between 18-30 yrs 809
Between 30-39 yrs 317
Between 40-49 yrs 298
Between 50-59 yrs 187
Between 60-69 yrs 110
Between 70-92 yrs 235
Total 3584
45.42
22.57
8.84
8.31
5.22
3.07
6.56
100
Our results show that almost half of the study population is still young and this suggests
high levels of dependency. Again, almost 10% (345 individuals) of the study sample is
aged 60 and above years. Assuming that these are now weak and unable to engage in
productive work, the total dependent population in the sample would stand at 55.1%.
43
4.2.3 Education levels of respondents in Kibwezi.
Table 4.3 illustrates the highest level of education attained by the household heads and
their spouses. The highest categories are primary and secondary education. But this is
expected because this study sample is made up of many individuals below the age of 18,
which is still within the school going age. But these statistics also mask disparities in
educational attainment in the study area. While it is expected that at age 25, an individual
has had ample opportunity to go through school up to undergraduate level, majority of
the household heads and their spouses aged 26 years and above, 633 (55.6%) had only up
to primary education as their highest level of education. Only 24.2% of this group had
education up to secondary education.
Table 4.3 The education level of the household head and spouse.
Category Number Percent
Pre primary 5
Primary 633
Secondary 259
Commercial College 17
Middle level College 13
Undergraduate 5
Never gone to school 156
1.0
55.6
24.2
2.6
2.5
0.1
14.0
Total 1088 100.0
Research has shown that a more educated society with basic primary and secondary
education level are more knowledgeable, receptive to change and new ideas compared to
those with less education. Available evidence now suggests that primary level education
has both higher private and social rates of return to investment in education at 26.6% and
18.9% respectively compared to secondary at 17.0% and 13.1%, and higher education at
19.0% and 10.8% respectively. Our results show that up to 85% of household heads and
their spouses had primary level education and above. This suggested a largely literate
group of individuals with the capacity to reap returns from their investment in education.
The implication is that this is likely to be a more receptive group to new ideas and
programmes aimed at improving their welfare. Such programmes could perhaps include
the propagation of sandalwood for commercial purposes.
44
4.2.4 Household dwelling units
From figure 4.1, our results show that up to 86% of the dwelling units in the study area
were mud-walled, with 70% of these having natural earth floors. Slightly over half of
these (55.2%) had iron sheet roofs. These humble dwelling units may suggest that
poverty may be high. Poor households are more likely to exploit natural resources,
including sandalwood and forests, for economic purposes. This may help to explain why
the study found few sandalwood trees still standing in homesteads, individual farms and
in the gazetted Chyullu Hills Conservation area.
30 55.2 14
100 -
Stone Wall
80 -
-Mud wall
.•.. 60 -=~ Iron SheetsC.it..~~
40 -
Grass &
Tin
20 70
Cement.-- Floor-: ,/0 i/
Floor MatericRoof MateriaN all Material Natural
Floor
Figure 4.1. Characteristics of household dwelling units of the sample population.
Past research evidence suggests most females with less education stay in the
rural area, are prone to poverty and lack of resources evidenced in poor housing
and amenities (Duraisamy, 2002).
4.2.3. Income levels source of Household Heads.
Over the past decade, the Kenyan economy has been affected by inhibiting external and
internal factors that have had adverse effects on rural and urban livelihoods. The result
has been soaring unemployment and heightened retrenchment of workers both in the
public and private sector leading to increased poverty levels. Crop farming for both
45
household use and sell was the biggest source of income with 80.1% followed by white
collar employment accounting for 8.2%. Casual and work private businesses within
Kibwezi town accounted for 5.5% and 4.9% of the income sources respectively. This is
expected as the study area encompassed villages where we expect peasant farmers mostly
just tending their farms. Only 0.21% i.e. 6 individuals reported that they were involved in
sandalwood business (Figure 4.2).
100.0
80.0
60.0
t
n 40.0
l 20.0
0.0
Sandalwood
Casual Work
mOther
80.1
0.2 0.5
o Crop Farming
Employment
o Own Business
• Job seeking
Figure 4.2. Households' major source of income in the study area.
The community members in Kibwezi division are seen to be struggling economically as
seen in the type of houses they own and the income levels of the household heads as seen
in table 4.4. Majority of the households in the sample (63.9%) earned less than Kshs
10000 a month with 40% of the population earning less than Kshs 2500 per month. This
perhaps helps explain why most households reported sale of tree species, fruits and
available farm produce to earn a living.
46
Table 4.4. Income levels of household heads in the target population.
Amount (Kshs) Number of respondents Frequency (%)
Less than 2500 237 40.57
Between 2500-5000 138 23.56
Between 5000-10000 77 12.78
Between 10000-15000 28 4.6
Between 15000-20000 29 4.94
Above 20000 69 11.24
Total 578 100
Osyris lanceolata as an economically beneficial tree growmg m this area has been
massively poached and sold off by a few community members, middlemen and
businessmen from other areas at the expense of most of the local community members in
the constituency.
4.2.4 Energy source for residents in the study area.
Figure 4.3 shows the sources of energy for households in the study area. As expected in
most rural Kenyan villages, almost all the households (97%) reported the use of firewood
as a source of energy for cooking. The implication is that more and more trees will
continue to be felled to provide firewood.
Firewood • charcoal
- Other
20/V~
"" 1%
CJ7%
-Kerosene
Figure 4.3. Energy Sources for Households in the sample population
47
If tree planting as a replenishing strategy for trees felled is not taken seriously, then rural
villages, such as the villages in the study area, may be headed for severe environmental
consequences.
4.2.5: Settlement pattern
Kibwezi district has a high dependency ratio as most of the population is below the age of
18 years. It is also a district with both substantial in and out migration. The migration into
the district is in search of land (from drier areas) while out migration is in search of
employment. The areas towards Chyullu hills are more populated as the climatic
conditions are favorable. A sizeable proportion of the households interviewed (41.5%)
have been residents in the study area for more than 20 years as shown in figure 4.4.
40 -
33.4
30 -
22.3
e 20 -,
p
~ 10
Figure 4.4. Number of years that the household has stayed in study area.
This agrees with the work of Rostom et al. who suggest that from 1978, a wave of
settlements from the north of the district and the neighboring districts of Machakos and
Kitui had brought 20% of the area under cultivation out of the possible 58% with an
increased population of 52%. The period between 1961 and 1978 saw an increase in bush
o
<10yrs 11-20yrs 21-30yrs 31-40yrs >40yrs
48
) KENVATTA UNIVERSITY L'BRARV
encroachment from 52% to 62 % and the amount of forest cover decrease by 62%
(Rostom; and M. Mortimore 1991; Tiffen 1991). It is normal that as populations settle in
places, they begin to exert pressure on natural resources to support their livelihoods. This
has however to be moderated and controlled.
4.3 Osyris lanceolata Growth, Morphology, Development and Distribution
The growth and development of sandalwood is generally slow as compared to other trees
and only produces the best oil at 60 years. For seed collection, the tree needs to be at least
20 years and above and at this age the tree can also start to be harvested for the essential
oil production (Beentje, 1994).
4.3.1 Tree Morphology
The sandalwood tree is evergreen throughout, with small dropping branches, with peak
flowering and seed development seasons in August and April. The flowers are yellow-
green and are bisexual or unisexual and are mainly in auxiliary cymes. The fruit is a
drupe and is orange or red in colour, it is round and waged of 5-Smm. The margin is
somewhat thickened, 1-7mm by 0.4-3mm and glabrous with the fruit containing one
seed, this has been proved to be of the same morphology, though of a lesser quality with
the Indian sandalwood and the Tanzanian counterpart as seen by (Gupta, 2006). The tree
grows like a cassava where the root is massive as compared to the stem. The leaves are
simple and alternate, crowded along the stems; they are slightly fleshy becoming tough
and leathery, narrow to oval, 1-7cm long with a fine sharp edge. The edge of the leaf is
tightly rolled under, the leaves are bluish-green or yellow-green in colour, and lanceolate
in shape. Osyris lanceolata produces seeds in the rainy seasons. In Kibwezi, this falls in
the months of April and August. Young seeds are green in colour which then mature and
turn to red or pink in colour while the over-mature seeds are black in colour. The flowers
are bright yellow to beige in colour and are produced in clusters at the tip of the nodes,
covered protectively by the leaves, as seen in plate 4.1 and 4.2. They then develop into
young green seeds which then mature into a pink, then red to black.
49
.J
Plate 4. J Shows Osyris lanceolata leaves with ripe and green young fruits in Kibwezi.
Plate 4.2 Showing the flowers of Osyris lanceolata in Utu of Kibwezi District
4.3.2 Osyris growth and development in Kibwezi.
4.3.2.1 Seed propagation
Sandalwood has seeds that can be used for propagation, although seed propagation as a
means of growth has several problems with often, massive deaths after one year
(Mwang'ingo & Teklehaimanot, 2004). The tree has problems with seed propagation
especially the development of the seedlings due to its sensitive seed and unidentified
dormancy. Seeds are also rare to find as seen in the field walks. This was also evident
50
Interviewer: Have you ever tried to propagate the tree? If yes, how was the
outcome?
from the research trials done by nursery owners in Kibwezi where seeds were collected
from mature trees in the forests and planted. The growth of the tree was identified to be
very slow especially using the seeds for propagation as compared to vegetative
propagation. Sandalwood seedlings most often die after some time especially after a year.
This was elucidated by a villager in Utiithi sub location.
Respondent: Yes we have tried to propagate the tree using the seedlings and
mostly the saplings do not survive, and in case they survive and
transplanted to a farm they all die after a year. In most cases the
seeds do not germinate ... and we don't understand how to
propagate it since it has economic benefits.
(Household respondent, HHI_1, April 18, 2008)
The researcher did not plant her own seeds, but research trials within the research
institutions have identified several challenges. Due to the rough terrain in the area where
the tree is located, seed collection is difficult. This was also compounded by the fact that
the seeds were enclosed in an edible pulp, making it susceptible to some weevils that
destroy the seeds before they duly mature hence making the seed survival rates low.
When sown, the seeds took up to one month before germinating after which they all dried
up and died after a while. This might require further studies since the seeds seem to have
some dormancy which even after using all the physical methods of breaking the
dormancy, the seeds still have a problem surviving.
During the field study most sandalwood trees were growing around specific trees in the
forest which seems to suggest that for effective seed propagation, sandalwood tree nurse
plants need to be incorporated in the early stages of seedling and sapling growth and
development. This component was identified in the field by Herrera (1988) where
sandalwood planted alongside host plants survived as compared to those planted alone.
As noticed in the field, most of the plants were drying up because sandalwood seedlings
and saplings in their early stages of development may require support in form of a nurse
plant to offer nutrients for the young plants until they can be able to support themselves.
51
This could be the main reason or the massive deaths. Nipping of the seeds immediately
after drying breaks the initial dormancy and allows faster germination as compared to un-
nipped seed. Even if nipped and the saplings do not have a support plant they are bound
to die. Other countries like India and Australia use the nurse plants to support saplings of
Santalum album and the results are impressive. The seeds from different habitats within
Kibwezi have the same colour and sizes as seen in plate 4.3.
~ B ~
Plate 4.3 Photo ofOsyris seeds A-collected from Utu and B-collected from Mbui Nzau in Kibwezi.
The study also established that a mature sandalwood tree could produce up to 14 kgs of
seed annually with half of the seeds getting spoilt in most cases due to pest attacks,
therefore hampering propagation.
4.3.3 The different habitats of Osyris plant within Kibwezi.
The sandalwood plant in Kibwezi was seen to prefer areas that were cooler and around
the hills that have the volcanic ash known as 'Kivuthii, ' in the local Kamba language. The
tree was common in areas that were rocky as compared to non rocky areas. The study
also established that the tree was more populated towards the hills compared to the low
areas. This finding is contrary to what the task force seemed to suggest as reported by
52
Mwangi et .al (2007), that sandalwood preferred disturbed areas. Our study instead
found that in Kibwezi, sandalwood trees were found in the forests and hills that were
rocky and had not been disturbed as seen in plate 4.4.
Plate. 4.4 Young Sandalwood seedling growing between rocks in Chyullu hills Kibwezi District
Apart from growing in places that were not disturbed, sandalwood also grew in
association with other plants. These included Cajanus Cajan and commiphora species
among others. Plate 4.5 shows sandalwood trees growing amidst other trees.
53
Plate 4.5 Osyris growing in association with Cajanus cajan on a residential farm in Kibwezi
The associations of sandalwood were mainly with tree species that were leguminous in
nature. This could suggest that in Kibwezi, sandalwood could be propagated using seeds
with a nurse crop especially leguminous trees that are able to survive in that climatic
zone. Sandalwood trees that were seen growing on farms in association with pigeon peas
(Cajanus cajan) seemed healthier compared to those un-attended and growing in the wild
as seen in photo A and B respectively in plate 4.6. Work done by Herrera et al (1988)
also shows that the Indian sandalwood was effectively propagated using nurse plant at the
early stages. This was mainly an intercrop with leguminous plants. As seen in plate 4.5,
the research in sandalwood propagation could include a nurse plant when still young to
achieve higher survival rates.
54
Plate 4.6: Photograph A showing sandalwood tree on a farm with Cajanus cajan
Photograph B showing sandalwood tree growing under Ficus tree Chyullu Hills' forest
4.3.4 Sandalwood diseases and pests
Plate 4.7 shows sandalwood trees under attack from pests and disease.
Plate 4.7 Sandalwood's pests and disease as seen in Kibwezi.(Chyullu Hills)
55
The commonest disease attack is a white mould which in turn leads to the breakage of the
leaves. Weevils also attack the tree especially the soft branches leading to discolouration
of the leaves. Both the weevils and a white mould attacked the branches and hence affect
the availability and viability of the seeds. After a weevil attack, the branches usually fell
off hence limiting the amount of seeds collected from one tree. These weevils were also
seen to suck the pulp covering the remaining seeds reducing greatly the viability of such
seeds for propagation. The attack by the pests also reduced the chance for better root
development. Roots are important as they are used for the treatment of diseases in
animals. The households reported that the powder is usually mixed with other tree saps
such as aloe in coming up with a strong concoction for treatment. Plate 4.8 illustrates the
powder from the tree and dried sandalwood bark used in herbal medicine.
Plate 4.8: Photo A, showing sandalwood powder from the roots and B, the bark of the tree.
Sandalwood in Kibwezi has been identified to grow in large numbers towards Chyullu
hills. The hills have cooler temperatures with more of the volcanic ash and hence more
trees tend to survive under these conditions.
56
4.3.5 Osyris lanceolata tree density and cover
The population of sandalwood trees in Kibwezi district has been reducing year by year
ever since the tree was identified in the area. This is mainly attributed to the harvesting of
the tree by the poachers and the local community to earn an extra source of income as
earlier reported by (Mwang'ingo & Teklehaimanot, 2004). Since the area is occasionally
affected by crop failure and drought, the tree is seen as a saviour in times of hunger with
households using the proceeds to buy food. Other species like dalbergia (Mvingo) face
the same challenge as the tree is sold off for wood carving, another source of income
generating activity common in Ukambani.
Besides the Chyullu hills which is a protected area with higher population of sandalwood
trees, Utithi sub-location (zone 5) had the highest incidence of the tree still on the farm at
(25.2%). The least sandalwood populated sub-locations were Kiboko, Mangelete and
parts ofNgwata. One notable thing about the locations that had the least available trees is
the fact that they were mainly inhabited by squatters who cleared trees for cultivation of
food crops. The researcher used quadrants of 5m width and 10m length thrown randomly
within the zones shown in plate 4.9 and locations shown in table 4.5. The researcher then
physically counted the trees in each quadrant.
57
TO NAIROBI
'; .........•. ~.,....
\. CHYULLU HILLS
MUTHINGINI ~
ZONES
ZONE 7
[
l'
MANGELETE
(t<.ATHEKANI.
MANGELETE
LEGEND
ZONE BONOERY
MAIN ROAD
0_'0 lL...2?~
Plate 4.9: Map of density and distribution of sandalwood in Kibwezi zones.
Zone/Location
Table 4.5: Sandalwood distribution in a quadrant by sub location
Percentage
Makindu
Kaunguni
Mangelete
Mulili kimboo
Muthingini
Muuni Chyullu
Nthongoni kathekani
Nzambani
Nzeveni/n~ata
Thange
Utithi
Number
5
31
22
I
40
I 1
7
7
8
25
57
2.47
14.49
10.28
0.47
18.69
5.14
3.27
3.27
3.74
11.58
26.6
Total 214 100
4.3.6 The identified types of the Osyris Tree
The study established that the Osyris tree is dioecious with the existence of the male and
female tree separately. The respondents and guides were able to differentiate the two
types of trees when mature through the seeds, the colour of the inner bark, the size of the
leaves when debarked and the scent produced by the tree. The female tree was more
58
reddish in colour, had more scent when debarked, had thin and small seeds and was
mostly used for the herbal medicines. The female tree was also identified as one that did
produce red to pinkish seeds when mature. The male one on the other hand is
whitish/yellowish when debarked and has big broader leaves as compared to the female
ones.
4.3.7 Regeneration Potential
Studies done by the institute of Agriculture at the University of Sokoine in Tanzania,
suggest that sandalwood has regeneration potential when the tree has been either cut or
rightly uprooted. This evidence suggests that the tree can regenerate by mode of the
exposed root suckers as seen in plate 4.1O. It is able to shoot from mature stem cuts and
rarely by the seeds.
Plate 4. J 0: Photograph showing sprouting from root cuttings
The tree could also regenerate from the left-out roots during and after harvesting and
these trees were said to grow and produce seed faster compared to the seed propagated
trees. The researcher witnessed a few cases of sprouting from the stump. Some of the
residents tried vegetative propagation of the tree, but with limited success. (Mathenge,
Kimini, & Kamau, 2005).
Sandalwood trees found in most of the areas were scattered and with most mature trees
having been harvested. Most of the local community members' management of the tree is
59
mainly for utility purposes. The tree is used for medicinal purposes such as treating snake
bites. Sandalwood leaves were used in making tea and some of the root fibres were used
in basketry. Some residents involved in sandalwood trade while at the same time using
the tree for medicinal purposes, reported that they harvested the tree careful so that the
roots and the stumps could regenerate for other future uses.
4.4. Propagation and utilization of sandalwood in Kibwezi.
Table 4.6 illustrates the chi square values for the utilization and propagation of
sandalwood in the community between male and female residents. The results suggest
that men utilized the tree more with 89.6% of them selling out the tree to the middlemen
as compared to the females who used the tree mostly for medicinal purposes and other
household chores for example firewood.
Table 4.6. Propagation attempts by gender in the study area
Propagation Females (%) Males (%)
Seeds 100 (76%) 64 (48%)
Vegetative 32 (24%) 68 (52%)
Total 132 (100%) 132 (100%)
Most of the residents in the research area did not get directly involved in the propagation
of sandalwood after harvesting. As illustrated in table 4.6 many females (76%) tried to
propagate the tree using the seeds as compared to their male counterparts (48%). It would
also appear that the males would most likely be involved in more vegetative propagation
techniques as compared to their female counterparts.
Table 4.7: Chi square results showing method of propagation and management
techniques by residents in the study area
Gende
r Harvested
Utilization Level of involvement in trade
Commercial Medicinal Primary level (from the forest)
Secondary level
(brokers)
Males 76.8*
Females 23.2
89.6*
10.4
68.3
31.7
54.5
45.5
63.9*
36.1
Total 100 100 100 100 100
*Significant at 5%
Table 4.7 shows the differences between and within attributes among the respondents. Up
to 76.8% of the male respondents indicated they had harvested sandalwood trees
compared to 23.2% among the females. These results were significant. The results also
60
suggest that the male respondents were more likely to be involved in sandalwood primary
and secondary trade compared to the females with up to 63.9% of the males being
involved in the secondary level of utilization. A sizeable proportion of the females were
involved in secondary sandalwood business.
This results are in agreement with earlier results that indicated that any forestry or
agricultural effort that was likely to add more labour demands to the females may not be
appealing after all (Franzel, 1999). The study also established that sandalwood harvesting
demanded a lot of labour to uproot the tree roots. Such jobs requiring masculine input
would naturally be left to the males, based on the theory of utility maximization and
income generation to supplement their income. This therefore means that more men will
be involved in the trade to increase their income with an aim of reducing their poverty
levels.
4.5 Osyris lanceolata Oil Content
Osyris oil, the Sandalwood oil is an important product of the Osyris plant. It is for the
extraction of the oil that the tree is harvested and sold through many middle people in the
business chain. The nature of sandalwood oil is known, the part of the tree which
produces reasonable quantities has been determined to be from the roots. This has led to a
situation where whole plants of any ages are uprooted indiscriminately including the
roots therefore posing a danger to conservation prospects. The powder from the tree is
steam distilled to separate the oil. The distillation method of extraction is often used to
determine the extract (oil) yield (Mwangi, Ongugo, & Opany, 2007).
4.5.1 Average oil Yield (%)
Work done by Mwangi, et al. (2006) suggests that the oil from Osyris Lanceolata,
obtained through steam distillation ranged from 0.05% to 1.3%, with the sapwood having
0.05%, juvenile roots 0.05%, heartwood 0.15%, and the commercial heartwood
producing 1.4%. Commercial sample yield were higher than field samples. The mean
yield for sapwood and juvenile roots was 0.05 ml/% and 0.1 for heartwood. Commercial
heartwood sample mean yield was the highest at 1.4%. The commercial samples yielded
61
high because of their maturity. 'The table below illustrates the oil ouputs from different
parts of the tree.
Table 4.8 Percentage oil yield from different parts from Kibwezi Samples
No Part analyzed Weight of sample. Vol of oil (ml) % yield
Heartwood lOOg 0.15 0.1
2 Heartwood lOOg 0.15 0.1
3 Heartwood lOOg 0.05 0.05
4 Sapwood lOOg <0.05 <0.05
5 Sapwood lOOg <0.05 <0.05
6 Sapwood 100g 0.05 0.05
7 Juvenile roots 100g <0.05 <0.05
8 Commercial heartwood 100g 1.3 1.3
Source, (Mwangi, Ongugo, & Opany, 2007)
The few middlemen who were involved in the trade confessed that the amount of oil that
is produced from the tree varies between the male and female trees. They seemed to
suggest that a small fraction of the oil could be produced from trees that were younger as
compared to trees that were older as evidenced by the results in table 4.8. Plate 4.11
shows sandalwood oil sold in Kenya. The 15ml bottle is sold for Kshs 500. Kenya does
not have large distillation companies to produce market accessible oil. Most of the plant
is taken to Tanzania where it is semi processed by grinding to powder. The end product is
then exported to the far and Middle East countries that produce the oil and latter sell it
back to Kenya and the East African region.
Plate 4.11: Sandalwood oil sold in Kenyan shops and Indian sandalwood oil
62
4.6 Distribution of Sandalwood Trees in Kibwezi.
The study found that sandalwood grows on rocky volcanic soils known as Kivuthii in the
local Kamba language and that it becomes more abundant and frequent as one ascends
the Chyullu Hills. In the plains, the tree is less common mostly due to the recent
exploitation activities in the areas. The tree is widely distributed along the volcanic ash
areas that have a predominant soil type that consists of the ash and andosols and alfisols.
Recent harvesting activities driven by markets in Tanzania have led to the disappearance
of the species in the areas near the main roads especially in Mbui Nzau and Utu.
Following the presidential ban in Kenya, the sandalwood population now left inside the
Chyullu Hills conservation area is under constant illegal extraction, mostly done at night.
4.6.1 Availability of Osyris on respondents' Farms.
Most of the respondents we interviewed had an idea of how much sandalwood was on
their farms. As seen in figure 4.5, up to 36% of the households indicated that they had (at
the time of the research) sandalwood on their farms. A large proportion (61%) reported
that they had harvested the trees for use and sale.
80 61.33
60
t
n
~40
~
20
0
Yes No, Harvested • Don't Know
Figure 4.5. Availability of Osyris lanceolata on respondents' farms.
63
Table 4.9. Distribution of tree species in Makindu (zone 1)
Quadrant
number
Tree Names 1 2 3 Total trees %
Osyris Ianceo lata 1 0 1 2 9%
Acacia brevispica 0 1 1 2 9%
Aloe spp 1 0 0 1 4%
Commiphora baluensis 2 0 2 4 17%
Delonix elata 2 0 2 4 17%
Olea europea 0 3 0 3 13%
Pappea capensis 0 1 0 1 4%
Premna resinosa 0 1 0 1 4%
Salvadora persica 0 0 1 1 4%
Terminalia mentalis 1 2 0 3 13%
Uveria scheffleri 0 0 1 1 4%
Totals 7 8 8 23 100%
As can be seen, Osyris lanceolata accounted for just about 9% of the tree species in the
quadrant. This was attributed to the nearness of the area to the main Nairobi-Mombasa
highway making harvesting easy. At the same time, the expansion of Makindu as a town
centre automatically affected and continues to affect vegetation which is cleared for
settlement and business premises. This is also true of areas that are in Ngwata, Mbui
Nzau and Kisingo which are near the main areas of expansion and on the main road. This
explains why there is minimal sandalwood in this area as seen in tables 4.10 and 4.11
below.
Table 4.10. Distribution of tree species in Kisingo (zone 2)
Quadrant number
Tree Names 1 2 3 Total No. %
Osyris lanceolata 0 1 1 2 7%
Bozcia angustifolia 3 0 0 3 11%
Carrisa edulis 1 0 0 1 4%
Diospyros cornii 3 0 0 3 11%
Jatropha curcas 2 1 0 3 11%
Carrisa edulis 0 2 1 3 11%
Capparis tomentosa 1 0 2 3 11%
Aloe spp 0 1 0 1 4%
Eurphobia spp 0 0 4 4 15%
Uvaria scheffleri 0 0 1 1 4%
Ficus natalensis 0 0 1 1 4%
Dombeya Kirkii 0 0 2 2 7%
Totals 10 4 12 27 100%
64
Table 4.11 shows the ground cover of sandalwood in Kikumbulyu which is next to
Chyullu hills. The prevalence of sandalwood in the area was highest at 21%. Other areas
that had a high prevalence of Osyris include Utithi, Muthingini and parts ofNgwata. The
most prevalent tree species that were found growing in association with sandalwood in
this area include Combretum species, Commiphora balluensis, Olea europea and Rhus
natalensis. Since sandalwood is a semi parasitic plant that requires a host plant for its
survival. These tree species can be tried in Kibwezi as nurse plants. This could be a
management option in conserving and propagating Osyris lanceolata.
Table 4.11. Distribution of tree species in Kikumbulyu (zone 3)
Quadrant number
Tree Names 123 Total trees %
Acacia brevispica
Carissa edulis
Commiphora balluensis
Diospyros cornii
Eurphobia searlatina
Eurphorbia spp
lannea schulmanni
Olea europea
Osyris lanceoalata
Pappea cappensis
Rhus natalensis
Vangueria peniculeata
Combretum apiculatum
Aloe spp
Combretum schumanii
Plumbago zeylanica
012
200
o 1 1
020
010
200
100
2 0 2
322
200
010
100
002
001
002
001
3 9%
6%
6%
6%
3%
6%
3%
12%
21%
6%
3%
3%
6%
2
2
2
1
2
1
4
7
2
1
1
2
1
2
1
3%
6%
3%
Totals 13 8 13 34 100%
The three quadrants in Ngwata (table 4.12) only yielded 3 trees (7%) of Osyris
lanceolata. Pappea capensis was found to be the most dominant species with 14 trees
(32%). The prevalence of Sandalwood in Ngwata was low because of poaching and
illegal harvesting of the tree. More research needs to be done to find viable planting
materials that can be used to propagate the tree in order to replace the harvested stock in
these areas as well as offer economic activities to members of the community and avert
complete degradation of Sandalwood.
65
Table 4.12. Distribution oftree species in Ngwata (zone 4)
Quadrant number
Tree Names 1 2 3 Total trees %
Acacia spp 0 1 0 1 2%
Aloe spp 0 2 2 4 9%
Balanites aegyptica 1 0 0 I 2%
Capparis tomentosa 0 1 0 I 2%
Commiphora spp I 0 0 I 2%
Eurphobia spp I 0 0 1 2%
Ficus natalensis I 0 3 4 9%
Jatropha curcas 0 1 0 1 2%
Olea europea 0 0 2 2 5%
Osyris lanceolata 1 1 1 3 7%
Pappea capensis 9 3 2 14 32%
Plumbago zeylanica 0 2 3 5 11%
Uvaria scheffleri 5 0 0 5 11%
Vangueria peniculeata 0 0 I I 2%
Totals 19 11 14 44 100%
In Utithi, table 4.13 Combretum zeyheri and Commiphora spp had 11 (26%) and 10
(24%) trees in the three quadrants respectively. Osyris lanceolata had 7 trees accounting
for 17% of the total number of different trees found in the quadrants.
Table 4.13. Distribution of tree species in Utithi (zone 5)
Quadrant number
Tree Names 1 2 3 Total trees %
Osyris lanceolata 2 2 3 7 17%
Combretum zeyheri 7 3 I 11 26%
Guanzuma ulmifolia 2 0 0 2 5%
Pappea cap ens is 3 0 0 3 7%
Rhus natalensis 1 0 2 3 7%
Commiphora spp 4 6 0 10 24%
Delonix elata 0 1 0 1 2%
Dalbergia melanoxylon 0 I 0 1 2%
Uvaria scheffleri 0 2 0 2 5%
Dombeya Kirkii 0 0 I 1 2%
Acacia spp 0 0 I 1 2%
Totals 19 15 8 42 100%
As seen in table 4.14 for Muthingini zone, Combretum zeyheri was the most dominant
tree species with 24 trees (49%). The next most populous was Rhus natalensis with 9
trees (18%). Osyris lanceolata had 6 trees (12%). Most of the other tree species had just 1
tree in the three quadrants. In Mangelete (table 4.15), the three quadrants thrown only
found one Osyris lanceolata tree (4%) compared to (30%) of Acrorcarpus fraxinifolia.
66
Table 4.14. Distribution of tree species in Muthingini (zone 6)
Quadrant number
Tree Names I 2
,.,
Total trees %.)
Acacia mellifera 0 0 1 1 2%
Acacia spp 0 1 0 1 2%
Combretum zeyheri 7 9 8 24 48%
Dalbergia melanoxylon 0 1 0 I 2%
Dombeya Kirkii I 0 0 I 2%
Guanzuma ulmifolia I 1 1 3 6%
Guanzuma ulmifolia 1 0 0 1 2%
Osyris lanceolata 2 3 1 6 12%
Premna resinosa 1 0 0 I 2%
Rhus natalensis 3 0 6 9 18%
Salvadora persica 0 1 0 1 2%
Solanum incunum 0 0 1 1 2%
Totals 16 16 18 50 98%
Table 4.15 presents the quadrant results for Mangelete. There was only one Osyris
lanceolata tree (4%) in the three quadrants thrown randomly in the area.
Table 4.15. Distribution of tree species in Mangelete (zone 7)
Quadrant
number
Tree Names I 2 3 Total trees %
Acrorcarpus fraxinifolia 0 3 4 7 30%
Aloe spp 0 0 1 1 4%
Dalbergia melanoxylon 0 0 1 I 4%
Diospyros cornii 0 0 2 2 9%
Dombeya guortzenii 0 2 0 2 9%
Ficus natalensis 0 1 0 1 4%
Olea europea 2 0 0 2 9%
Osyris lanceolata I 0 0 1 4%
Rhus natalensis I 0 0 1 4%
Salvadora persica 0 3 0 ,., 13%.)
Terminalia mentalis 1 0 0 I 4%
Vangueria peniculeata 0 0 I I 4%
Totals 5 9 9 23 96%
These results suggest that of all the zones where quadrants were thrown, Kikumbulyu and
Utithi sub-locations had the highest population of sandalwood trees at seven trees each
67
with Muthingini having six. The other sub-locations of Makindu, Kisingo, Ngwata and
Mangelete had less than 4 trees. These results also suggest that the prevalence of
sandalwood in Kibwezi is concentrated in areas that are closer to the KWS conservation
park and far away from the main roads. Though it is harvested and stolen at night, there is
still higher population of sandalwood trees in these areas which have provided mother
plants for the seed trials. Figure 4.6 presents a visual picture of the concentration of
sandalwood around the Chyullu Hills.
From Nairobi
KEY
4.7 Mode of exploitation of Osyris lanceolata.
The plant is dioecious, male and female on separate trees. The female plant is the most
preferred one as it is said to have a better quality of heartwood and the red dye. The mode
of exploitation is mainly through total uprooting as seen in table 4.16. The roots and the
mature parts of the stem are cut then stacked ready for transport. The roots are the most
preferred parts with the stems and branches harvested as the last option. The harvested
roots are sold off and the remaining branches used as firewood. As seen in figure 4.7, our
results suggest that more than 76.2% of the residents of Kibwezi preferred to harvest the
roots of sandalwood trees. This preference threatens the survival of the species either in
-
o Towns
/\/ Railway Line
IV Main Road
/ Study Area Map
_ Andosols
~Alfisols
Oxisols
,
To Mombasa
Figure 4.6. Sandalwood distribution in Kibwezi District.
68
tree.
the wild or even in homes since seeds can't be collected for further propagation of the
76.280
70
60
50.•..
c
Q) 40u•..
Q)c,
30
20
10
0
Roots Stem & Bark Leaves & Branches
As seen in table 4.16, up to 57.3% of our respondents indicated that the lat time they
harvested sandalwood trees, the uprooted whole trees.
Figure 4.7 Preferred parts harvested for sale in Kibwezi District.
Table 4.16. Mode of exploitation of sandalwood in Kibwezi District
Mode of Exploitation Frequency (%)
Whole tree (total uprooting) 57.3
Parts of the tree (selective harvesting) 42.7
Total 100
Table 4.17 illustrates the common uses of sandalwood in and around the study area. Up
to 64% of the households that had harvested and used sandalwood indicated that they
sold' off sandalwood trees for commercial purposes while 21% used the trees for
medicinal purposes. The rate at which sandalwood is used as firewood is low compared
to other uses. This can generally be attributed to other better economic uses of
sandalwood and also perhaps the fact that sandalwood has low calorific value of about
2400kcal/gram emitting between 400 to 800 calories of energy during combustion.
69
Table 4.17 .Common Uses of sandalwood In Kibwezi by the local community.
Use of sandalwood Number of Households %
Firewood 10 10.1
Domestic work(building) 4 4.0
Commercial purposes 78 64.7
Medicinal 21 21.2
Totals 113 100
The same applied to the frequency and the number of trees harvested by the community
members. Since the commercial use of sandalwood was more predominant and there was
largely no replanting mechanism due to massive seed failure. More of the trees were
being harvested at one point in time as compared to those being replanted as seen in table
4.18 where 65% of the households harvested four or more trees of sandalwood the last
time they did so. This clearly illustrates the danger it poses to the survival of the tree in
the homesteads and in the wild.
Table 4.18. Number of trees harvested by households the last time they did so.
Number of trees Households Freq.(%)
One 29 18.2%
Two 15 9.4%
Three 11 6.9%
Four and above 104 65.4%
Totals 159 99.9%
4.7.1 Local Community Knowledge and Involvement in Propagation
Our results suggest that the local community in the study area IS well aware of
sandalwood and exhibit knowledge about its use. They have been using the tree for a
while for their medicinal purposes. Over time, they have realised that the whole tree
could be uprooted and the roots sold off to middle men who export it for the perfume
industry in countries in the Middle and Far East. The community is however being ripped
off by middlemen who buy one kilo of the raw wood at between Ksh. 10 and 30. The
involvement of local residents in the conservation of the tree is grossly wanting with most
of them uprooting the tree without replanting it.
It is possible that the lack of a conservation strategy and awareness could be linked to the
education level and capability of the house hold heads and their spouses. As seen earlier,
70
a large proportion of these household heads and their spouses only had up to primary
education. This may not be sufficient enough education for complex processing of
interlinked variables in the propagation framework of sandalwood. A poor conservation
strategy by the residents could also be linked to the availability of land and the market
forces that are influencing the harvesting frequency and design. This could be explained
by the large and ready market for the tree although the price was close to a rip-off. The
recent presidential ban on trade in sandalwood has somewhat increased the price of
Osyris lanceaolata making the now illegal business more lucrative with a kilo of the tree
product rising to Ksh 30 from as low as 10 before the ban.
With the increased demand since 2004, residents in the study area have tried to propagate
the tree on their own farms with little success since it dries up after a year or less after
planting. This was also compounded by the presidential ban which made the residents
afraid of planting it since the authorities could easily come for them in case seedlings or
saplings were found in their compound. Many nursery owners have had no other option
but to discard sandalwood seedlings for fear of being arrested.
4.8 Management of sandalwood and its associated challenges
As earlier indicated most of the residents cited the presidential ban, lack of viable
seedlings, little information on silvilcultural practices of the tree and the rough terrain as
the main challenges faced in trying to propagate the tree. Despite these challenges, some
were trying to propagate the tree because most of them saw it as an alternative source of
income now that the area is prone to crop failure and drought.
4.8.1 Poverty of communities living adjacent to the protected areas
Most households in the study area live in poverty and are therefore ready to embrace any
kind of business to earn a livelihood. Households living around the Chyullu National
Park engage in sandalwood trade to earn between Ksh 10 and 30 per kilo. This is often
sold to middlemen who then resell it at Ksh 80 per kilogram. International prices of the
same stand at seven (7) US dollars per kilogram of raw wood. These households are
therefore left with very little cash in their hands despite the fact that they spend a lot of
time in uprooting the tree and gathering the stacks, not to mention the environmental
71
degradation aspect of uncontrolled harvesting. In our opinion, a successful intervention
measure will need to address itself to poverty and other sources of livelihood. The
excessive demand for raw sandalwood products in the study area is almost seen as God-
sent, to help redeem them from perennial drought and crop failure.
Results in table 4.19 suggest that households in the middle wealth quintile were more
likely to harvest the tree (77.6%) compared to the other two quintiles of richest and
poorest at 73.8% and 61.6% respectively.
Table 4.19. The effect of household wealth index on use and conservation of
sandalwood
Household Wealth Index Medicinal uses Economic uses Propagation
Yes No Yes No Yes No
N Freq.(%) N Freg.(%) N Freg.(%) N Freg.(%) N Freg.(%) N Freg.(%)
Richest 33 percent
Middle level
Poorest 33 percent
48 73.8* 17 26.2 55 84.6 10 15.4
52 77.6** 15 22.4 53 79.1 14 20.9
48 61.6* 30 38.46 51 65.38 27 34.6
45 69.2 20 30.77
42 63.6 24 36.4
55 77.5 16 29.7
* Significant at 5%
At 84.6%, households in the wealthier quintile were more likely to use sandalwood for
economic purposes than their poorest counterparts. Generally, most households across the
three wealth quintiles indicated that they would most probably use sandalwood for
economic reasons. It is not surprising that the households in the poorest quintile are more
likely to be involved in propagation as they probably see this as their only other
alternative source of income. It is also probable that households in the richest quintile are
likely to be having other sources of income and may not be very interested in sandalwood
propagation. This is in line with research that indicates that the poor are more likely to
involve in trade for economic purposes by improving their ability to increase more
through propagation methods than their wealthier counterparts.
4.8.2 Nature and accessibility of Sandalwood seeds
Sandalwood seeds are recalcitrant in nature. This makes their propagation difficult. The
seeds may need specialized treatment and handling before they can be effectively
planted. The seeds are also enclosed in an edible pulp which makes the seed to be easily
eaten by the weevils making it easily damaged and therefore hard to generate. Research
being done at the KEFRI Kibwezi sub-station has shown that it is challenging to
72
eaten by the weevils making it easily damaged and therefore hard to generate. Research
being done at the KEFRI Kibwezi sub-station has shown that it is challenging to
propagate sandalwood seed. The seeds are collected and immediately de-pulped, nipped
and sowed in sand beds. They then took between 21 days and 30 days to germinate. Even
after their transplanting into pots and transfer to a nursery under a shade with daily
watering in the morning and evening, results at the sub-station indicated that the
seedlings started wilting and drying off after 3 months. This experimentation has led to
introduction of trials to ascertain if the seedlings need a nurse plant. These trials are on-
going. It seems the development and management of sandalwood seeds will remain a
challenge unless specific and consistent research is done on the same.
4.8.3 Government ban
Figure 4.8 surnmarises what the household respondents thought were hindrances to
sandalwood propagation in the study area. Up to 35% thought that the main hindrance
was the government ban in the trade of sandalwood.
50
35.97
40
26.11
fO
19.86
10
!
';1 i; 9.72
4.17 4.17
10 I; .~ ·~:t ~~
/"", ....=.w. l,~1 ..•~ .J . " ~ ·M·..,~V.·,~... >0 /Government ban Ignorance y residents
Seed accessibility Alternative trees
Bad climate Theft and destruction
Figure 4.8 Hindrances to sandalwood propagation in Kibwezi District.
The community members reckon that this presidential ban imposed on the harvesting of
sandalwood is a main challenge in propagating the tree since collecting the seeds and
73
4.8.4 Lack of information to the residents.
Environmental education is described as "a learning process of developing a world
population that is aware of and concerned about the total environment and its associated
problems, and which has the knowledge, skills, perceptions, attitudes, motivation and
commitment to work individually and collectively toward solutions of current problems
and the prevention of new ones" (United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural
Organization [UNESCO], 1978). Perceptions are then an important component of
environmental education according to this definition; and understanding rural farmers'
perceptions about the environment may provide a framework for forest conservation, and
inform future efforts in forest education. The study established that although the residents
were harvesting the tree for sale and medicinal purposes, they were not aware of any
silvilcultural practice that could help propagate the tree. Because of limited research
evidence on proper models of propagation, professional foresters in Kibwezi are faced
with a challenge in advising the residents on propagation of sandalwood. Certainly, more
focused research in this area would help bridge the information gap and help conserve the
tree ex- situ. This research could also focus on the use of nurse plants to help develop
more seedlings and saplings.
4.8.5. Theft and destruction
The poaching and harvesting of the tree by other members in this community is
hampering any propagation efforts and management of the tree. In most cases the tree is
sometimes stolen from neighbour's farms hence paralyzing efforts aimed at establishing
the tree or keeping the tree as a seed source. Plate 26 shows a stack of harvested
sandalwood from Chyullu hills in Kibwezi District.
74
4.8.6 High market demand for sandalwood products
The shortage of the sandalwood in the world market has seen an increase in prices over
the years. According to Wanjohi (2005), current sandalwood price on global markets
stand at 7000 US dollars per tone, translating to about 70 US dollars per kilogram.
Certainly, this high demand for sandalwood in the global markets poses a challenge to
foresters and conservationists. Selective harvesting of the female tree is a challenge to the
management of the species. This may have driven the need for a ban on trade in
sandalwood products in Kenya in order to protect its fast disappearance. Figure 4.9 shows
the cost of raw sandalwood chips in Kibwezi
50
40
10
o
42.3
34
23.7
less than Ksh 10 Btwn Ksh 11& 30 Above Kshs 30
Figure 4.9. Cost of fresh sandalwood per kilogram of green stems and woody branches
75
The cost of sandalwood as seen in figure 4.9 shows the desperation among the locals in
Kibwezi to earn an extra income, this low sale of such a highly valuable tree can only be
fixed with better management of the tree at the same time increases awareness among the
residents on the international market rates to avoid exploitation of the tree for such low
earnings and offer fair trade for the residents in Kibwezi District.
4.9 Local and international utilization of sandalwood.
4.9.1 Local uses of sandalwood in Kibwezi
In Kenya, Osyris lanceolata is of value in different ways to different communities. The
Pokot who reside in the North Rift region take a concoction of roots against diarrhoea
and other stomach ailments. The root gives a strong red dye and the Maasai use it for
making herbal tea. The Kamba people (the residents of the study area) use the roots for
treating of snakebites and the root fibers for basketry. The tree is also used as a fragrant.
Table 4.20 presents the results of sandalwood utilization by age groups. These results
suggest that irrespective of age, there was virtually no replanting of sandalwood after
harvesting. Only those aged 40-49 indicated some effort in replanting sandalwood after
harvesting.
Table 4.20. Distribution of Age and utilization priorities of different age groups within the study area
Betwn 50-59 yrs
Betwn 60-69 yrs
Above 70 yrs
Age Education level Uses of Sandalwood Part harvested
18 yrs and below Still in School Firewood Branches
Btwn 19-29 yrs Pre primary & Primary Firewood Branches
Btwn 30-39 yrs Primary & Secondary Sale for Sandalwood oil Stem & roots
Btwn 40-49 yrs Secondary &middle level Sale for Sandalwood oil Stem & roots
colleges
Primary
Primary
Adult education
Replanted
No
No
No
Yes
Medicinal
Medicinal
Medicinal
Bark and roots
Bark and roots
Bark and roots
No
No
No
The table 4.21 also presents chi-square results for age and utilization priorities.
Irrespective of the level of education and age, our results suggest that large proportions of
the residents would use sandalwood products for economic purposes. The results are
significant for those aged 19-29 years as well as for those aged 50-59 years. Although not
significant, the results suggest that more elderly members of the community in the study
76
area seemed to prefer sandalwood for medicinal purposes, which may also have
economic returns to those involved. One could be tempted to argue that using
sandalwood as firewood is wasteful and does not make economic sense as there are
several other trees in the area that could be used instead, as sources of energy. These
results suggest that those with up to primary education only were more likely to be
engaged in economic exploitation of sandalwood compared to the other groups.
Table 4.21. Chi Square distribution of Age and Utilization priorities of different age groups in Kibwezi (%)
Uses of
Age Education level Sandalwood
Economic Medicinal Firewood
Yes No Yes No Yes No
Btwn 19-29 yrs Pre primary & Primary 82.6* 17.4 56.5 43.5 13 87
Btwn 30-39 yrs Primary & Secondary 78.6 21.4 66.7 33.3 28.6 71.4
Btwn 40-49 yrs Secondary & middle level colleges 69.2 30.7 78.9* 21.2 21.5 78.8
Between 50-59 yrs Primary 85* 15 62.5 37.5 21.2 75
Between 60-69 yrs Primary 70 30 73.3 26.7 25 73
Above 70 yrs Primary 69.6 30.4 82.6* 17.3 47.8 52.2
*Significant at 5%
Overall, up to 90% of those who harvested sandalwood used it for economic and
medicinal purposes as seen in figure 4.1O. The economic purposes of sale and quick
income took precedence over all the others which can explain the rationale of profit
maximization by the residents of Kibwezi.
77
~ 40.0
~
80.0
60.0
20.0
78.0
9.8 12.2
i .,....- ..~ .·.~.·.·_'.~N";.+·
j ,/ ••./
O. 0 .}<m ..'.~N.w'"'"NmmN..m...•~".wmNw.~wmm= ....=Nm.wN.•..W....wmN~....=N.~'.m.w.w.,/
Economic purposes Medicinal value
Economic & Medicinal
Figure 4.10. Local uses of sandalwood after harvesting
Figure 4.11 shows a summary of proceeds from sandalwood sales. Nearly half of
the residents (49%) earned only up to Ksh 2500 from the sale of green
sandalwood chips at their last sale.
60
40
.•..
r:::s•..
CIIc.
20
o
Less than 2S00k
49.5
Btwn 2S01-S000k
• Btwn S001k-10000k
28.9
Btwn 10001k-
1S000k
3.1
14.4 Above 20000
Figure 4.11. Income realized from the sale of green sandalwood chips.
A large proportion of up to 78% earned less than Ksh 5000with a very small proportion
(3.1%) earning over Ksh 20000.It is probable that this small group of residents
78
comprises middlemen and traders. These figures appear low compared to prices as high
as Ksh 800 per kilogramme on the Kenya-Tanzania border.
4.9.2 International uses
As identified by Gupta (2006) and Ferrera (1988), the Hindu, Buddhists, Chinese and
Muslims have used sandalwood over time as incense in their religious ceremonies
because of its sweet fragrance. Incense is made from sandalwood sawdust mixed with
gum and often with other aromatic material and made into sticks. Sawdust from sapwood
and spent heartwood left after distillation are used for the same purpose. Fine sawdust is
also put in sachets used to scent stored clothes. In some countries like Indonesia, finely
ground sandalwood mixed with water is rubbed on the body for its cooling effect. It is
also used for making high value walking sticks and jewel boxes. Sandalwood oil has also
been used in the ayurvedic industry, and aromatherapy where most of the wood is used.
The traditional uses both in Kenya are in many ways similar to those in other countries.
In India and East Asian countries, sandalwood oil is used to treat quite a variety of
ailments. These include acne, coughs, depression, diarrhoea, insomnia, restlessness, and
nervous system problems. Other ailments are stress, anxiety, varicose veins, eczema, sore
throat, scabies, nausea, abdominal cramps, bronchitis, dermatitis, catarrh, laryngitis,
dandruff, and even lice. The oil is also said to have antiviral activity against Herpes
simplex and treats bladder infection and gonorrhoea (Jon & Peter, 2006).
4.10 Steps towards better management of the sandalwood tree
As earlier mentioned, a ban in sandalwood trade in Kenya is one of the ways in which the
Government thinks the tree can be salvaged from extinction. Our results suggest that this
ban is ineffective and has not succeeded in stopping sandalwood harvesting that is now
carried out clandestinely or under the cover of darkness. While in the field, the researcher
saw a lorry similar to the ones used for water supply and sales deep in one of the villages
packaging sandalwood chips. If one met this lorry on the highway, one would probably
never imagine that it was carrying sandalwood chips instead of water. The lorry is
packaged as one used for water sales and supply when it is actually used for ferrying
sandalwood. Table 4.22 presents the responses of residents with regard to conservation
79
challenges in relation to sandalwood. Of the 587 households interviewed, up to 41%
thought that sandalwood harvesting needed to be controlled, with 133 households
(22.7%) suggesting that there was need to create awareness about the viability of
sandalwood as an income earner and help propagate it.
Table 4.22 Community suggestions of solving sandalwood problems in Kibwezi District
Method Number Freq. (%)
Controlled Harvesting 243 41.4
Create awareness 133 22.7
Avail viable seeds 33 5.6
Improve Price and Marketing 28 4.8
Propagation 121 20.6
Extension services 29 4.9
Total 587 100
Another 121 households (20%) think that it will be important to devise ways of
propagating the species since it was currently endangered.
4.11 The effect of market forces on sandalwood utilization
Contemporary exchange theory stresses that farmers seek the "best value" they can get in
participating in a reforestation, forest protection, or management program Consistent with
exchange theory. Napier and Napier (1991) argue that rural farmers tend to contribute to
an activity program that has a positive net benefit. As each individual seeks the best value
in an activity, rural farmers will tend to choose forestry activities that offer at least as
much, in terms of socioeconomic and environmental benefits as they get from alternate
activities. As noted earlier by Mathenge et al (2005), the availability of markets as close
as on the border of Kenya and Tanzania is perhaps the main driver of sandalwood
harvesting in Kenya, including within the study area. The availability of a semi
processing company in Tanzania and the prospects of exporting the powder to the Middle
East have may have also encouraged the almost unsustainable exploitation of the tree.
However; these markets could also be positively harnessed to benefit the residents who
have the tree growing on their farms. This could be in the form of a semi processing
industry that could process and get the powder from the tree before it is exported. This
could increase the value of the products and therefore fetch better prices for residents.
80
4.12 Adequacy of policy in the management of Osyris lanceolata
4.12.1 Legal, policy and institutional framework
There needs to be a vibrant legal, policy and institutional framework that supports
participatory decision-making, governance and law enforcement in sustainable
management of the natural resources in Kenya. This framework would for instance deal
with broader societal issues including fair and equitable use of forest resources. Other
areas of focus would be scientific research and education, infrastructural arrangements to
support the forest sector, transfer of technology, capacity-building, and public
information and communication. The presidential ban on sandalwood harvesting and
trade is an attempt to try and address the shortfall in policy and institutional framework.
As seen in figure 4.12, the presidential ban which came into effect in April 2007 had an
immediate effect, but this was not sustained. To test the efficacy of the presidential ban in
terms of policy, we sought to find out the last time an individual in the household
harvested sandalwood despite the presidential ban in force.
50
39
40
31.6
•.• 30
c::
<IIu•..
<IIc..
20
10
1.02
0
Last 3 4-6 months 7-9 months 10-12 > than a
months months year ago
Figure 4.12. Sandalwood harvesting trends before and after presidential ban.
The results suggest that up to 31% of the respondents were engaged in sandalwood trade
in the last three months preceding the survey. This is not very far from the 39% involved
81
in the trade at the time of the presidential ban in April 2007. This means there is very
little change and the ban is ineffective in stopping trade. Indeed, almost one half of the
households (48%) continued to harvest and trade in sandalwood irrespective of the
presidential ban. The flip side is that it drove sandalwood prices up and made the trade
more lucrative. Bans create shortages in supply, which in turn drive prices up.
Both the Forest Act no 7 of2005 and the Wildlife Act Cap 376 of the Laws of Kenya that
spell out severe punishment for the destruction of wild flora and fauna could not curb the
over exploitation of the tree both on individual pieces of land and in the protected areas.
The two policy documents have been in operation for several years, three and eleven
years respectively as at the time of the survey in April 2008.
82
CHAPTER FIVE
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Overview
This chapter presents the summary, conclusion, recommendations and suggestions for
further research. The purpose of the study was to find out the status of sandalwood
conservation and management in the Chyullu hills area of Kibwezi division, Kibwezi
district.
Chapter one of this thesis dealt with the background to the study, the description of the
sandalwood tree and its distribution, the statement of the problem, study objectives,
research questions, significance of the study, assumptions and scope, and the study
limitations.
Chapter two reviewed related literature from across the globe on the conservation and
management of sandalwood. Relevant literature was reviewed from the United States of
America (USA), Europe, Asia, Australia and finally Africa.
Chapter three presented the research design and methodology, describing the study area
by providing background information. This included the geographical location,
administrative units, and main physiographic and natural conditions critical to the overall
development strategy of the district. Also covered is the rationale used for sample
selection, research instruments, the piloting of the research instruments used in the
survey. The chapter also dealt with data collection procedures and methods of data
analysis
Chapter four presented the results of the study and the discussion of the same. Data were
presented, analysed and discussed according to the study's research questions. Chapter
five presents the summary of findings, conclusion and recommendations. Following this
analysis, a summary ofthe findings, broadly presented in this chapter now follow.
83
5.2 Summary of the study findings
The study found that availability of sandalwood on individual farms was strikingly low.
This is attributed to over exploitation and selling of the tree for economic gains. Up to
78% of the households interviewed have been involved in sandalwood trade and business
with sandalwood trees having been uprooted and sold off.
The study also established that sandalwood seeds can be used for propagation although
the process is fraught with challenges. For instance, seeds could germinate and be
transplanted but they soon dried up in less than a year. The seeds are also rare to find and
seed propagation is slower than vegetative propagation.
The results show that sandalwood trees are attacked by diseases. Danger to the trees was
posed by weevils and a white mould that fed on the branches and the seeds. The weevils
attacked the branches which then fell off hence limiting the amount of seeds collected
from one tree. The weevils were seen to suck the pulp covering the remaining seeds
reducing greatly the viability of such seeds for propagation. The attack by the pests also
reduced the chance for better root development.
Besides the Chyullu hills which is a protected area with higher population of sandalwood
trees, Utithi sub-location had the highest incidence of sandalwood trees still on the farm
at (25.2%). The least sandalwood populated sub-locations were Kiboko, Mangelete and
parts of Ngwata which were mainly inhabited by squatters who cleared trees for
cultivation of food crops. Our results also suggest that up to 239 (77%) of the male
respondents had harvested sandalwood compared to 117 (59%) among the females.
The study also found that sandalwood grows on rocky volcanic soils known as Kivuthi in
the Kamba language and that it became more abundant and frequent as one ascended the
Chyullu Hills. In the plains, the tree was less common mostly due to the harvesting
activities in the areas. The tree was widely distributed along the volcanic ash areas.
Recent harvesting activities driven by markets in Tanzania have led to the disappearance
of the species in the areas near the main roads especially in Mbui Nzau and Utu. The
study also found that following the presidential ban in Kenya, the sandalwood population
84
,
now left inside the Chyullu Hills conservation area was under constant illegal extraction,
mostly done at night. The study results also suggest that up to 37% of the households
interviewed had sandalwood on their farms with a large proportion (61%) reporting that
at the time of the survey (April 2008), they did not have the trees on their farms but that
they had harvested the same for use and sale. Only a negligible proportion of the
respondents (2%) indicated they did not know whether they had the tree on their farms.
After throwing three different quadrants randomly in different places in the study area,
we found that Kikumbulyu and Utithi sub-locations had the highest population of
sandalwood trees at seven trees each with Muthingini having six. The other sub-locations
of Makindu, Kisingo, Ngwata and Mangelete had less than 4 trees. These results also
suggest that the prevalence of sandalwood in Kibwezi is concentrated in areas that are
closer to the KWS conservation park and far away from the main roads. Though it is
harvested and stolen at night, there is higher population of sandalwood trees in these
areas which have provided mother plants for the seed trials.
The study also found that the female sandalwood tree was the most preferred one as it
was said to have a better quality of heartwood and the red dye. The mode of exploitation
was mainly through total uprooting with the roots as the most preferred parts with the
stems and branches harvested as the last option. The study also established that the
harvested roots were sold off and the remaining branches used as firewood. Up to 75% of
the households in the study area preferred to harvest the roots of sandalwood trees. This
preference threatened the survival of the species either in the wild or even in homes since
seeds could now not be collected for further propagation of the tree.
Up to 113 households out of 587 interviewed indicated they had harvested sandalwood in
the three months preceding the survey. Seventy eight households (64.7%) indicated they
had used the harvested trees for commercial purposes while 21 (21%) used it for
medicinal purposes. The rest of the 14 households (14.1%) used their harvested
sandalwood for domestic purposes such as firewood and building. Again, up to 65% of
85
the households harvested four or more trees the last time they did so. A large proportion
of these did not replant any trees after harvesting.
Irrespective of the level of education and age, our results suggest that large proportions of
the residents would use sandalwood products for economic purposes. The results are
significant for those aged 19-29 years as well as for those aged 50-59 years. More elderly
members of the community in the study area seemed to prefer sandalwood for medicinal
purposes which may also have economic returns to those involved. This specific result
was however not significant at 10%.
In Kenya, Osyris lanceolata is used by the Pokot as concoction against diarrhoea and
other stomach ailments. The Maasai use it for making herbal tea while the Kamba people
(the residents of the study area) use the roots for treating snakebites and the root fibers for
basketry. The tree is also used as a fragrant. Internationally, products of the tree are
used in religious ceremonies for its sweet fragrance by the Hindu, Budhists, Mulsims,
among other religious faithful. In some countries like Indonesia, finely ground
sandalwood mixed with water is rubbed on the body for its cooling effect. In India and
East Asian countries, sandalwood oil is used to treat quite a variety of ailments. These
include acne, coughs, depression, diarrhoea, insomnia, restlessness, and nervous system
problems. Other ailments are stress, anxiety, varicose veins, eczema, sore throat, scabies,
nausea, abdominal cramps, bronchitis, dermatitis, catarrh, laryngitis, dandruff, and even
lice. The oil is also said to have antiviral activity against Herpes simplex and treats
bladder infection and gonorrhoea (Rai, 1990).
The study results also suggest that the recent Presidential ban on trade in sandalwood and
the two policy documents, the Forest Act no. 7 of 2005 and the Wildlife Act Cap 376 of
the Laws of Kenya, have not been successful in protecting the now near-extinct
sandalwood tree and more measures need to be put in place to conserve and manage the
tree.
86
5.3 Conclusion
From the findings of this study, it can be concluded that there is heavy harvesting of
sandalwood in the study area with very little effort in replanting. This harvesting has not
spared the protected part of the Chyullu hills as harvesters are doing it in the dead of the
night. It therefore appears that existing policy provisions and bans have not succeeded in
halting sandalwood harvesting.
Most of the residents of the study area have largely been harvesting the tree for
commercial purposes, selling it to middlemen whose buying prices are low compared to
those on the Kenya-Tanzania border and on the international market. As a result of poor
seed and vegetative propagation methods, almost all the harvested sandalwood is not
replanted. This is fast pushing Osyris lanceolata into extinction.
5.4 Recommendations
Based on the findings of this study, the researcher recommends that immediate and
concerted research effort needs to be carried out to develop viable sandalwood seed
propagation methods. Research into vegetative propagation also needs to be carried out.
Without these efforts, Osyris lanceolata is fast becoming extinct in the study area.
Research effort also needs to come up with specific methods of domesticating the
species. Residents in the study area have tried to propagate it with little positive
outcomes. This may be attributed to the short survival span of the seeds before planting
(recalcitrant seeds) and after planting, there seems to be a genetic influence on the growth
and germination of the seedlings (seed dormancy) and hence massive deaths.
Since previous research also shows that the tree needs a nurse plant to survive, effective
agro forestry and domestication programmes should be put in place using a set of
indigenous trees seen to be associated with sandalwood that include combretum spp,
cajanus cajan and Rhus natalensis among others. These could be intercropped with the
tree on farms to assess the effect of the associations.
Since Osyris lanceolata has huge economic returns and is on high demand globally, the
Presidential ban on its trade should be lifted. Instead, the residents in the study area
87
should be educated on proper conservation and management of the species as an
economic earner. Households should be encouraged to set aside a percentage of their
land, say 10%, and put this under sandalwood. In many parts of the country, households
plant different tree species such as eucalyptus, pinus and cypress for commercial
purposes. Since the residents in the study area are lucky to have their soils support
sandalwood growth, they should be encouraged to grow the species in large quantities for
both commercial and medicinal uses of their own. As was found out, banning trade in
sandalwood has not helped conserve and manage it. Households are more likely to better
conserve and manage sandalwood if allowed to plant it on their farms and access better
markets for it. The results show that large economic returns from sandalwood sales will
be an incentive for households to replant, conserve and manage Osyris lanceolata in areas
where climatic conditions are suitable for its good growth and development.
There is also need to reinforce the legal and institutional framework in the management
of Osyris lanceolata and other economically viable tree species and Shrubs. Existing
legislation seems not to be achieving much in the conservation and management of these
threatened species. New thinking in legislation should instead provide incentives for
propagation, conservation and management instead of only spelling out penalties, and
what-not-to-do in dealing with sandalwood. In-situ harvesting techniques and ex-situ
conservation methods should be encouraged and promoted.
There is also need to educate and create awareness among all the stakeholders in
sandalwood management both in the protected areas and in the community. This
education and awareness should sensitize the communities on the on-going non-
sustainable harvesting methods and the dangers these pose to the tree's survival and their
own ecosystem. Such education could be effectively done through community workshops
and the forest extension services as these enable quick information transfer on any
changes in the conservation status. There however needs to be an incentive for
conservation and management efforts to succeed.
88
KEMVATTA UNI ERSITY llBR ~P'"
5.5 Areas for further research
There is need for research in viable sandalwood seed and vegetative propagation
methods. Other areas of research could include trials on domestication and regeneration
methods for effective sandalwood propagation.
89
•..
REFERENCES
Bass, S., Dubois, 0., Cousta, P., Pinard, M., & Tipper, R. a. (2000). Rural livelihoods and carbon
management and natural resources issues. London UK: lIED.
Beentje, H. J. (1994). Kenya trees, shrubs and lianas. Nairobi: National Museum of Kenya.
Bondi, D., & Mugambe, O. (1996). land tenure systems and natural resources management. In
land we trust.
Breitenbach, F. (1963). The indigenous trees of Ethiopia. Addis Ababa: Ethiopia Forestry
Association.
Butaud, F. J. (2004). Santalum insulare (Bertero ex A. DC.): Distribution and Ecology.
Sandalwood research newsletter, 18-23.
Central Bureau Of Statistics. (2008). Geographic Dimensions Of Well-Being In Kenya, where are
the poor? Nairobi: Ministry Of Planning and National Development.
Central Bureau of Statitics. (1997). Kenya Economic Survey. Nairobi: Central Bureau of
Statistics.
Colchester, M. (1996). Beyond 'participation': indigenous peoples,biological diversity and
protected area management. Unasylva, 33-39.
Coppen, J. (1995). Flavours and Fragrances of plant origon. Rome: Food and Agriculture
Organisation of the United Nations.
Dale, I. R., & Greenway, P. J. (1961). Kenya trees and shrubs. London: Hatchards Inc.
Duraisamy, P. (2002). Changes in returns to education in India, 1983-94: by gender.age-cohort
and location. Economics of Education Review 21 , 609-622.
Food and Agricultural Organization. (2004). Opportunities with clean development mechanism,
environmental services and biodiversity. workshop on forests for poverty reduction. Bangkok:
FAO regional office.
Ferguson, A. E., & Absalom K, W. (1985). Kibwezi Integrated Survey. Nairobi: AMREF.
Food and Agriculture Organization. (2000). PFM a strategy for sustainable forest management in
Africa. 65-78.
Franzel, S. (1999). Socio economic factors affecting adoption of improved fallows in Africa.
Agro forestry systems, 305-329.
90
Frontier. (2008, January 6). Quality Products. Retrieved September 4,2009, from Quality
products for natural living: http://www.frontiercoop.com/learn/features/sandalwood2.htmI
Furman, A. (1998). A note on environmental concern in a developing country_results from an
instabul survey. Environment and behaviour, 520-534.
Gay, L. (1992). Educational Research: Competencies for Analysis and Application (Fourth
Edition). New York: McMillan Publishing Company.
Gupta, A. (2006, June 18). African Sandalwood oil web page. Retrieved August 19,2008, from
indoafricanoi I website: http://indoafricanoil.tradeindia.com/Exporters _ Supp liers/Exporter7 644
Hartup, B. (1994). Community conservation in Belize: demography, resource use and attitudes of
participating landowners. Biological Conservation (3) ,235-241.
Herrera, C. M. (1988). Plant size, spacing pattern, and hostplant selection in Osyris quadripatita, a
hem i-parasitic dioecious shrub. Journal of Ecology, 123-139.
Hill, B. (1999). Farm household incomes: perceptions and statistics. Journal of Rural Studies 15
(3) , 345-358.
Jacobson, S., & Marynowski, S. (1997). Public attitudes and knowledge about ecosystem
management on Department of Defense land in Florida. Conservation Biology, 770-781.
Jama, B., & Zeila, A. (2005). Agro forestry in dry lands of Eastern Africa, a call for action.
ICRAF. Nairobi: World Agroforestry Centre.
Jean-Francois, B. (2004). Santalum insulare (Bertero ex A. DC.): Distribution and Ecology ..
Sandalwood research newsletter,(J9) ,45-48.
Jon, B., & Peter, K. (2006). Preliminary analysis ofIndian sandalwood (Santalum album L.) oil
from a 14-year-old plantation at Kununurra, Western Australia. Sandalwood research newsletter,
21.
Lethbridge, B. (2001). Grafting compatibility of Quandong, Santalum acuminatum. Sandalwood
research newsletter 12 , 10-25.
Liangfu, Z. (1993). Aromatic Plants & Essential Constituents South China. Institute of Botany,
11-12.
Madeiras, 1. (2008, April 12). African Blackwood. Retrieved June 15,2008, from African timbers:
http://www.africanblackwood.com/englishlother_timbers.asp
91
Mark, M. D., & Lex, J. (2006). Species Profiles for Pacific Island Agroforestry,Santalum
ellipticum, S. freycinetianum, S. haleakalae, and S. paniculatum (Hawaiian sandalwood)." .
Sandalwood research newsletter, 4-12.
Mathenge, J., Kimini, C., & Kamau, P. (2005). Preliminary Survey on Exploitation of East
African Sandalwood (Osyris lanceolata) In South Kajiado and Neighbouring Districts. Nairobi.:
Kenya Fores Service.
Mayra, B., & Gupta, G. R. (1997.). Female-Headed Households and Female-Maintained
Families: Are They Worth Targeting to Reduce Poverty in Developing Countries? Economic
Development and Cultural Change, Vol. 45, No.2, pp. 259-280.
Mbithi, P. M., & Barnes, C. (1975). The spontaneous settlement in Kenya. Nairobi: East Africa
Literature Bureau.
Mbuya, L. P., & Msanga, H. P. (1994). Useful trees and shrubs of Tanzania. SIDA/RSCU.
Michieka, D., & Der Pouw, V. (1977). Soils and vegetation of the Kiboko range research station.
Nairobi.: Kenya Soil Survey.
Miller, A. G. (1989). Santalaceae and Flora of Ethiopia: Pittosporaceae to Aralliaceae .
Sandalwood newsletter (Vol. 3) , 67-68.
Mwang'ingo, P. L., & Teklehaimanot, Z. (2004). Storage and pre-sowing treatment of recalcitrant
seeds of Africa sandalwood (Osyris lanceolata). Sandalwood newsletter, 4-12.
Mwangi, L., Ongugo, P., & Opany, E. A. (2007). Summery Report on Osyris lanceolata. Narobi:
Kenya Forestry Research Institute(KEFRI).
Napier, T., & Napier, A. (1991). Perceptions of conservation compliance among farmers in a
highly erodible area of Ohio. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation 48 (3) , 220-224.
Nott, T. (2007, February 23). Sandalwood. Retrieved September 4,2008, from Australian
National University: http://sresassociated.anu.edu.au/fpt/nwfp/sandalwood/Sandal.html
Ombahu, Y. H. (1977). Osyris lanceolata- Osyris quadripartita Bergbas African sandalwood.
Sandalwood research newsletter, (17), 2-14.
Opala, K. (2006, March 12). Traffickers of key plant unmasked. Retrieved July 2,2008, from East
African Standard: http://www.eastafricanstandard.com
Pagano, R. R. (1998). Understanding Statistics in the Behavioural Sciences. Journal Of Ecology,
12-56.
92
Pratt, D. J, & Gwynne, M. D. (1977). Rangeland management and ecology in East Africa.
London: Hodder and stoughtern.
Psacharopoulos, G., & Harry, A. P. (2004). Returns to Investment in Education: A Further
update. Education Economics, 57-62.
Rai, S. (1990). Status and Cultivation of Sandalwood in India. Symposium of Sandalwood in the
Pacific (pp. 23-34). Honolulu:Hawai: Sandalwood newsletter.
Republic of Kenya. (2004). Makueni District Development Plan. Nairobi: Government Press.
Republic of Kenya. (2004). Makueni distrcit census projections based on the 1999population
and housing census. Makueni.. Makueni: Makueni District Statistics Office (CBS).
Republic Of Kenya. (1999). Makueni District Development Plan. Nairobi: Government press.
Rostom, R. S., & Mortimore, M. (1991). Environmental changes and dryland management in
Machakos District. Nairobi: OD!.
Saggerson, E. P. (1963 ). Geology ofSimba Kibwezi. Nairobi: Geology Survey of Kenya.
Saunders, M. N., & Lewis, K. P. (2000). Research methods for business students. London:
Pearson Education Ltd.
Srinivasan, V. V., & Sivaramakrishnan, V. R. (2001 issue 12.). Sandal (Santalum album L)
Dehra Dun. India. Sandalwood research newslette , 43-49.
Tiffen, M. (1991). Environmental change and dryland management in Machakos District,
Kenya.Population Profile: Working paper number 54.. Nairobi: OD!.
Touber, L. (1983). Soils and vegetation of Amboseli Kibwezi area. (Vol. R 6). Nairobi. Soil
survey, 12-13.
United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs. (2005, October 11). Agenda 21.
Retrieved February 5, 2008, from United nations website: http://www.un.org/.
Walker, H. (1966). The market for sandalwood oil. London.: Tropical Product Institute.
Wanjohi, K. (2005, February 02). Poachers are back .. Retrieved April 09, 2009, from B net
website: http://findarticles.com/p/articIes/
Wiersma, W. (1995). An introduction to research methods in education:. Boston Allyn and
Bacon, Inc.
Zohary, D., & Hopf, M. (2000). Domestication of Plants in the World. Oxford: Oxford
University.
93
APPENDICES
Appendix 1: Budget
Item
Cost
Unit Qnty Days (USD) Total
Questionnai
res 600 1 0.3 178.1
Trips 1 30 29.0 870.0
Trips 2 30 9.2 552.0
Thesis
copies 10 1 38.7 387.1
Thesis
binding 10 1 11.3 112.9
2100.
Total 1
Printing of questionnaires, primary data collection, and thesis
processing
a) Printing of questionnaires (600 copies of 12 pages each @ 0.3
USD per copy)
b) Travel within the site. for/during data collection
Hiring of vehicles for the transport within chyullu hills
Drivers allowances
c) Data collection (2 casual workers for 30 days @ 9.2 USD)
e) Printing of thesis (10 copies @ 38.7 USD each)
f) Hard cover binding of thesis ( 10 copies @ 11.3 USD each)
94
Appendix 2: Map Showing Study Areas Topography with Contours.
N
+
95
KEY
.l.\!.Study area boundary.
/:V': Rivers.
&Railwayline.
Nairobi-mombasa rd.
, Above 2000 m asl
_ 1800-2000m asl
_ 1600-1800 m aSI.
_ 1400-1600m.asl
_ 1200-1400 m asl
Below 1000 m asl
_ 1000-1200m
Appendix 3:Topographical Map of Study Area (Sheet 175-3, Masongaleni)
,
"::i:··;-
~ \',"":.-+--t-'--'-i'-:,"-,-l
'\,""1..." .1 '\
,-+- -\",
Scale 1:50,000
96
Appendix 4:Topographical Map of Study Area (Sheet 182-2, Chyullu Hills)
97
Appendix 5:Topographical Map of Study Area (Sheet 183-1, Mtito Andei)
98
Appendix 6: Questionnaire
KENYATTA UNIVERSITY
DEPARTMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT
HOUSEHOLD QUESTIONNAIRE
CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT OF SANDALWOOD (OSYRIS LANCEOLATA):
THE CASE OF KIBWEZI IN MAKUENI DISTRICT, KENYA
SECTION 1; CONSENT AND INTRODUCTION
Habari. Jina langu ni na ninatoka chuo kikuu cha Kenyatta huko Nairobi.
Mimi na wenzangu tumekuja hapa Kibwezi kwa ajili ya kufanya utafiti juu ya mti unaoitwa Sandalwood ama
Msandali kwa Kiswahili. Utafiti huu utatusaidia kuelewa mambo kadhaa ya muhimu kuhusu mti huu. Utafiti huu
utahusisha miji/ boma zote zinazozunguka msitu wa Kibwezi kwa hivyo tungependa kupata maoni yako kuhusu mti huu.
Maongezi yetu yatachukua takriban saa moja na yatahusu jamii y ako, jinsi mnavyoishi, uchumi wako na kadhalika.
Una uhuru wa kutojibu swali lolote usilotaka kujibu. Matokeo ya utafiti huu huenda yakasaidia kuimarisha sera
zinazohusu ukuzaji wa m ti huu nchini. Majibu yako yatawekwa siri na kutumiwa tu kwa minajili ya utafiti huu
pekee na wala hutatambulika kwa jina lako. Kuhusika kwako katika utafiti huu ni kwa hiari yako na wala hulazimishwi
kuhusika. Ukihisi kuwa umedhulumiwa kwa kuhusika katika utafiti h u u, unaweza kumpigia simu mkuu wa utafiti hu u ,
Proff Manohar kwa nambari ya simu 0722267289. [e una swali ambalo ungependa kuuliza kuhusu utafiti huu?
[FW: INTELLIGENTLY ANSWER WHATEVER QUESTIONS YOU MA Y BE ASKED WITHOUT MAKING ANY PROMISES]
No. QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP
[CIRCLE THE CODES OR FILL IN THE CELLS AS APPROPRIA TE]
101 Sasa ningependa tuanze mazungumzo yetu. [e. unakubali tuanze sasa? YES . "". ..... ", . 1
NO .. ... ... ... ... ..... 2 ? END
102 FIELD INTERVIEWER'S NAME
103 FIELD INTERVIEWER'S CODE I I I
105 NAME OF SUB-LOCA TION
106 NAME OF VILLAGE
107 LANGUAGE OF INTERVIEWcr USE C1 CODES 0
108 NATIVE LANGUAGE OF RESPONDENTC1 USE CI CODES 0
109 WAS A TRANSLATOR USED FOR THE INTERVIEW? YES . .. ... ... ... ... ... ... 1
NO ...... ...... ......... "'" 2
110 RESULT OF INTERVIEWC2 USE C2 CODES I I I
111 RECORD START TIME [USE 24 HR CLOCK e.g. 0845 FOR 8:45AM] I I I I I
112 RECORD DATE OF INTERVIEW [dd/mm/yy] I I I I I I
SECTION 2; RESPONDENT'S PARTICULARS
201 Tafadhali niambie jina lako kamili
202 SEX OF RESPONDENT MALE ........... , ....... 1
FEMALE ................... 2
203 [e, wewe ndiye kiongozi wa jamii hii au m wenye boma hili? YES .......................... 1 ? 205
NO , .... ,,, ........ ,,, ....... 2
204 le. una uhusiano u pi na (NAME OF HOUSEHOLD HEAD)?C3 USE C3 CODES I I I
205 [e wewe huishi hapa kila mara? YES ... .... ...... , ... , ...... 1
NO ........... .,," 2
C1_LANGUAGE CODES
l~ENGLISH/KISW AHILI; 2~ENGLISH; 3~KISW AHILI; 4~KAMBA; 6~OTHER(Specify)
C2_RESULT OF INTERVIEW CODES
01~COMPLETED;
02~NO HOUSEHOLD MEMBER OR COMPETENT RESPONDENT AT HOME AT TIME OF VISIT;
03~ENTIRE HOUSEHOLD ABSENT FOR EXTENDED PERIOD OF TIME; 04~POSTPONED;
05~DWELLING VACANT OR ADDRESS NOT A DWELLING; 06~DWELLING DESTROYED
07~DWELLING NOT FOUND 96~OTHER(Specifv) 97~REFUSED
99
SECTION 3; HOUSEHOLD SCHEDULE
RELATIONSHIP ClRELATIONSHIP CODES
UNENo USUAL RESIDENTS AND VISIWRS SEX AGE RESIDENCE
WHHH 01~ HEAD
301 302 303 304 305 306 3(J7 02~ WIFE/HUSBAND/pARTNER
Ie, 03= SON OR DAUGJ-fTER
How old is
[e,
(NAME) 04= SON/DAUGJ-fTER IN-LAWWHAT IS (NAME)
(NAME'S) (NAME?) alikuwa 0:;': GRAND CHILDhuishi
Tafadhali nitajie majina ya watu wote ammo kila Ie, (NAME) ana GENDER? hapa hapa 06=0PARENT
mara huishi hapa kwako na pia majina ya wageni uhusiano upi na usiku waLine kila
Number
wa jamii hii waliolala hapa usiku wa kuamkia kiongozi wa kuamkia
07~PARENT !N-LA W
leo. Tafadhali anza na jina la kiongozi wa RECORD!
mara?
jamii/familia?Cl
leo?
08= BROTHER/SISTER
jarnii/nyumba hii. COMPLETED
1~MALE; YEARS/ 1~YES; 1~YES; !»= ADOPTED/FOSTERED
2~FEMALE CELEBRATED
BIRTHDAYS
2~NO; 2~NO; 1~ CO-WIFE
&=DK &=DK 11~ STEP CHILD
01 I I I I D IT] 0 D 12~ HOUSE HELP
02 [II] D IT] 0 D 1~ NOT RELATED
03 I D IT] 0 D %= OTHER RELATIVE
04 I D IT] 0 D 97~ REFUSED
05 I D CD D D 98 DONTKNOW
06 I D IT] 0 D
07 I D CD D D
08 [II] D IT] 0 D
09 I I I I D CD D D
10 I I I I D CD D D
3.21. ADDmONAL SHEET USED? (l~YES; 2~NO) D
100
SECTION 3; HOUSEHOLD SCHEDULE (CONTINUED) C4: Highest level of school
EDUCATICN \'\ORKIN CXl=Pre-PrimuylABOR
UNENc THE LAST 7
AGE 5 YEARSCR OLDER AGE 5-24 YEARS FCRCE Ol=PrirraryDAYS
314 315 316 317 318 319 02=Secondary
IF YES Je
je,
Je, kwasiku OFComrrerdal College
Je, (NAME)
Ni kiwango kipi cha (NAME) aJiwahi saba Oi=Midclle level College(NAME)
juu zaidi cha rrasorrr anahudh ziliwpitaarrewahi kuhudhuri 05=Undergradute
kuenda an-bache (NAME)
uria shuk ashule (NAME)
arrefika? (C4) Ni auchuo aJifanya kazi Alikuwa
IXi=Postgraduate
lire shuleni? kwa
I-
darasa/ gredi gani ya kwasasa? wakati yoyote? akifanya %=Ot:h=r (Specify)Nurr1l;u
l~YES; juu zaidi ambayo l~YES; wowote l~YES;
kazi gani?
9&=D:>ntknow
2~NQ (NAME) arrerraliza 2~NQ mwaka
2~NQ~DK
WK katika kiwango ~DK huu?
[JI'20R hidio? (CS) [IF 1, l~YES;
CS: Crade= e.g 1, 2, 3
[IF 2, SKIP
8, SKIP
LEVEL I '-";U SKIP 10 2~NQ103181 11111 s-rx TO 401 C6: Labor force participation
01 D ITJO D D c=J [IJ
02 D ITJO D D c=J [IJ Ol-Sandalwood related
03 D ITJO D D c=J CD 02~Family Business
01 D ITJO D D c=J CD 03=0wn business
05 D ITJO D D c=J [IJ 04=Casual work
os D COO 0 D c=J [IJ 05=Errployed
07 D COD 0 D c=J CD IXi=Jobseeking
os D COD 0 D c=J [IJ %=Ot:h=r (spedfy)
09 D COD 0 D c=J [IJ ~DonotKnow
10 D COD 0 D c=J [IJ
101
SECTION 4; HOUSEHOLD LIVING ARRANGEMENT, DURATION OF STAY & AMENITIES
rmeishi katika kijiji hiki, hali ya maisha ya jamii yako na mali
'a vizuri hali ya maisha ya jamii yako kwa ajili ya utafiti huu.
No. QUESTIONS AND FILTERS I CODING CATEGORIES SKIP
[CIRCLE lHE CODES OR FILL IN lHE CELLS APPROPRlATELY]
401 [e, jamii yako imeishi katika kijiji hiki kwa muda wa miaka YEARS ......... . .... , ................... [IJ
mingapi? REFUSED ... . ................. ........ .." . 97
[IF LESS THAN ONE YEAR, RECORD '00' YEARS] DO NOT KNOW .. . . . ....... .. ...... ...... . . 98
ALWAYS ..... .. .... .............. ........... 99
402 Kwa kawaida, jamii yako hupata maji ya kunywa wapi? Buying water from:
Tanks ..... ...... ............................... .. 11
Hawkers ........... ................... .... ... 12
Piped water .. ...... ..................... .... . ... 21
Well water ......................................... 31
Surface water
River/stream .. , ......................... ... . . 41
Pond/lake .... .............. ................. ... 42
Rainwater ............ ....... " ....." .... . . . . . . 51
Other(specify) 96
403 MAIN MATERIAL OF lHE FLOOR Natural floor [earth/mud/dung/sand] ..... 11
Rudimentary floor [Wood planks] ........... 21
FW: OBSERVE AND RECORD Finished floor
MAIN FLOOR MATERIAL. IF NOT SURE Vinyl (PVC) ....................... . ... ... ... . 31
ASK RESPONDENT Cement .. ... ..................... .......... . 32
Polished wood/tiles/carpets ...... .. ..... . ... 33
Other(specify) 96
404 MAIN MATERIAL OF lHE ROOF Grass/thatch ................................ .. 01
Plastic sheets ... , .. ' .. , .. ,', .... ,"', ... ',.," .. 02
FW: OBSERVE AND RECORD MAIN Cardboard sheets ......... .. " ...... , ....... 03
ROOF MATERIAL. Wood/timber .............................. .... 04
IF NOT SURE ASK RESPONDENT Metal sheets/tin . . . . ...... .......... . . .... 05
Iron sheet (corrugated) .................. .... 06
Tiles ..... ". .... """ . .................... , ... 07
Other(specify) 96
405 MAIN MA TERlAL OF lHE WALL Mud .. ...... , .. ,', ......... , . ........ .... ' . . ... 01
Wood/timber ......... ..... ............... ... 02
FW: OBSERVE AND RECORD MAIN Iron sheets (rnabati) ............. , . ..... 03
WALL MATERlAL. Burnt Bricks ...... ..... ................. . ... 04
IF NOT SURE ASK RESPONDENT Stone/quarry stones ...... ........ .. ..... 05
Concrete blocks ..... .. , ... ' ... ...... . .. , 06
Other(specify) 96
406 [amii yako hutumia moto aina gani kupikia? Firewood . . . .. ..... ... ...... " ..." ..... 01
Charcoal ... ". ............... " ............. 02
Crop residue/saw dust .... " .......... 03
Kerosene/paraffin .. .. " ...... ......... . ... 04
Other(specify) 96
SECTION 5; HOUSEHOLD INCOME AND EXPENDITURE
[ENSURE THATlHE RESPONDENT PROVIDES A TOTAL OF
ALL INCOMES FROM ALL SOURCES]
501 Kwa kawaida, najua ni vigumu kujua au kusema kiasi kamili Ksh ..... , ........ , ...... []=II I I ,
cha pesa ambacho jamii yako hupata. Ningependa unielezee
kijumla mapato ambayo hii jamii imepata katika siku
thelathini ziiizopita.
[e.g. WRITE 050000 FOR FIFTY THOUSAND
AND 999990 IF =>999990]
102
SECTION 6; HOUSEHOLD POSSESSIONS I
601 602 603 604 605 606
]e jamii hii ]e jamii hii Kwa Kwa Kwa Kwa
inamiliki (.) inamiliki (.) mwaka mwaka mwaka mwaka
1= YES; 2= NO; ambayo ambayo mmoja mmoja moja mmoja
8= DON'T KNOW inawekwa inawekwa uliopita uliopita uliopita uliopita
hapa? mahali jamiihii jamiihii jamiihii jamiihii
[CIRCLE THE kwingine? ilinunua (.) ilinunua (.) iliuza (.) iliuza (.)
APPROPRIATE ambayo ambayo ambayo ambayo
RESPONSES] imewekwa/ imewekwa/ iko/ iko/
iliwekwa iliwekwa iliyokuwa iliyokuwa
hapa? mahali imewekwa imewekwa
kwingine? hapa? mahali
kwingine?
A Gari/pikipiki/baiskeli 1 2 8 1 2 8 1 2 8 1 2 8 1 2 8 1 2 8
B Televisheni 1 2 8 1 2 8 1 2 8 1 2 8 1 2 8 1 2 8
C Redio 1 2 8 1 2 8 1 2 8 1 2 8 1 2 8 1 2 8
D Cherahani 1 2 8 1 2 8 1 2 8 1 2 8 1 2 8 1 2 8
E Simu/Simu ya mkono 1 2 8 1 2 8 1 2 8 1 2 8 1 2 8 1 2 8
F Sofa set 1 2 8 1 2 8 1 2 8 1 2 8 1 2 8 1 2 8
G Meza 1 2 8 1 2 8 1 2 8 1 2 8 1 2 8 1 2 8
H Tochi 1 2 8 1 2 8 1 2 8 1 2 8 1 2 8 1 2 8
I Taa ya kioo 1 2 8 1 2 8 1 2 8 1 2 8 1 2 8 1 2 8
] Stovu ya mafuta 1 2 8 1 2 8 1 2 8 1 2 8 1 2 8 1 2 8
K Saa ya ukuta 1 2 8 1 2 8 1 2 8 1 2 8 1 2 8 1 2 8
L Malazi (blanketi, kitanda n.k.) 1 2 8 1 2 8 1 2 8 1 2 8 1 2 8 1 2 8
M Mifugo (ng'ombe, kuku n.k.) 1 2 8 1 2 8 1 2 8 1 2 8 1 2 8 1 2 8
SECTION 7; FOOD PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION
No. QUESTIONS AND FILTERS I CODING CATEGORIES SKIP
[CIRCLE THE CODES OR FILL IN THE CELLS APPROPRIATEL Yj
701 Sasa ningependa unieleze jinsi jamii yako inaweza kulinganishwa na jamii zingine kwa hali ya
maisha katika kijiji hiki. Ikiwa jamii zote katika kijiji hiki zingewekwa kwa mpangilio kutoka
MOlA hadi KUMI [SHOW THE RESPONDENT THE LADDER], ambapo nambari KUMI ndio
tajiri zaidi, na nambari MO]A ndio maskini zaidi, unaweza kuweka jamii yako katika kiwango kipi? CD
10
I 09
I 08
07
I 06
I 05
04
I 03
I 02
01
I
lO3
SIDlCNa QNIW.AGURE5IRY
an 1m an a:Ji 81i ffi5 aJ7 as s» 810 811
lire I.JSIlI'.LCFM6Jffi1m':1Yfffi je uarriti ya Nairafjlli Jfl \-\B-\e Mti hyo Kra Jfl Jfl \-\B-\e Lliituria UifHare;argpmuaya
Nn CRJAIl'.GAlUN)M<\R!OO' (NA.M) !-apt yarritirciyc al~ ili~ sntu uliraa UTeW3hi vipniti rrni9uulip:uzaniti ya
l:H KN5T sI-arrhri rrirgizad vajarii lini? iliyq;cloo wp kuklta. ruya (NA.M)?
rrwlkJ? kulil<o yaW jarrii yaW rrU-gu (NA.M) (NA.M)
[f:HWA nir@reyro aliiJX11ID kq:m:h ya kwl arITaju
IDAN:HG' sI-mbri (NA.M)', (NA.M)? (NA.M) rraurizi uliikIta?
S<\!'rnLWXQ rrnakri? ? yalq:9.
Yf5;l;NY2; [INlERf 1;Yffi; [lEEQ [lEEC2 [lEEO 1; Yffi; [lEEC2 [ffiLMUNTINK"H
rn.s lll\E 2=i'O a:m;J a:m;J a:m;J EN) CIIE5] e.g onn rmnn ill
!Il.J\I&Rl IHl< OOlOOKRlID
nrzrnaco [IF2ill [lF2.9<IP[lF~m
1Ol\EXIlREE 8, SKIP 1ON'Xf lO8ll)
SIIDI5 'Tn=1 1REE
01 SAN::}\L~ 0 [IJ 0 [IJ 0 0 0 0 CIIIIJ
Cl2 lv1\ll-ENE(PRCRRS ]UJFIillL') 0 [IJ 0 [IJ 0 0 0 0 CIIIIJ
CB NR1(AZPNlR!I(l-[['AINlCA) 0 [IJ 0 [IJ D D D D CIIIIJ
01 ~ffi> 0 [IJ 0 [IJ D 0 D D CIIIIJ
CD PG(JAFAIU-mA D [IJ 0 [IJ 0 D 0 0 CIIIIJ
a; rn.rrIREE3 D [IJ 0 [IJ D 0 D D CIIIIJ
07 INlCEN:1E1m:5 0 [IJ D [IJ 0 D 0 0 CIIIIJ
CB l1N.EPAIUA 0 [IJ 0 [IJ 0 0 0 0 CIIIIJ
(J) rnIllElUAMJ.Al'.D\YLCN 0 [IJ 0 [IJ 0 0 0 0 CIIIIJ
10 0II-ffi1m:5 D [IJ D [IJ 0 D D D CIIIIJ
Q 01=U5S1J-W.J5 YEAR3KD C2 1=fillRIlIJN:;RN<:::ffi: o :RFrn:PPOillCN
CJMlEI\i\ffi\I6-10 YEAR3KD 2=RIDIffiWXD ~N.R3ERY
03=ffiIV\EB\J11-15 YEAR3ea: 3DII-fRIXJv15IICw:N< 0II-ffiN.R3ERY
OFf3EIY\HNl6-JJYEAR3Kr «I1vfv'EKIALRNQ;ffi
C!R'vrnE1J-W.J21 YEAR3KD 6DIl-ER~)
S&DJ1'DrI<l\DN
104
SECTION 9; SANDALWOOD
[FW: CHECK Q803 LINE NUMBER 01. IF I=YES, MEANING THERE IS SANDALWOOD, THEN PROCEED WITH
THE INTERVIEW. OTHERWISE PROCEED TO SECTION 10 AND 11 AND END INTERVIEW]
No. QUESTIONS AND FILTERS I CODING CATEGORIES SKIP
[CIRCLE THE CODES OR FILL IN THE CELLS APPROPRIATELY]
901 Sasa ningependa kukuuliza maswali kuhusu mti wa PLANT SEEDS ................ .... ............. 1
sandalwood/Msandali ambao umeniambia uko hapa GRAFTING ......................................... 2
shambani mwako. Je, sandalwood hukuzwa vipi? GROWS BY ITSELF ........... ........ ...... 3
OTHER (Specify) ...... ................. ..... 6
901A Baada ya sandalwood kumea, wewe hufanya nini kingine? WEED REGULARLY 1
APPLY FERTILIZER ........................ 2
[CIRLE ALL THAT APPLy] PRUNE .............................................. 3
DO NOTIIING ......................... ........ 4
OTHER (Specify) .. . ...... ... ... ........ ........ 6
902 [e sandalwood/Msandali yako inawezwa kupimwa kwa MITI KADHAA TU ............................. 01
maekari ya shamba ama ni miti kadhaa tu? MAEKARI YA SHAMBA ... ........ ......... 02 ? 904
903 Una kama miti mingapi hivi ya sandalwood/Msandali LESS THAN 25 ......... ..... ............ . ... 01
ambayo umekuza? BETWEEN 25 and 50 .......... - .................. 02
BETWEEN 51 AND 7~............................. 03
BETWEEN 76 AND 100 ........ ........ ..... 04
MORE THAN 101 ................ ........ ......... 05
904 Una kama hekari ngapi za sandalwood/Msandali LESS THAN HALF AN ACRE ........ ........ 1
ambazo umekuza? BETWEEN HALF AND ONE ACRl ... ....... 2
BETWEEN ONE AND THREE ACRES ..... 3
MORE THAN THREE ACRES .. .............. 4
905 [e, wewe unafikiri sandalwood/Msandali ina faida yoyote yES ................................... , ... ............ 1
ya kiuchumi? NO ..................................................... 2
DO NOT KNOW .................................. 8
906 Sandalwood/Msandali huuzwa vipi hapa Kibwezi? INDIVIDUALLY .. ",.,., ........ , ........... .... 1
THROUGH GROUPS ... ". , ... "."""",, .... 2
THROUGH COOPERATIVE SOCIETIE: ..... 3
OTHER (Specify) ................................... 6
907 Ni nani ambaye hununua sandalwood/Msandali hapa Kibwezi? INDIVIDUALS .... , .... ,', ....................... 1
ORGANISED GROUPS ... " .................. 2
MIDDLEMEN " ........ ........ ... 3
COOPERATIVE SOCIETIE . . . . . . . . . , . ." ..... 4
OTHER (Specify) ....... .. .... " .... ............. 6
908 Kuna soko nyingine yoyote ya sandalwood ambayo YES ................ . .... ...... ...... .......... 1
unaijua wewe? NO .. ....... .......... ...... ......... . . . . ..... ., .. . 2
909 Umewahi kukata sehemu ama miti mizima ya sandalwood yES ............ ........ .... ............. . ... .... . . .. 1
kwa ajili ya kuitumia ama kuiuza? NO .......................... .......................... 2 ? 914
910 Baada ya kuikata miti hii, uliitumia kwa kazi gani? FOR BUILDING PURPOSES ................. 1
FOR FIREWOOD ................ .................. 2
OTHER DOMESTIC WORK ............. " 3
COMMERCIAL PURPOSES .......... " .... 4
OTHER (Specify) ... ........... .. " .. ............ 6
911 Ilikuwa lini ulipoikata miti hii mara ya mwisho? WTHIN THE LAST 3 MONTH . ... ........ 1
BETWEEN 4-6 MONTHS AGe. ........... ... 2
BETWEEN 7-9 MONTHS AGC .............. . .. 3
BETWEEN 10-12 MONTHS AGO .. ........ 4
MORE THAN ONE YEAR AGI ................. 6
105
No. QUESTIONS AND FILTERS I CODING CATEGORIES SKIP
[CIRCLE THE CODES OR FILL IN THE CELLS APPROPRIA TELYJ
912 Uliikata miti mizima ama sehemu tu kama vile maganda, WHOLE TREES. 1
matawi au mizizi? PARTS OF THE TREES . ... ... .... 2 ? 914
913 Mara ya mwisho ulipoivuna miti hii, ulikata kama miti
mingapi hivi?
ONE
TWO
THREE .
FOUR AND ABOVE
1
2
3
4
913A [e, ulipanda miti mingine ya sandalwood mahala pa ile
uliyoikata?
914 Ie. sandalwood hupimwa vipi kabla ya kuuzwa?
915 Mti wa sandalwood hutumiwa sana kwa kazi gani
hap a Kibwezi?
YES
NO
1
2
WHOLE TREES
BRANCH BUNDLES
BARK BUNDLES .
ROOT BUNDLES.
STEM PIECES
KILOGRAMMES .
01
02
03
04
05
1
2
3
4
6
1
2
8
1
2 ? 920
8 ? 920
FOR BUILDING PURPOSES
FOR FIREWOOD .
OTHER DOMESTIC WORK .
COMMERCIAL PURPOSES .
OTHER (Specify) .
916 Kuna majirani zako ambao pia wana mti huu wa sandalwood?
917 [e, kuna magonjwa ambayo yamevamia miti yako ya
sandalwood?
918 Haya magonjwa yalivamia sehemu ipi ya miti?
919 Ulifanya nini ili kutibu miti yako?
920 Miti ya sandalwood hutunzwa vipi?
yES.............. . .
NO .
DO NOT KNOW
YES .. .
NO .
DO NOT KNOW .. " .
WHOLE TREE 01
LEAVES. .. 02
STEM ...03
BARKS . 04
ROOTS . 05
OTHER .""""""""."" 96
CUT DOWN AFFECTED TREES
SPRAYED AFFECTED TREES
DID NOTHING
1
2
3
1--------------------------------2 _
3
921 Kuna vizuizi vinavyofanya ukuzaji wa mti huu hapa Kibwezi
kuwa mgumu?
922 Tafadhali nitajie vizuizi hi vi vitatu vikuu
923 Vizuizi hivi vinawezaje kutatuliwa?
[ASK SOLUTIONS IN REFERENCE TO 922)
924 Kuna marufuku yoyote nchini Kenya dhidi ya biashara ya
sandalwood?
106
YES
NO
DO NOT KNOW
1
2 ? 924
8 ? 924
1 _
2 _
3
1 _
2 _
3
YES
NO .....
DO NOT KNOW
1
2
.................................. 8
Appendix 7:Questionnaire codebook
Question variable name storage variable label value labels code
individual id indid text individual identity
I would like us
o now begin ql Ot j-ic numeric respondent Yes 01he interview. consent
Do you agree?
No 02
invalid skip 94
Missing 95
Field field interviewer'sinterviewer's q102_fin text
name name
field field interviewer'sinterviewer's ql03_fic text codecode
name of sub- ql05_nos text name of sub-location location
name of village ql06_nov text name of village
language of ql07_loi numeric language of Engl ish/Kiswah ili 01interview interview
English 02
Kiswahili 03
Kamba 04
invalid skip 94
missing 95
Other (specify) 96
native language ql08_nlor numenc native language of Engl ish/Kiswah iIi 01of respondent respondent
English 02
Kiswahili 03
Kamba 04
invalid skip 94
missing 95
Other (specify) 96
Was a translator Was a translatorused for the ql09_wtu numenc used? Yes 01interview?
No 02
invalid skip 94
missing 95
esult of qllOJoi numeric result of interview completed 01interview
no competent respondent at home 02
107
refused 97
record start interview start
ime (use 24 ql l Ljst time time
hour clock)
ecord date of
interview ql12_doi date date of interview
(dd/mm/yyyy
What is your q201_nor text name of
name? respondent
sex of
q202_sor
sex of male 01
espondent respondent
female 02
invalid skip 94
missing 95
refused 97
Are you the Head ofhead ofthis q203_hhh numenc household? Yes 01
household?
No 02
refused 97
don't know 98
Do you always
q205Jlh numenc
respondent Yes 01
live here? lives here
No 02
invalid skip 94
missing 95
refused 97
household line q30l_hhln numeric household (ranging from 01-10 starting with hhh)number line number
What is the
gender of the
q304~ender numenc
gender of male 01listed individual
individual?
female 02
invalid skip 94
missing 95
refused 97
How old is the
listed
individual? q305_age numeric age of equal or more than 93 years 93(record in individual
celebrated
birthdays)
Does listed
individual
q306_ur numeric Usual 01always live resident? yes
here?
no 02
108
invalid skip 94
missing 95
refused 97
don't know 98
How long has household
your household q401_hhyiv numeric years in (if years>=93 , then code 93 0~93+lived in this
village? village
invalid skip 94
missing 95
refused 97
don't know 98
not applicable 99
don't know 98
not applicable 99
What are the main
main materials q403_mmof numeric material of Natural floor [earth/mud/dung/sand] 11
of the house? floor
Cement 32
refused 97
don't know 98
not applicable 99
What is the main
main material of q404_mmor numeric material of Grass/thatch 01
oof? roof
Metal sheetsltin 05
Iron sheet (corrugated) 06
missing 95
Other(specify) 96
refused 97
don't know 98
not applicable 99
What is the main
hnain mater q405_mmow numeric material of Mud 01
wall? wall
Wood/timber 02
Iron sheets (mabati) 03
Burnt Bricks 04
Stone/quarry stones 05
Concrete blocks 06
invalid skip 94
missing 95
Other( specify) 96
109
don't know 98
not applicable 99
What fuel
energy does
q406_ffc numeric
fuel for
Firewood 01your household cooking
use for cooking?
Charcoal 02
Crop residue/saw dust 03
Kerosene/paraffin 04
invalid skip 94
missing 95
Other(specify) 96
refused 97
don't know 98
not applicable 99
what was the
income inotal income for
q501 iit130d numeric the last 30 money (if>=999993, then code 999993+)his hh in the -
last 30 days days
No 02
invalid skip 94
missing 95
refused 97
don't know 98
not applicable 99
In relation to
other
households in
his village,
hh wealthiwhere would q701_hhwsiv numeric status in to fall between 0-10 0-10you put your
household on a village
scale of 0-1 0
Iwith 0 being the
[poorest?
ree line number q801_tln numeric tree line 01-10number
ree name q802_0ltn numeric tree name
Do you have
(name of tree in Does tree
line number) q803_dtgof numeric grow on Yes 01
here on your farm?
farm?
No 02
invalid skip 94
missing 95.
refused 97
110
don't know 98
not applicable 99
Which tree
species is more most
han all others q804_mptof numeric populous 01-10on your farm?
Insert line tree on farm
Inumber
Did you or any Tree planted
member of your
household plant
q805_tphh numeric by Yes 01
this tree type?
household?
No 02
invalid skip 94
missing 95
refused 97
don't know 98
not applicable 99
When was this year tree
ree species q806yswp numeric species was less than five years ago 01
planted? lolanted
between 6-10 years ago 02
between 11-15 years ago 03
between 16-20 years ago 04
more than 21 years ago 05
invalid skip 94
missing 95
refused 97
don't know 98
not applicable 99
What reason did
your household reason for
have for q807Jfpts numeric planting tree for commercial purposes 01
planting this tree species
Itype?
for firewood 02
for other domestic work 03
for charcoal 05
for medicinal value 06
for fruits 07
invalid skip 94
missing 95
for other reasons 96
III
don't know 98
not applicable 99
Where did you source of
get the q808_sos numeric seeds or self propagation 01
seeds/seedlings? seedlings
government tree nursery 02
invalid skip 94
missing 95
other nursery 96
refused 97
don't know 98
not applicable 99
Have you ever ever
[harvested this q809 _ehtfou harvested Yes 01ree type for numenc tree for own
D-'0urown use? use
No 02
invalid skip 94
missing 95
refused 97
don't know 98
not applicable 99
How did you use ofuse this tree(s)
q810_uoht numeric harvested for commercial purposes 01hat you
harvested? trees
for firewood 02
for other domestic work 03
for building purposes 04
for charcoal 05
for medicinal value 06
for fruits 07
invalid skip 94
missing 95
for other reasons 96
refused 97
don't know 98
not applicable 99
How much
money did you q811_ifts
income from
money (if>=99993, then code 99993+)fetch when you numenc tree sales
sold this tree?
How is propagation
sandalwood q901~os of plant seeds , 01
propagated? sandalwood
112
grafting 02
grows by itself 03
invalid skip 94
missing 95
other 96
refused 97
don't know 98
110tapplicable 99
What else do what
you do after household
sandalwood q901a_whdsg numeric
does after weed regularly 01
germinates? sandalwoodgerminates
apply fertilizer 02
prune 03
do nothing 04
invalid skip 94
missing 95
other (specify) 96
refused 97
don't know 98
not applicable 99
[how can your
sandalwood tree
q902 _species numeric sandalwood [iust a few trees 0]population be population
neasured
in acres 02
invalid skip 94
missing 95
other (specify) 96
refused 97
don't know 98
not applicable 99
About how
many number of
sandalwood q903 _nost numeric sandalwood less than 25 0]
rees do you trees
have?
between 26-50 02
between 51-75 03
between 76-100 04
more than ]0] 05
invalid skip 94
missing 95
113
other (specify) 96
refused 97
don't know 98
not applicable 99
[About how
many acres of number of
sandalwood q904_noaus numeric acres under less than half an acre 01
rees do you sandalwood
have?
between half and one acre 02
between one and three acres 03
more than three acres 04
invalid skip 94
missing 95
other (specify) 96
refused 97
don't know 98
not applicable 99
Does Issandalwood q905_isb numeric sandalwood Yes 01
have any
benefits?
beneficial?
No 02
invalid skip 94
missing 95
refused 97
don't know 98
not applicable 99
What are the benefits ofibefits of q905a_bos numeric sandalwood economic value 01sandalwood?
medicinal value 02
wood curving 03
firewood 04
invalid skip 94
missing 95
other (specify) 96
refused 97
don't know 98
not applicable 99
1D0 you or any
household
member of your q905b_hhss numeric sold yes for economic value 01
household sold
sandalwood? sandalwood
114
yes for medicinal value 02
yes for wood curving 03
yes for firewood 04
yes other use (specify) 96
no 07
invalid skip 94
missing 95
refused 97
don't know 98
How is how
sandalwood sold q906 _hsisik numeric sandalwood individually 01here in is sold in
Kibwezi? Kibwezi
through groups 02
through cooperative societies 03
invalid skip 94
missing 95
other (specify) 96
refused 97
don't know 98
not applicable 99
Who buys Who buys
sandalwood here q907_wbsik numeric sandalwood individuals 01
in Kibwezi? in Kibwezi?
organized groups 02
middle men 03
cooperative societies 04
invalid skip 94
missing 95
other (specify) 96
refused 97
don't know 98
not applicable 99
Is there any
otherother market for
sandalwood you q908 osm numeric sandalwood yes (specify) 01
know of? market
No 02
invalid skip 94
missing 95
refused 97
don't know 98
not applicable 99
115
Have you ever ever cut
cut whole or whole or
Iparts q909 _ecst numeric parts of yes 01
sandalwood sandalwood
rees? trees
no 02
invalid skip 94
missing 95
refused 97
don't know 98
not applicable 99
What did you do what hh did
with these trees
q910_hdwhs with for building purposes 01hat you had numeric harvested
cut? sandalwood
for firewood 02
other domestic work 03
commercial purposes 04
invalid skip 94
missing 95
other (specify) 96
refused 97
don't know 98
not applicable 99
When did you last time
last harvest q911Jths numeric harvested within the last 3 months 01
hese trees? sandalwood
4-6 months ago 02
7-9 months ago 03
10-12 months ago 04
more than 12 months ago 05
invalid skip 94
missing 95
other (specify) 96
refused 97
don't know 98
not applicable 99
harvested
Did you harvest whole or
whole or just q912_hwopos numeric parts of whole trees 01
parts of trees? sandalwood
trees
parts of trees 02
invalid skip 94
missing 95
116
refused 97
don't know 98
not applicable 99
Which parts did sandalwoodq912a_speciesh numeric parts roots 01you harvest? harvested
stem 02
leaveslbranch 03
invalid skip 94
missing 95
other (specify) 96
refused 97
don't know 98
not applicable 99
About how number ofmany trees did trees
you harvest the q913_nofthlt numeric harvested
one 01
last time you did last time
so?
two 02
three 03
four and above 04
invalid skip 94
missing 95
other (specify) 96
refused 97
don't know 98
not applicable 99
Did you plant
plantedother trees in the
[place of those q913a_psac numeric sandalwood yes 01
lyou cut? after cutting
no 02
invalid skip 94
missing 95
refused 97
don't know 98
not applicable
"
99
How is
sandalwood
-,
sandalwood q914_smbs numeric measurement whole trees 01measured before
being sold? before sale
branch bundles 02
bark bundles 03
117
root bundles 04
stem pieces 05
kilogram's 06
invalid skip 94
missing 95
other (specify) 96
refused 97
don't know 98
not applicable 99
What are the
most common commonuses of
uses of q915 cuosik numeric sandalwood
for building purposes 01
sandalwood here in Kibwezi
in Kibwezi?
for firewood 02
other domestic work 03
commercial purposes 04
invalid skip 94
missing 95
other (specify) 96
refused 97
don't know 98
not applicable 99
Do any of your neighbors
neighbors also
have q916_nws numeric with yes
01
sandalwood?
sandalwood
no 02
invalid skip 94
missing 95
other (specify) 96
refused 97
don't know 98
not applicable 99
[Are there
diseases that
have attacked
q917_sd numeric sandalwood 01your diseases yes
sandalwood
Itrees?
no 02
invalid skip 94
missing 95
118
other (specify) 96
refused 97
don't know 98
not applicable 99
Which parts of parts of
he trees were
q918~osabd numeric
sandalwood whole trees 01affected by this affected by
disease? diseases
leaves 02
stem 03
barks 04
roots 05
invalid skip 94
missing 95
other (specify) 96
refused 97
don't know 98
not applicable 99
What did you do what did to
o treat your q919 _wdtts numeric treat cut down affected trees 01
rees? sandalwood
species rayed affected trees 02
did nothing 03
invalid skip 94
missing 95
other (specify) 96
refused 97
don't know 98
not applicable 99
How are maintenance
sandalwood
q920_most numeric ofrees sandalwood
maintained? trees
119
Appendix 8:The % of Kibwezi Population living below the Poverty line
KEY
> 70
D 60-70
D50~0
D 40-50
D 30-40D 20-30
..l.../r4 Na.t re§ource
N
= Waterbody
."'" Dirtrict boundary
~ Divisional bound •••..
/.~ ." ,
"'-./ Locational bound •••.•
/.A~ •
/""'-.'-" -"0' MaJor road.
• MajorTowm
120
AUNlVtRSi Pi LIBRARY