THE VOCATIONAL REHABILITAT+ON PROGRAMME IN KENYA: AN EXAMINATION OF ITS EFFECTIVENESS AS AN AGENCY PROVIDING TRAINING AND EMPLOYMENT FOR DISABLED PERSONS / BY THEODORE MORDECAI QSA~O~YODO A THESIS SUBMITTED IN FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN THE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION, PLANNING AND CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT IN THE FACULTY OF EDUCATION AT KENYATTA UNIVERSITY JULY,' 1990 Ayodo, T.M.Osano The vocational rehabilitation 1IIIIillillUIII 92/201127 DECLARATION This dissertation is my original work and has not been presented for a degree in any other university T.M.O. AYODO DATE This Doctor of Philosophy dissertation has been submitted for examination with our approval as supervisors --- , l'~~tEA-C-~~-\\~~V~J _ DR. F.Q. GRAVENIR DATE Senior Lecturer Department of Education Administration, Planning and Curriculum Development, Kenyatta University PROFESSOR MATTHEW K MALECHE DATE Deputy Vice Chancellor, Moi University TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF TABLES ...................................... i DEDICATION ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT iv ABSTRACT vii CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION............................. 1 Disability and Human Resource Development.... 1 Background to the Problem... 3 Education, Training and Employment of the Disabled ................................. 7 The Vocational Rehabilitation Programme in Kenya's Economy ............................. 12 Costs and Efficiency of Kenya's Vocational Rehabilitation Programme 18 Statement of the Problem 24 Relevance of the Research Problem 30 Objectives of the Study 34 Hypotheses to be Tested 34 Variables to be Examined 35 Defini t.Lori of Terms 35 Terms Relating to Vocational Rehabilitation 39 Limitations oi the Study 42 Organization of the Rest of the Thesis 44 CHAPTER II REVIEW OF L~TERATURE ...... . .............. 45 Linking Employment and Education 46 Vocational Education and Employment 61 Publications on Kenya's Rehabilitation Programme 70 Research, Efficiency and Evaluation in Vocational Rehabilitation . 76 CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY OF THE STUDy................ 91 Study Population ............................. 91 Popula tion Sample 95 Research Instrument 97. Method of Data Analysis 98 CHAPTER IV RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 99 Sex of Respondents 99 Duration of Training 99 Trade 100 Tool Kit Adequacy 101 Additional Income 102 Resettlement 103 Income from Regular Trade 103 Income Sufficiency........................... 105 Discussion 106 The Cost of Vocational Rehabilitation Training 106 Returns to Vocational Rehabilitation 110 Internal Rate of Return 112 Vocational Rehabilitation and Employment ..... 115 Efficiency in Vocational Rehabilitation 117 Equity in Vocational Rehabilitation 118 LIST OF TABLES Page 1. 1:1 Total Government Development Expenditure Compared to Allocation for Special Education Vocational Rehabilitation Programmes, 1980/81 to 1989/90 in K£ 19 2. 1:2 Total Government Recurrent Expenditure Compared to Allocation for Special Education and Vocational Rehabilitation Programmes, 1980/81 to 1989/90 in K£. 20 3. 2:1 Distribution of Disabled Persons by Nature of Disability 85 4. 2:2 Percentage of the Handicapped Group who Suffer from Various Disabiliti~s ,... 87 5. 3:1 Location, Capacity and Specialization of 'o ce t i or.a ~e~2bilitatio., Cert res in Kenya 94&93 6. 3:~ Sam~le of Disabled Ex-trainees :!"':tervie~ed 97 I. 4: 1 Sex of Respondents 100 4:2 101 9. ~: 3 ':'r21cC'0: .:3pe.::is.li=atio.,0: :::':...::::,:,:::-,Qcnts102, 10. 4:4 Adec;uacy of Tool Kit Provicec -co Respondents 103 Ll . 4: 5 Additional Source of Income f o r Responde ..ts 104 L:. 4:6 .:3ettle;;1e::tS atus 0: Re spor:.c er t s 195 13. 4:7 Monthly Income of Responde:-:::s :rorn Regular ~ r a de. ..................................''i . .. 105 ~. 4: 8 Ade c u ac y of Ir:CODe of Re sponc e r t s ••......... 106' , -'" 4 : 9 107 CHAPTER V CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 121 Human Resources Development 121 Employment 122 Earnings of Rural Vocational Rehabilitation Graduates 123 Efficiency in Vocational Rehabilitation Programme 124 Equity Considerations 125 Certi fica tion 126 Disability Categories 126 Further Research Implications 127 .BIBLIOGRAPHY 128 Books 128 Articles in Journals 147 Unpublished Articles and Reports 148 Newspaper Articles 149 APPENDIX Appendix "A": Follow-up Questionnaire 150 Appendix "B": ILO Recommendation No.168 Concerning Vocational Rehabilitation and Employment (Disabled Persons) 153 I/ ii DEDICATION I wish to dedicate this Doctoral Thesis to three persons in my family to whom I owe the formative traits that appear to me to have been instrumental in my ultimate capacity for producing such a work at the culmination of my academic pursuit. First, to my late mother, Mama Drusila Sawala Ayodo who instilled in me throug~ her pragmatic perceptiveness, social and economic self-reliance .characterized by modesty as the essence for human survival. ~ext, to my late father, Mzee William Ayodo Olero with whom I was privileged to live almost four score years of my life, for the diverse virtues I noted during his life which I suspect must have had considerable impact on the developmer.t o~ my ;erson3lity: the single minded conviction in the importance of work as the precondition for self-reliance, ~~tier.ce ar.d ~ope in the face of an appa~ent discouragir.; :ontex:, civil service cr.scienciousness, t~e dynamics o~ social interaction, an appreciation of the so:-ial and economic potential and, finally, contentment with and appreciation for person3l achievement. Lastly, to my eldest brother, Mr. Samuel Onyango Ayodo who, without his knowledge, exposed me from early. childhood, to insights into intellectual and a'cad ern i c fascination through access to inexhaustible diverse.literature, spontaneous iii personal interaction, the conceptualization of excellence, truth, discretion, self reliance, enhanced social consciou- sness and the capacity for appreciating meritorious endeavour. The discipline, inherent motivation and sense of purpose that have been necessary to see me thr6ugh my academic pursuit, I do, therefore, wholly owe my parents and eldest brother who have, besides, influenced my view of life. This work is dedicated, consequently, to them. no other way of expressing my indebteness. I have (iv) ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I wish to record my indebtedness to individuals and institutions without whose assistance and co-operation, this Doctoral Dissertation would not have been conceptualized and completed. First, to Professor Matthew K. Maleche, Deputy Vice Chancellor, Moi University, who exhibited exemplary empathy and patience over approximately ten years during which period the study was conceptualized, registered, executed with resource and time constraints and, finally, completed. He was the un- failing supervisor who, despite demanding academic and diverse administrative responsibilities, went out of his way to guide me and never got tired of attending to endless requests to furnish reference which resulted in the accep- tability and financing of the study. Next, Mr. S.M. Oisebe, Senior Assistant Commissioner for Social Services who introduced me to the Kenya Vocational Rehabilitation Programme and, subsequently, encouraged and facilitated my academic and research interest, culminating in the recogniiion and support of the Department of Social Services and the Directorate of Personnel Management. The support was further beefed up by Mr. E.M. Masale the Permanent Secretary in the Ministry of Culture and Social Services who accorded me access for consultation, time, requisite resources and extensive foreign tour opportunities on Vocational Rehabilitation missions; and Mrs. F.R.B. Oeri (v) who provided the communication link with the Department, Ministry and the Office of the President. I am grateful to Dr. A.A. Odeck and Professor Brian Bolton who cultivated my theoretical framework of the study through the provision of leading texts and publications in Vocational Rehabilitation from the United States of America, and to Dr. F.Q. Gravenir who provided me with crucial guidance as the main supervisor in the last stages of the study as an authority in Economics of Education. I have appreciated the assistance of Professor G.S. Eshiwani, Principal of Jomo Kenyatta University College who, along with Professor Maleche, provided me with the supervision until increased administrative responsibilities made it difficult to see the study through in its final stages, and also that of Professor and Mrs. H.O. Ayot and Dr. W.O. Orwa who generated motivation during difficult moments. I record thanks to Mr. W.O. Olaka and Mr. S. Bojana who provided valuable assistance in data collection and editing, and to my wife, Margaret s. Ayodo who provided typing services and together with my children, Linda, Brian, Harold, Golda and Emman who remained patient and encouraged me through the years as work on the study dragged on under. trying conditions. The Department of Social Services allowed me to carry (vi) out the study on part time basis while working as Deputy Principal vocational Rehabilitation Officer and accorded me interviewing access, using rural extension officers, to disabled ex-trainees of Rural Vocational Rehabilitation Centres, for which facilities I heartily thank the Commissioner. I ackowledge the Sociology Department at the University of Nairobi which accorded me Research Associate status during the period of the study, and wish to give special recognition to the International Labour Organization (I.L.O) which provided me with the professional background in and facilities for empirical familiarization with Vocational Rehabilitation through access to publications, seminars, exposure to leading experts and an extensive study tour of programmes in England, Norway, Denmark and Poland through technical assistance to the Kenya Government: significantly I valued personal interaction with and motivation from Dr. T. Majewski in Kenya, Dr. Jerzey Mikulski of the Polish Invalids' Co-operative Union and Dr. Willy Momm from Geneva Headquarters. I thank Moi University for financing the study during its final stages. ~enyatta University's Department of Educational Administration, Planning and Curriculum Development for accepting, supervising the study and seeing it through, and the National Council of Science and Technology which provided partial funding for the study. (vii) ABSTRACT The study sets out to examine the economic viability of training and resettling disabled persons in sel~ employment as carried out by the Vocational Rehabilitation Programme ln the Ministry of Culture and Social Services in Kenya. The training of residual capacities of disabled persons with the aim of making them economically productive and socially self supporting and integrated in the mainstream of the community is discussed in the light of human capital theory as an illustration of a programme designed to develop human resources in an overall effort in promoting national cievelot:ment. Conceptual justification is attempted with the use 0: literary citations, and technical terms used i~ vO=2tio~3l renabilitatio~ are de£l~ed before ~arrowlng down ::8 2. d i scussi on or Kenya I s proq ramme • The thesis, thus, addresses the concern of Economics of Education, which _~ the case is the viability of expendi~g s=arce resources In the literature review, the rationale of linking training and education with employment, prov1slon of vocational educatio~ and, finally, research, efficiency and evaluation 1n Vocatio~al Rehabilitation, 1S surveyed at the global and Kenyan level. The sampling and follow-up procedure of the self-employed graduates of Rural Vocational Rehabilitation Centres is explained and the data is ana lysed using percentages to ascertain cost-benefit ratio and rate-of-return. (viii) calculations. The conclusions and recommendations outlined at the end of the thekis support the argument thro~ghout the study that it is remunerating both economically and socially for the Kenya Government to engage in the training and subsequent self-employment of disabled persons. The private and social rates of return on investment in the programme are extremely high as compared to other projects (55% and 26.3% respectively). Implications for further research in the Kenyan Vocational Rehabilitation Programme are indicated at the end of the study. A bibliography covering works and publications consulted lS compiled and the questionnaire used in the follow-up of the disabled ex-trainees together with the International Labour Organization's Recommendaiton Number 168 of 1983 on the Vocational Rehabilitation and Employment of Disabled Persons are attached as appendices. CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION Disability and Human Resource Development The contribution of human resources in the process of the social and economic development of a country has come to be widely recognized (World Bank, 1980). Increasing attention has, over the years, been focussed on efforts aimed at enhancing the capability of human beings to participate in productive activities. Recognition has been taken of the variability in human potential arising from physiological characteristics and environmentai influence with regard to their productivity (Conley, 1973). Concerning the disabled, Hammerman and Maikowski (1981, IX) have observed that A society which shuts out any segment of its people from full participation and contribution is indeed an impoverished society. Eminent Economists have devoted their attention to the subject of human resources and its role in a country's overall development. observed that Harbison and Myers (1964, 1) have Human resource development is the process of increasing the knowledge, the skills, and the capacities of all the people in the society. In economic terms, it could be described as the accumulation of human capital and its effective - 2 - investment In the development of an economy. In political terms, human resource development prepares people for adult participation in political processes, particularly as citizens in a democracy. From the social and cultural points of view, the development of human resources helps people to lead fuller and richer lives, less bound by tradition. In short, the processes of human resource development unlock the door to modernization. At the threshold of the concepts of human resources develop- ment is the theory of human capital as expounded by Shultz (1960) in his presidential address to the American Economic Association in 1960. Shultz urges that human capability in production be conceived in the same line as physical capital which has to be invested in and developed and whose contribution to production can be quantified in the form of earnings and returns. Other Economists joined Shultz in identifying education as a significant area of human capital investment, such as Becker and Weisbrod (Levin & Shank, 1970), or Brown (Blaug, 1968). Denison, (1962) calculated the proportion of national income of the United States of America which he referred to as the "residual" or factor of ignorance and attributed it to education. The economic value of education in economic thought, reached heightened prominence in the early 1960s, culminating in the designation of Economics of Education as a distinct discipline. Its concern among leading economists over the years can be traced back to Petty in the 17th Century - 3 - on to Smith, Ricardo, Malthus, Mill, Marx and Marshall (Vaizey: 1962; .15-25 and Cohn: 1975; .13-36). Bowman (Bowman, 1962) had summarized what is discernable as the cornmaninterest of Economists and of Educators. This thesis sets out to examine the value of the residual productive capacities of the disabled which society has come to recognize as human assets requiring development through education and training in the same way as Economists of Education have advocated. BACKGROUND TO THE PROBLEM The Government of Kenya has demonstrated a remarkable commit- ment to the alleviation of the plight of disabled persons. Since 1968 when the legislative framework was instituted, thus bringing into existence the national Vocational Rehabi- litation Programme in the Sessional Paper Number 5 of that year, a consistency has been maintained in providing social welfare services and the development of human resources as advocated by 'scholars such as Harbison (1961) when he talked about 'The Strategy of Human Resource Development in Modernizing Economies. ' The need for direct government involvement in the provision of services for disabled persons carne to prominence immediately - 4 - after independence with the setting up of a national committee chaired by t Minister for Labour and Social Services in 1965 with the aim of surveying the problem cf disability in the country and recommending action to be taken by the Government. It was on the basis of the recommendations that the Sessional Paper Number 5 of 1968 entitled The Care and Rehabilitation of Disabled Persons (Kenya, 1968), was based. In the paper, the Government (Kenya: 1968), asserts that In considering the costs, the Government would like to point out that these can be justified, not only on humanitarian grounds, but for economic reasons. Most disabled persons are capable of doing work of one kind or another. They are potentially a national asset, but without training, they remain a liability !o family and state. It is in the country's best interests to see that they, too, like the rest of Kenya's citizens have a claim to that increase in human dignity which independence brings. Following the legislation by Kenya's Parliament, technical assistance fro~ the International Labour Organization was mobilized to start a national vocational rehabilitation programme, charged with the responsibility of i) identifying, ii) training, and iii) settling or reset~ling disabled Kenyans aged between 16 and 45 years. The programme was established on the principles - 5 - of International Labour Organization (ILO, 1967 and 1964) of conducting training and employment programmes for the disabled with the guidance of an international expert. The expert in Vocational Rehabilitation who ~as instrumental in the establishment of the Kenyan programme between 1968 a~d 1972 had it ~ashio~edverv much in the international context, similar to comparable programmes elsewhere, such as Uganda (which was the immediate preceding assignment of the same expert). It was, however, tailored to the local, social, economic and political situation. In its explicit recognition of providing vocational reha- bilitation services to the disabled Kenyan po~ulation on both humanitarian and economic grounds, the Govern~ent -t-'--- •••••• .0.... J,... "._. • _ '-' -'"' I,... •••.• _ __ _ ~ .:: _ '- twin ratio~3~~ of ?rov~dins educatio~ and tra~~ir0 as .] consum?tion and investment good. It meant that whereas tl-,emain ob j ec t i ve of the programme 'was t rai rinq the disabled 3::3 soci aI i~:'~I Est.irna.t~s c:>f ReC'\..:lrrent:. EX .,.Source: Repub1.i.c: C)£ Keny - ~1 - (Daily Nation, June 23rd, 1988). Accountability in project management, featuring objective achievement and financial controls have been intestified during this decade of the 1980s. The International Labour Organization's report to the Kenya Government on Increasing the Efficiency of Planning in Kenya recorrunendedelevation of the role of planr:ing, monitoring and evaluation (I.L.O., 1983 399-439). With the introduction and implementation of the District Focus for Rural Development since 1983, planning, co-ordination, financial and personnel, management, monitoring and evaluation have been highlighted (Kenya, 1987 and Makokha, 1985). The theme is featuring in the budget rationalization, emphasized in the current 1989/93 Development Plan (Kenya, 1989). The Central Beureau of Statistlcs in a report on a househo'd survey it had conducted in 1977 (Kenya, 1978) had raised the question of extent of Government's involvement in problems of disabled persons taking into consideration the entire Kenyan population and economy. In its evaluation report of the three year I.L.O./U.~.D.P. Technical Assistance Project to the Government of Kenya, KE~ /78/004 on, 'Vocational Rehabilitation of Disabled Persons,' running from 1982 to 1985, the I.L.O. advanced the view that the Kenya Prograrrune should be more' con sc i cus .of .cosrts in lavishing resettlement expenditure -irrthe -farm of. fr.ee·.too.Lk i.t.sto graduates of Rural Vocational Rehabilitation Centres (U.N.D.P., 1984). In ..a:rr:.:..a1:I::t:emp:t .trrr raddrress>. t.hes.irssue ,« the:::I!rrter:.n.ationalLabour org:a:n:i:z::at ±On::arenommencte.ctssomen:kin:d,0£, :-1.0aning .scheme. Such - 22 - views are comparable to those carried in the Sessi Number 6 of 1988 on Education and Manpower Trainir Next Decade and Beyond (Kenya, 1988) concerning Ie schemes for educational purposes whose effect woul the ~eduction of rate-of-return to individual ber while availing the funds for further circu~a~ion i benefit of fu rur e- needy clients. Having Vocational Rehabilitation Programmes run on effective basis in the face of scarcity of resourc allocated to other competing sectors of the econom global problem with graver implications for less d nations than it is bound to have for develc?ed, in lized countries. When the British Manpower Servic SS10n set up a review tas~ force for the e~~loymen tat·on in 1979, one of the five terms of re:ere~ce Services Commission 191, 2) was To examine and report on the fut re role a Manpot,.;erService Commission in emp lo yme n t bilitation, taking into account constraint resources and the need for maximum cost-ef The Polish Invalids' Co-operatives which are paraE o r qe m.z.atai orrs .. c.a.t e r i nq. f o r. the Voc a t i.o na.I Re.hab i.Li of the disabled in Poland is a success story, runr a cost-effective basis (Grzybourski and Laundenskj Far c-thetr :Gov.ernment ·pro:v-ide.d-.s:ac i:al.sacuri ty bens for the dis~bled, the Social Insurance Institute is res- ponsible. '(Poland, 1980). Through a study tour fellowship, the author of this thesis visited both the British and Polish proo ramms for employment of disabled persons and drew comparison and contrasts with the Kenyan Vocational Rehabilitation programme (Ayodo, 1986). In a highly developed country such as the Unites States of America, even human service programmes have come under close cost-effective scrutiny under the Programme Planning and Budgeting System (Levin and Shank, 1970, IV, Compton and Galaway, 1979, 12). Policy makers and programme implementers have found cost- benefit analysis a very useful tool, Ilti7tw'ithstandTn-g-">: its operational limitations in effecting efficiency. Rehabili- tat!on International and United ~ations Organlzatlons (Harrunermanand Maikowski, 1981, 101-112) International Labour Organizations (I.L.O., 1981), and Cultural Organizations (C.N.E.S.C.O, '1975 and Indian Journal of Administration 1981) have all ac~nowledged its utilization In assessing the effectiveness of rehabilitation programmes. In measuring the effi~iency of educational systems, cost-benefits, also referred to as systems analysis, has long been found a useful tool by academics and educational practioners or policy ma.r.kers. (U.N..E.S.C ..O..-.R..E..E., 1971 Section VIII, Cohn, 1975 Ch. 6, Stoikov,·1975., Blaug, 1968 Part 3, and Woodhall, 1975). In this analysis of the ~enyan Vocational Rehabri...:l-.itatio.n.:rr.crgramme--,arrrcattemp.t..will .be.,made to use the cost-ebe ne f i.t- arid- ·r-a-te-.of,....r.eturn'methods. - 24 - STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM Societies have come to realization of the potential economic importance of disabled persons. The Government of Kenya on its part, has been paying appreciable attention to the identification of disabled persons and in trying to effect policy measures which compensate for their relative dis- advantaged social and economic position as compared to the rest of the non-disabled population. In an efficial publi- cation (Kenya, 1980, 7), the disabled person in Kenya is depicted thus A disabled person in Kenya generally encounters the same problems, the same hopes and fears, the same frustrations an~ aspirations of disabled persons anywhere in the World. Because of physical or mental incapacity which is frequently complicated by educational, social and cultural handicaps, his earning ability is severely affected. He is usually dependent on relatives for support. His economic plight is worse if he has his own family to provide for. It is not therefore surprising that many of them resort to begging as a means of livelihood. Kenyan society is not yet fully enlightened concerning the potential capabilities of disabled persons and the tendency is to keep them isolated from the rest of the community. Certain tribes keep their disabled members hidden from public view, thus denying them access to educational, social cultural and other facilities which are necessary for personal development. Supersti- tion, fear, shame, and prejudice are major factors affecting public attitude towards the disabled_ As a result, the disabled person - 25 - becomes obsessed with a crippling sense of inadequacy. He feels infe- rior and rejected and loses confidence in himself to perform any worthwhile function. The conscience of the World is awakening to the disabled persons with a perceptibly accelerated The problems posed by the incidence of disab: human society have exhibited an important featur{ human condition - albeit, with varied degrees of and concern focused on it since time immemorial. recent years, this awareness was manifested in tJ mation by the United ~ations Organization at its Assembly in 1976 that the year 1981 would be the Year of Disabled Persons. The theme of the Year participation and equality" with the following ~ objectives (U.~., 1980) (a) Helping disabled persons ,in thei physIcal and psychological adjus ot society. (b) Promoting all national and inter efforts to provide disabled pe rs proper assistance, training, car, guidance, to make available oppo for _su.itab.Lerwo.r.kand to ensure ,'integration in'society. (c) Encouraging.study and research p :,!.:;designed.t.o..-faclli tate the pract .::,'rpart.ti cji pan Lon _o'f.-..d.isab.le.-.dpe:rson -26 - life, for example, by improving their access to pub~ic buildings and transportation system; (d) Educating and informing the public of the rights of disabled persons to participate in and contribute to various aspects of economic, social and political life; (e) Promoting effective measures for the prevention of disability and for the rehabilitation of disabled persons; In a publication aimed at sensitizing the World Community to the problem of disability, the United Nations Organization (U.N, 1981,5) noted The spectre of disability nas haunted the human race since the beginning of time, as is illustrated in the folklore and the history of all nations. Sometimes the deprived human being has been a figure of fun; sometimes a cause of embarrassment, and occasionally even regarded as a token of divine.displeasure. In general, however, humans have cared for their less fortunate fellows and nurtured them just as most still do. What has been lacking has been a concerted attempt to face the problem squarely - despite our new understanding that much can now be done to offset the misery and indignity which is too often the lot of the disabled - and to exploit their potential contribution to the - 27 - communal life for the community's benefit and the disabled person's happiness. The widely publicized concern for disabled persons has been meant to focus attention on the enjoyment by disabled persons of rights and opportunities in order to ensure their full participation and integration into society. This has necessitated taking into consideration the finding of solutions to the problem of disabled persons as an i~tegral part of national development strategies (U.~. 1980). The increased concern for disabled persons lS acce~tuated by agonized pronoucements articulated by victi~s of disability such as Battye (1974, 99) when he observes The crIppLe- is an object of Ch ri st i an c r.zri t y , a socio-medical problem, a stumbling ~u~sa~ce, and an embarrassment to the girls he fal_s In love with. He is a Vocation or a Sai~t, a live_ihood for manufacturers of ~~e01c~J~rs, a target for busy-bodies, and a mea~s b~·~hich prosperous citizens assuage their conscie~ces. He is at the mercy of overworked docto~s 3~d nurses and underworked bureaucrats 3~d ~:.::ial investigators. He is pitied and ianored, helped and patronized, understood and sta~ed at. But he is hardly ever taken seriously as a ~J~ .... It has been estimated that 10% of the World's popu~atio~ which comes to around 500 million people, is disab~ed (W.H..O., 1981, 10). _ It.bas,.:further, .been estimated that 80% - 28 - of disabled persons live in developing countries where less than 1% received any specialized help (Rehabilitation International, 1981, 6). The United Nations Organization (U.N., 1983, 13) says that in some developing countries, as high as 20% of the population is disabled while 50% of the total populatic~ is adversely a~~ected by disability. Lack of adequate attention to the problems of disabled persons as seen in developing countries has been remarkable and has attracted the interest of global organizations. In a training mannual for community based rehabilitation workers (~.H.O., 1980, i), the World Health Organization stated that Improving the fate of the disabled who live in developing countries today is a difficult ~a~y factors militate ~O\· l:~::'.e~tsare not commu~ity is a problem, and rehabilitation 1.S ;enera11yvi~w~d as a ~uxury bec~use it is al~ost exclusively left to the care of charitable \' 0 r is there 3ny th .i nc ':ery dra:n2.tic 0 r eye catching about government action aimed at improving the situation for the estimated 10~ of any population who suffer from disablement. The poor, the dependent, the vulnerable disabled speak either whith a humble voice or with none at.all. They have no influence .and carry no political weight. Today, we estimate that countries - a percentage that is even higher than it~was 25 years ago. - 29 - The eccurance of disability is often accompanied by of undesirable characteristics which the modern socie to wish to eliminate. Among the significant qualitiE the functional limitation and the resulta~t soci~l ar handicaps it imposes on the victim (Albretch, 1976, I By its very conceptualization, disability implies dev and therein lies society's concern. Difference from members of society and the consequent (imposed) role= with them peculiar problems to both the devia~t, the and at a larger level, the community. Dependence on becomes a characteristic result. Often, ~hysical sui incovenience 1S accompanied by reduced ca~acity to ca basic ~eec anc a~so alienation fro~ other ?eo?le (30~ Jacques, 1979). To safeguard against the l~~~~erajle to which abuses to disabilitv ex~oses vic=i~s, the n ~2tio~s O~ga~::atio~ 1~ 1975 ca~e UD with a declara 1 integration into the ~ainscre3~ of SOC1et~ (~.~., :-j ...')v1ng, thus, taken coS~izJ~ce 0: the hitr.erto unsati social and econom1C condition which has been the pre~ life style of the vast majority of disabled persons, in Kenya but in developing countries as a whole,and i developed societies, as well, the author of this t~e= considers it important to try to assess the result of madeby the~overnment to improve the standard of livir - 30 - disabled. The contention in the thesis is that expenditure incurred ~y the Government on education, training and employment of disabled persons can be viewed as social investment in the development of human resources and that there are commensurate private and societal returns which can be regarded as sufficient justification for the public costsmet by the tax payer. It is further argued in the thesis that neglecting the condition of disabled persons entail expenditure still on the part of society in the form of welfare payments and the'opportunity cost estimated in the formof earnings foregone by non disabled persons who have to take care of the disabled. ~levance of the Research Problem As already indicated and will be further reinforced in the next chapterin the review of literature, the problem of disabled personshas come to be recognized as a pressing socio-economic challengewhich governments have to contend with. Although the intensity of government involvement varies from country to country, it is dawning on society that it is incumbent upon it to facilitate the rehabilitation and full integration of disabled persons into its mainstream. It has been illus- tratedin this chapter how the Kenya Government, on its part, hastackled the problem of disabled persons. ~ing a developing country, Kenya has many developmental challengeswhich are characterized by economic constraints. - 31 - However well meaning the Government may be for the welfare of its disabled population, the humanitarian motive has to be viewed along side economic realities. The costs of vocational rehabilitation of disabled persons are high in all cou~tries and far exceed the expenditure on education and tr21~ing for non-disabled persons of compar2jle 2;e cchor~. Granted, therefore, that due attention has to be paid to the disabled in order to make them live self-fulfilling and self-reliant lives in the community, it is important that with the resources allocated to the Vocational Rehabilitation Programme, as many of the eligible disabled persons as is :easible should benefit. At a time when the Kenva Government 15 demonstrating concern for efficiency in all its progra~~es, it is clear that consciousness for efficiency in ~eeting ~o~:d be rlesiraole. ~22~rds held in Vocati2~al ~ehabiiitation Centres show an acute shortage of training places at the ~x:s~ing eleven instit~tio~s. The total traini~g capacity • • I -,.•. ::: - - -' :~~t St3~jS a~ 3,000 . ?ro;ra.nrneaccoun t ab ilit l' as conce ived .i ,-,I d0~eloped countries liK~ the United States of ~l1erica and also currer.tly e:fected bv [~ited Nations Organization's donor agencies ought not to be viewed as an unattainable ideal for developing countries for :::uchlonger. For every. uni t 0 f expend.Lt ure- - . there shou ld be a ~JxiDization of. utility, derived, measurable in efficaciousness or undertakings. - 32 - In the wake of equitability pursuit in resource allocation, aimed to be achieved through the implementation of the district focus for rural development, it is to be expected that the disabled who, according to already cited World estimates, affects 2.1 million (10%) of Kenya's population, would get a proportionate share of the national cake and be also subjected to public accountability. The success of a Vocational Rehabilitation Programme is measured in terms of the number of rehabilitees who become successfully settled in employment after enjoying the services of the programme. It is for this reason that the researcher thought of gearing this study to evaluation with follow-up of former disabled trainees of Vocational Rehabilitation Centres as a leading feature in the tracer study model (Psacharopoulos and Woodhall, 1985, 38 - 39). Unemployment is a threatening socio-economic problem in developing countries among the able bodied and takes more devastating dimensions among disabled persons whose chances of getting jobs are further reduced because of negative attitudes of the public towards them. It is the acknowledgement of this disadvantage to disabled persons that justifies the initiation of a compensatory programme such as vocational rehabilitation to equip disabled persons with employable skill training. Such a programme compares closely with a programme like the Youth Ploy technic which until recently has been managed by the same Department of Social Services and whose purpose is to provide employable skills to young school leavers. - 33 - For over seven years while working in the Department of So- cial Services from 1987 as a Vocational Rehabilitation Officer, the researcher's assignment included Research, Evaluation, Publicity and Placement. In the course of executing his duties, he saw need to conduct an empirical study which,' while meeting academic requirements for a doctoral degree, would prove useful to the Kenyan Vocational Rehabilitation Programme. Apart from provoking an awareness for efficiency in the programme, there is the pressing need for literature on rehabilitation by personnel working in the programme and also for the public, students of education and related human services programmes. As can be seen from literature reviewed in Chapter Two on rehabilitation of the disabled in Kenya, very little work of academic standing has been done in the form of studies which could assist policy makers and other administrators of vocational rehabilitation programmes. It has been in the light of the foregoing that the researcher decided to embark on this study which is expected to be an eye opener and will provoke other scholars into more serious work in the discipline. In view of the contemporary global calls for socio-economic equity as a development goal, this study provides an example of a determined attempt to provide compensatory human resource development to a disadvantaged target group. Besides, the studyprovides discussion of an example of the vocational approachto the alleviation of a Socio-economic problem to be - 34 - contrasted with the charitable handling out of relief of distress which are consumable goods and services, with no envisaged future returns. The many voluntary organizations servlng the disabled in Kenya ~ill, hopefully, find the study a useful g~id~ l~ ~or~~lating their programmes. The study will be a contribution to the live debate on a relevant education and training, linked to employment prospects in Kenya. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY This study is an erno i r i c a I examinatiori 0: ::.~e Ke nv a Voca tiona 1 Rehab i Li t a t i.or: Pr oqramme with a v i ew to ~- " - ... - ..••• - '- - ••.•...•• - _0 _ ~eneral political econo~y of disabled pers~ns. (b) exa~ining its effica=v In resettling the r-ehabilitees (e) atte:n?t a cost-ber:c:iit analysis 0: Gov<.:r;-:;nnet ir:volve:ne:tt i;1 the Pro~ra:nme. EYPOTHESES TO BE TESTED r~o hypotheses will be tested l:: the course of the study:- i) There is a significant difference in the for~ of returns accruing to trained disabled persons from .their lifetime earnings as compared with their untrained c o u n t c r c a r t s . ~/ - 35 - ii) Ther~ is marked difference between the returns from earnings accruing to a trained disabled person and that from an able bodied person in a comparable programme. VARIABLES TO BE EXAMINED The major dependent variable to be examined will be the returns accruing to trained disabled persons following resettlement in self-employment. The independent variables which are mainly government and donor inputs into the programme will include i) Budgetary allocation ii) The Training Curriculum iii) Settlement/Resettlement support iv) Social and Economic Policies. Definition of Terms In an effort by society to address itself to the problems posed by the occurrence of disability, specialized inter- national service organizations of the United Nations Orga- nizations have formulated definitions of disability which, in turn, have become widely adopted throughout the World. TheWorld Health Organization (W.H.O. 1982, 8), for instance definesdisability as Any restriction 'orlack (resulting from an impairment) of ability to perform an activity in the manner or within the range considered normal for a human being. - 36 - In the same document, the World Health 9rganization (W.H.O. 1982, 8) also defines the closely related 'handicap' as A disadvantage for a given individual, resulting from an impairment or disability, that limits or prevents the fulfilment of a role that is normal (depending on age, sex, and social and cultural factors) for that individual. Ameliorative action to combat the undesirable effects of disablement have found expression in the concept of 'rehabilitation,' which the United Nations Organization (U.N., 1983, 3) defines as A goal - oriented and time limited process aimed at enabling an impaired person to reach an optimum mental, physical and/or social functional level, thus providing her or him with the tools to change her or his own life. It can involve measures intended to compensate for a loss of function or functional limitation (for example by technical aids) and other measures intended to facilitate social adjustment or readjustment. McGowan and Porter (1967, 4) have defined 'rehabilitation' as the process of restoring the handicapped individual to the fullestphysical, mental, social, vocational, and economic usefulnessof which he or she is capable. Cull, Hardy, Peter II, Peters and Gandy (1980, 7) endorse this concept of rehabilitation • - 37 - For many years, prior to the aforementioned revised World Health Organization's definition of 1982, the word 'reha- bilitation' of the disabled had been in use to refer to the restorative services aimed at integrating the disabled into the regular life stream of the society. In a charateristic vein, the World Health Organization (W.H.O., 1969) had defined it as The combined and co-ordinated use of medical, social, educational and vocational measures for the training or retraining of the individual to the highest possible level of functional ability. Over the years, there has been cultivated a growing recogni- tion to meet the needs of disabled persons through the deve- lopmentof their residual capacities and therefore engaging them in productive activities, taking into account the humani- tariandimension. The provision of vocational rehabili- tation services to the disabled, therefore, should be seen in the context, discussed at the beginning of this chapter, of humancapital theory and the Economics of Education. In theprocess of providing education, training, employment, medicaland other resettlement services aimed at the total integration 9f disabled persons in the community, full utili- zationof available human resources in a country are being mobilizedinto creation of national wealth. When Wright, a leading contemporary rehabilitation scholar in his textbook on comprehensive rehabilitation in which he discusses at length the value of independent living skills, refers to the ultimate premise of rehabilitation philosophy as being an all encompassing concern for the handicapped individual (Wright, 1980) the implication is what Weisbrod identifies as 'positive' spill-over effects of education and training (Weisbrod, 1964). Psacharopoulos and Woodhall (1985) refer to them in their World Bank Publication as externalities, and can be seen to accrue to society as a result of educating and training disabled persons into self- reliance so that instead of an economy concentrating on transfer payments for their maintenance, they are able to earn their own livelihood, thus enabling their families and community to engage in productive work. Whilethe provision of such services as vocational rehabilitation are components of the development and full utilization of humanresources in a country, decision makers are faced with the prevailing strain put on the World's resources by needs of theable-bodied population which is cheaper to sustain as it requireslittle in the form of special needs. The cost of dependencyon the economically active non-disabled population by uneducated, untrained and unemployed disabled persons has ~ be contended with; it amounts to the economic cost of doing oothingto the condition of the disabled. As all this involves ~e allocation of scarce national resources to a section of the ~pulation, I will further explore implications and practices. - 39 - Terms Relating to Vocational Rehabilitation. For the purposes of this study the definations of I. L. O. are adopted for the following words:- (i) Vocational Rehabilitation In its recommendation No. 99 of 1955, the International Labour Organization has defined Vocational Rehabilitation (1.L.O. 1984, 5) as: That part of the continuous and co-ordinated process of rehabilitation which involves provision of those voca- tional services, e. g. vocational training and selective placement, designed to encable a disabled person to secure and retain suitable employment. In a later Recommendation Number 168 of 1983 the International Labour Organization further explained that the purpose of vocational rehabilitation should O.L.O., 1983, 14) to be: Enable a disabled person to secure, retain and advance in suitabled employment and thereby to further such person's integration or reintegration into society. (ii) Disabled Person For the purpose of Vocational Rehabilitation International Labour Organization conceives a 'disabled Person' slightly differently from the World Health Organization (1. L. 0., 1983, 1), thus An individual whose prospects of securing retaining and advancing in suitable employment are substantially reduced as a result of a duly recognized physical or mental impairment. - 40 - The provision of vocational rehabilitation services to disabled persons is based on the inherent right of disabled persons to be part of the labou~ force, and, thereby, derive the social, economic and psychological satisfaction that exertion in meaningful and gainful activities imply to human beings. Acton, former Secretary General of Rehabilitation International (1981, 4) sums up as follows .....we may draw some tentative conclusions about the employment for disabled people and the cri- teria it should satisfy. To help meet the econo- mic need that usually exists, employment should be gainful. To satisfy the culturally determined work ethic, by which most people have been condi- tioned, be productive and at a level that, in keeping with the individuals' capabilities, represents achievement. To facilitate the social integration of the disabled individual, the job should be in a setting where other people are also working. And to give some form and discipline to life, employment should be regular and continuous. As is true of the population at large, there are among people with disabilities those who have only some or even none of the needs .... Cull and Hardy (1972, 63) reinforce the need for work for disabledpersons when. they note that Historically, not working has been looked upon as a sign of personal incompetence or deficiency. Work has fulfilled unsatisfied needs for self esteem and self actualization, and the possibility for fulfilling these needs outside of some type - 41 - of institutional setting are limited. Not only are these unsatisfied needs personally disruptive but socially as well. The emphasis on the work ethic in relation to the welfare of disabled persons is further underscored by many other autho- ritative sources in specialist publications. U.N.E.S.C.G. (1977, 177-186), for instance, highlighted the significance of vocational education as a component of Special Education and also touching In the optimal development of potential vocational faculties of disabled persons through adequately synchronized Special Education and training programme. The regional meeting of African Foreign Ministers of the Organization of Africa Unity (O.A.U, 1980) brought the point home when it resolved that Reference should be made to the principle of the right to work and fact stressed that the disabled had the same right to independent work as other individuals and ...• The right to education, training and information should be included among the fundamental principles since it is a pre- requisite of -the full participation of the disabled. At the 1980 World Congress of Rehabilitation International, a disabled participant, Lindquist (1980, 17) echoed the same sentimentsin a paper he presented when he esserted that - 42 - Everybody must feel that they have something to offer to others. To have a job or a meaningful role, to feel that one contributes to one's family and to one's society, is the right of every individual. We all know to-day that right is denied the majority of disabled people in the World, not only in the developing countries but also in highly developed countries such as Canada and Sweden .... Through work rehabilitation, we disabled can increase our capacity and, thereby, become more attractive to the Labour market. There are shining exam- ples of people throughout the World with severe disabilities .who have gained and retained impor- tant positions in the Labour market. They have achieved their positions through their own talents and through successful rehabilitation. In a sysmposium held in 1980 with the theme of 'Work For the Disabled' (I.L.O., 1980. 193-207) Cooper, who was the then Chief of I.L.O. Vocational Rehabilitation Training Branch in Geneva, in the preceding vein, elaborated upon the Organi- zation'spreoccupation with technical assistance to programmes of disabled persons, covering 64 countries in 1979 alone. For the purposes of this thesis the author prefers the above International Labour Organization (I.L.O.) definitions of 'disabledperson' and 'vocational rehabilitation.' LIMITATIONSOF THE STUDY Thisstudy has been carried out with two maj or constraints the researcherhas had to contend with - 43 - (a) Researcher competence The educational background and training of the researcher did not include disciplines such as Psychology, Counselling, Labour Studies, Special Education and Rehabilitation which go in to reinforce the other ingredients of training and experience of an administrator or academic in the .area of Vocational Reahbilitation as cited in the review of relevant texts in chapter two. It was fortunate that at the end of the study an opportunity to align the study closer to the Economics of Education availed itself at the Kenyatta and Moi Universities. For two months during the period of the study, the researcher had the practical experience of comparative European Vocational Rehabilitation Programmes. The incorporation of the bent towards Economics of Education, therefore, has enhanced the competence of the researcher, thus relegating into insignificance the earlier anticipated fears. (b) Visiting ex-trainees of all the Vocational Rehabilitation Centres has been an exacting task for the researcher who has, over the years, had to have the assistance of field officers of the Department of Social Services augment his efforts. Frequent and unannounced movement of a large number of ex-trainees from one working site to another and, also, in some cases, complete lack of information on the whereabouts of the ex-trainees reduced the expected number of respondents. -44 - Organization of the Rest of the Thesis In chapter two, relevant literature is reviewed under the three headings: Linking Training and Education with Employ- ment, Vocational Education, and Research, Efficiency and Evaluation in Vocational Rehabilitation. Chapter Three explainsthe research methodology and sampling procedure while the tabulated results are reported and analysed in Chapter Four. Chapter Five outlines the conclusions and recommenda- tions of the study. - 45 - CHAPTER TWO REVIEW OF LITERATURE While the researcher has been able to have access locally to literature on topics such as Economics of Education, Vocational Training and Employment all of which constitute education disciplines at Kenyatta University,difficulty has been expe- rienced during the period of the study in obtaining literature whichwould conform to a mininum requirement to equip an investigator in an area like Vocational Rehabilitation with satisfactory familiarity with concepts of the discipline. The literature reviewed in this chapter, other than those on disabledpersons in Kenya, was largely acquired by special arrangement by the researcher from overseas sources. A limitednumber of titles have been available at local university librariesat Kenyatta University, University of Nairobi and at ilieMedical School at Kenyatta Hospital. Thereview covers three major areas, thus Linking Training and Education with Employment Vocational Education Research, Efficiency and Evaluation in Vocational Rehabilitation. - 46 - LINKING EMPLOYMENT AND EDUCATION There exists plenty of literature which deals with the subject of education and employment in a country's deve- lopmental context. For Kenya, the introduction of the '8-4-4 Educational System' (Kenya, 1984) can be seen as the climax in recent years of attempts to redress the mismatch between what the educational system produces in the form of graduates at different cycles and the realities of the employment situation. The increased emphasis on vocational, technical and work-skill infused curriculum prescribed in the document, which Kenya is implementing, is meant to prepare students for the world of work, taking into account the rural predominance in the Kenyaneconomy. The document advocates increased use of continuous assessment of students as opposed to sole reliance on end-of-course examination which may not take into account individual aptitudes. The International Labour Organization in its survey report on Employment, Incomes and Equality (I.L.O., 1972, 65-70) discussed the school leaver or educated unemployment problem. Killick (1981, 266) in the papers he editedon the Kenyan economy has summarized the education-job mismatch in a characteristic fashion when he writes One reason for low and declining returns from educational investments is that the system has remained primarily geared to meeting the manpower needs of the modern sector of the economy, with the great - 47 - majority of those graduating from the system, at all levels, aspiring to wage- or salary-paying jobs in the towns. But the number of jobs in the modern sector is not expanding nearly as rapidly enough to absorb each year's output of fresh graduates. The Sessional Paper Number 2 of 1985 has outlined the important role which rural based and informal sector employment oppor- tunities will continue to play in the overall employment strategy in Kenya. The ruralization and localization of the school curriculum postulated in the 8-4-4 education system is consistent with this employment strategy. Leading scholars and international donor agencies have articulated views on the link between education, training and employment. Blaug has given a thorough analysis of the problem as seen in developing countries and has ended up with suggestions of possible ameliorative policies in his book Education and Employment Problem in Developing Countries (Blaug,1974). Davis sees the education and work link as vitalas a primary consideration in planning educational systems (Davis, 1980 Ch.10) when he observes (Davis, 1980, 207) that Though the direct link between education and productivity was not usually studied or validated, indirect evidence in the form of higher earnings accompanying more education seemed to validate the theories of the economists and the supposition of educators - 48 - and political leaders. In very recent years the direct evidence to support the argument began to appear shaky. Educated unemployment began to appear in West and East Africa, In South East Asia and massive in India. With no jobs, there were no earnings. As the nUIT~er of people with educational credentials grew, competition for the few jobs which required educated people increased and the differential which had been paid for modest levels of educa- tion began to decline. Carnoy, (1975), discussing 'Schooling and Unemployment' and C1ignet (1975) on 'Education and Employment in Developing ~ations' at a donor seminar on investment in education, had Joined Blaug (1975) who addressed the issue of 'Education and E~p1oyment' to explore the subject. The International e~ployment approach strategy (I.L.O., 1973) which closely corresponds to the ~acro economic context the World Ban~ eh.S) 0: education and wor~. In its recent policy study en edUC3t ion for Sub- Saharan A frica, the Wor ld Bank (1988, I:) has restated its belief in the function of education in oro- mating economic development through the provision of requi- site_skills and attitudes. It notes Without education, development will not occur. Only an educated people can command __the_skills_necessary_:forsustainable economic ----growth-and' for a-bettcr.-quality of, life. Recognizing this, African governments have placed heavy emphasis on expanding educational opportunities from primary school through University in the two or three decades since their independence. Relating education and occupations in an economy is seen by P~rnes (1964) and United National Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (U.N.E.S.C.O., 1968 Section X) as the ground for the rationale for manpower forecasting and handling the supply of required human skills. Ensuring that graduates of an educational system are equipped to cope with the challenges brought about by employment needs, skills and aptitudes up dating on a continuing basis through the provision ofin-3ervice training has been explored and recommended by Staikov (1975) in the Economics of Recurrent Education and Training (U.N.E.S.C.O., 1983, 86) in what it regards as ICombining Education and Productive Work.' In a research report on Training and Productivity in Eastern Africa, Maliyamkono, et all. (1982, 4) have observed that Empirical evidence suggests that there is a relationship between education and productivity, which implies that more education achievement results 'in higher levels of productivity more than other types; further, whether an emphasis on this type of education would also increase equality. Silberman (1982) has edited a collection of essays on Educationand Work from the United States of America's viewpointwhich emphasize the need for relating education - 50 - to work. Little (1986) has concisely covered these in an article 'From Educating and Employing to Learning and Working' in which she outlines important current concepts and propositions for the debate. Psacharopoulos and Woodhall (1985) in their joint publication on Education for Development» have incorporated World Bank current views on the desirability of relating education and gainful employment as a development ob- jective. Coombs, (1968 Ch. III) in his classic discussion of what he called the World Education Crisis had outlined in one-chapter the required fitness of the outputs of educational systems for manpower requirements and attitudes congenial to social change. Carnoy (1977) has appraised the duration and employment relation and has recommended policy measures for planners in ~is Education anf Employment: A Critical Appraisal. The widely discussed close tie between Education and Jobs as seen by Berg (1970) are all part of the pertinent literature. A forceful indictment underscoring the significance of the desirable link of education to work is that of Dore's (1976) Diploma Disease which condemns the prevalent obsession with acquisition of certificates whose value, in the course of time,deteriorate as competition for them escalates. Providing Special Education and Vocational Rehabilitation trainingto disabled persons needs to be considered in the lightof the foregoing review of the literature linking educa- tionand work. The process of preparation of disabled persons furwork includes a considerable element of psychological toning ~ which needs inclusion in this literature review. - 51 - A leading publication on disabled persons produced by United Nations Organization is World Programme of Action Concerning Disabled Persons (U.N., 1983). It outlines details of the organization's summary of international consensus on objectives, current situation and implementation proposals on the disabled. It is intended to be a guide to member nations in formula- ·tionof their separate plans of action for the 'Decade of the Disabled, 1982 - 1991.' Another publication Disabled Persons Bulletin disseminating information on developments on the international scene since the International Year of Disabled Persons, 1981 (U.N., 1982, 4) notes As a result of the Year, more people now accept that disabled persons are important and potentially productive members of society. Attention has been focused on the abilities of persons with disabilities. \\ United Nations Educational,'Scientific and Cultural Organization sees the introduction of skill training as an integral component of the Special Education curriculum as discussed in the publication Integration of Technical and Vocational Education into (U.N.E.S.C.O., 1977). Using New Zealand, Czechoslovakia, and United States of America as case st.udi.es, another U.N.E.S.C.0 publication Economic Aspects of Special Education (U.N.E.S.C.O., 1978) is designed to demonstrate to policy makers, educational planners and teachers the long run returns to investment in ~ecial Education. In the preface it observes - 52 - National policies with regard to Special Education should be directed towards providing equal access to education and integrating all citizens into the economic and social life of the community. The aim of Special Education for those who suffer from mental, sensorial, physical or emotional handicap is similar to that of education in general, namely to offer the child the maximum opportunity to develop cognitive, scholastic and social skills to the highest possible level. The social and psychological aspects of rehabilitation is a well documented area and among interesting works consulted is Albretch's The Sociology of Disability and Rehabilitation (1976). Boswell and Wingrove (1974) in their jointly edited The Handicapped Person in the Community have put together into a textbook used by the open university, a collection of diversified articles on issues relating to disabled persons in a British setting. Robinault and Weisinger (1979) have presented an example of a community based rehabili- tation facility, compara~le to the I.L.O. experiments in Indonesia and Kenya, in their co-authored book Mobilization of Community Resource. The Mary E. Sweitzer Memorial Seminar reports have addressed specific topics in rehabilitation. Edited by Perlman, they have tackled, for instance, The Role of Vocational Rehabilitation in the 1980s: Serving Those With Invisible Handicaps (1978), International Aspects of Rehabili- tation (1981) and Rehabilitation of the Older Blind Persons (1977). The proceedings of the third European regional -53 - conference of Rehabilitation International is an illuminating collection of The Handicapped Persor.: in Society (1981) on diverse aspects of rehabilitation. In The Pscyhological ~ and Social Impact of Physical Disability, Marinelli and Orto have further developed the theme of Albretch which has already been referred to. Penetrating accounts of the disabled person and his/herpsych0~ocial needs for adjustment and rehabili- tation are.elucidated upon by Bolton and Jaques (1979) in The Rehabilitation Client and by Roessler and Bolton (1978) in Pscyho-Social Adjustment to Disability. Cull, et. ale have joined other authors in bringing to readers an overview of rehabilitation services provided by different countries from allover the world in the book they have jointly edited, entitled International Rehabilitation: Approaches and Programmes (1980). University Affiliated Children's Hospital of Los Angeles organizes annual conferences on Piagetian Theory and its Implications for the Helping Professions (1980) whose proceedings exhibit the interdisciplinary approach to handling rehabilitation problems. Hale's Source Book for the Disabled (1979) is an invaluable practical guide to independent living and restoration of confidence for disabled persons. In rehabilitation, the theme of competence excites conflicting, thought provoking and, ~ven, inspiring reactions. Reterence to Social Darwinistic notions in relation to justification of serviceprovision at public expense raise philosophical questions worth digressing into. Hoffman (1975, 419) in an article in the Journal of Special Education summarizes - 54 - Social Darwinism thus Basing his theories on Darwin's biological formulations, Spencer developed a philosopy of social selection which agreed that only the most fit of the human species should be permitted to survive, so that mankind as a whole might advance; the weaker members of humanity, through their innate inferiority, detracted from the biological progress of the race and hence posed a threat to the future of mankind. Consequently, Spencer condemned not only poor laws but also public health and public educational facilities, since these institutions sustained many of the individuals seen as innately inferior. Eventually, it was believed, nature would weed out through natural selection all such undesirables, and there would be no further social oroblems. The ri2~ ~ere that way because of their s~perior na~ural acu~en and intelligence: the poor and i~~~r~ ~ere simply those members of the species who has lost out in the evolutionary race owing to their innate disabilities. To attempt a programme of public aid for suc~ persons was dee~ed ridiculo~~ as well a~ grossly unscientific~ What was losical and sensible, accordfng>" to social Darwinistic thought, was eugenics. - 55 - This is the manifestation of the trend of though by authors like Machiaveill .. in his famous book Th (1950) who see might as equated with right. Or, organization level, Rothery's Survival By Compet is a relevant reinforcement. Literature has exe portraits illustrating a prevalent social disinc to disabled individuals such as in Lawrence's La Lover (1956). In a masterly portrait, the 'Stig: Richard, Duke of Gloucester, the infamous arch v Shakespeare's (1970) creation articulates the so' Villainy as the response to the imperfectionist has of him on account of his disability - and hi. resolution to seek self gratification. In his L loquay, he ponders ~ell say there is no ~l~Sdo~ then for Rl What other pleasure can t~e World af~ord I'll make my heaven in a lady's lap, And deck my body in gay ornaments, And witch sweet ladies with my words and o miserable thought and more unlikely Than to accomplish twenty golden Crowns. Why, love forswore me in my mother t s woml And for I should not deal in her soft la. She did corrupt frail nature with some 01 To shrink mine arm up like a wither'd shr To make an envious mountain on my back! Where-sits deformity to mock my body! To shape my legs of an unequal size: To dis~ropotion me ln every oart. Like chao s, or an unlicked bear - whelp :ThaL carries no . . like the dam.lmpresslon .And am:! then~ a man to be beloved? - 56 - o monstrous fault to harbour such a thought! Then, since this earth affords no joy to me But to command, to check, to O'bear such As are of better person than myself, I'll make my heaven to dream of the crown. And while I live't account this world be hell! Untill my mishap'd trunk thank bears this head Be round impaled with a glorious Crown. A more positive and optimistic philosophy is covered by such authors as Bleakley in her work series Despite Disability (1974)in which she presents factual accounts of career achievement by handicapped people. From the standpoint of a pastor, Wilkes, who is himself disabled, has inspiring reflections compressed in Creating the Caring Congregation (1981). Milton, the British Statesman who became blind in his laterlife and turned to serious writing, summarizes the inherentoptimism in his continued existence even in the face of handicapping disability in his renowned sonnet On His Blindness (1966) when he ponder s When I consider how my light is spent Ere half my days in this dark world and wide, And that one talent which is death to hide, Lodged with me useless, though my soul more bent To serve therewith my Maker, and present my ·true account, lest He returning chide; "Doth God exact day labour, light denied? I foundly ask. But patience, to prevent That murmur, soon replies, "God doth not need Either man's work or his own gifts. Who best Bear his mild yoke, they serve him best. His state - 57 - Is kingly. Thousands at his bidding speed And post o'er Land and Ocean without rest; They also serve who only stand and wait. At a symposium during the International Year of Disabled Persons, 1981 sponsored by the International Centre For the Disabled in collaboration with United Nation-Organization, discussion centered on the disabled in literature. Leslie's Fear: Myths and Images of the Disabled in Literature Old and New (1981) presents fascinating reading. Currently, interest in sport and recreation has increased as part of the comprehensive rehabilitation services disabled persons require. This is seen as helping disabled individuals to live balanced, independent lives. In a publication entitled Leisure, Sports Activities and Holidays For Disabled People (1984), the picture is given of the development in the area in Europe.Rehab Brief (1981. 1) reports that Sports benefit both disabled and able bodied individuals by developing competitive spirits, self Discipline, Self respect, and comradeship- attitu4es that ~re essential for the disabled person's successful reintegration into the community. Through recreational pursuits, disabled persons derive pleasure and personal satisfaction, a feeling of physical fitness, and just plain fun. Also, group activities help the disabled person make friends and grow socially. - 58 - A publication which has discussed the socio-economic viability of disabled persons is Rehabilitation Interna- tional's The Economics of Disability edited by Hammerman and Maikowski (1981). It is based on the 90 paragraph recommendations of the findings of the United Nations Expert Group meeting on the socio-economic implications of investments in Rehabilitation for disabled persons submitted in December, 1977. The editors have incorporated theore- tical exposition, backed with extensive summaries of litera- ture on disability, rehabilitation, economic and social issues, cost-benefit analysis, labour market and manpower policies, social security and disability benefit systems. The book is written from an empirical perspective and (. has proved invaluable in the formulatio~ o~ this stud~. This review of literature has tended to defy confinement to problems of essentially Vocational Rehabilitation a~d ~~?loy~ent provision for disabled persons only because of the need to treat the vocationally handicapped person ln / tota1ity tak ing into accoun t the pertinen t characterLsttc.; problems which f eature in efforts tc .i.nt eqrate them into the society's s09io-economic mainstream. In their overview text on Vocational Rehabilitation of the Disabled, Malikin and Rusalem (1972)- have undercored the due weight which should be apportioned to the diverse needs of the dis3bled. In the text Di Michael (15) remarks in a typical mode that - 59 - In vocational rehabilitation, remunerative emp- loyment is one of the primary goals, but not the exclusive one. To some people it is like waving a red flag before a bull to speak of remunerative employment as a goal of special importance. Before beginning to look like the charging bull to such matadors and receiving the verbal coup de grace, we should hasten to add that by this time it must be clear that there is no personal antipathy to the complete desira- bility of "Comprehensive rehabilitation," ."independent living rehabilitation," the basic unassailable value of "human dignity" and all the other precepts. We must however, give serious thought to such a goal in keeping with the nature of man, tte value of work, and the vitality of the vocational rehabilitation programme to-date. S~ver31 texfs on rehabilitation o~ the disabled have adooted :~is totalist view. A leading Re~abilitation Scholar, !,';right(1980) in ni s book Total r<.ehabilitation discusses resources assess~ent, counselling, and placement. Golderson, ~L!;:l:3m and Dunham (1978) in their j o i nt ly ed'fted " text Disability and Rehabilitation Ha~dbook have also taken a wide ranging view 0 f the subject . Cull and Hardy (1972) have presented, like the aforementioned Malikin and Rusalem, an ~erican view of Vocational Rehabilitation: Profession and Process in their book which throws background light on vocational rehabilitation; starting with.its history which, in the VrritedStates of America, dates back to the 1920s. - 60 - It articulates philosophical considerations, expounding on the rehabilitation process before turning to the Rehabilit Counsellor who is the chief architect and supervisor of service provision to the rehabilitation client. Like Wrig Malikin, Rusalem and Goldenson et. al., in the mentioned texts, the joint authors explain the role and requisite educational and tr~ining qualif~cat~~~&~~ of rehabilitation professionals " Part five of the book gives an illuminatin account of the rehabilitation client, adjustment to disabi and ends with a discussion of the needs of the older adult Part six of the book deals with interdisciplinary aspects, the rehabilitation process. Other authors on rehabilitation treat several individual tl = 0 :..:.0 n a ~~ :;,}c~ :Je 5 (1 9 -;8) -:-.2. \.-e s~.s :.e r:..J. t i~.::~~.c 0 ~ =- .:. ~ e :! .3:' l artlclea app~aring in dif~e~ent publications and :ournals over several years and have used them to make a case of th, evolutionary founding of the profession of Rehabilitation----- ...-- c u~s~ li'0 ~ith its uniqce approaches and certificat~o~ 0 the one hand, and defining the scope and subject matter, on' other, in Rehabilitation Counselling: Theory and Practice Carnes treated the subject from the European standpoint, He discusses into appreciable detail European programmes -' in Great Britain, Sweden, The Netherlands, France and Yugosla A comparable study t'eratirir.- Voca tiona 1 Rehabi 1itation progt in Great Britain, ~orway, De~mark and Pol~~d to the Kenya~ carried out by Ayodo (1986) .• - 62 - market. Specific programmes for target groups in the pc tion have been started. In response to the swelling prc which has become worse with the passage of time of teen primary and secondary school leavers, the Na t i onaI Christ Council of Kenya and with subsequent support and co-ordi of the Government, started the Youth Polytechnic Movemen The aim was to provide craft training and eventual self employmertr-- for the school leaver population who had no of continuing with formal education or being absorbed in established public vocational training programmes. The rationale for their establishment was set out in the doc After School What? (N.C.C.K., 1966). The Vocational Re habilitation Programme, also mooted about the same time the Government of Kenya with the assistance of Internati Labour Organization had the objective of providing skill training to disabled working age Kenyans for gainful e~ ment- as explained in Sessiona_ Paaer ~umber 5 0: 1968 (Kenya, 1968), Towards Restoration of Security (Kenya, 1 and The Vocational Rehabilitation Program.'"!1eIn Kenya (Ke 1980) . The validity of both the Vocational Rehabilitation and l (formerly village) Polytechnic Programmes are reviewed t respectively, the International Labour Organization (I.l U.N.D.P., 1987) and Ayot (1987). The role of non-formal training and employment programmes in Kenya's economy he been well recognized. The celebrated I.L.O. employment report On Kenya ,(I.L.O. 1972) ,:for instance, singled the informal see-tor as:having- immense- potential- for-employme - 63 - creation. King (1977) further investigated the role of the informal sector vis-a-vis education in Kenya. An in depth discussion of The Informal Sector In Kenya was conductedpy the Institute of Development Studies (1977) at the University of Nairobi. Since the large majority of Rural Vocational Rehabilitation Centres' 9raduates are meant to work on small scale self employ- ment projects as artisans- with the tool kit provided to them by the Government, the ex-trainees can be seen as having joined the Kenyan informal employment sector. Ndua and Ng'ethe (1984) in their consultancy report Educa- tion, Training and Welfare in the Informal Sector have recommended invigorated Government financial support to this sector which they found to be econo~ically viable. Makau (1985) in Educational Planning and Develop ent in Kenya has reflected upon t~~ self ~~plo~-=ent ob~~cti~~5 0: the new educational curriculum. Kiny an j u i, (1988) has underlined the concept of ensuring provision of a relevant curriculum for women to enhance their participation in soci:)-.ico nom i c development, i:1a correscond i nq wav to the spec ia1 provisions advocated for disabled persons. Economists whose writings have touched on the role of vocational education, non formal education and employment have been Foster (1966) whose Vocational School Fa lacy in Development Planning has provided a reference point in the debate on academic as opposed to vocational educatio:1 in developing countries; Corassini (1977) on When Should Vocational.Education Begin;- Hunter, Borus, and Mannan (19 - 64 - on Economics of Non Formal Education and the Report of Conference and Workshop on Non-Formal Education and the Rural Poor (Niehoff, 1976). Recently, Metcalf (1985) in Economics of Vocational Training attempted the same by measurement of outputs. A critical view reminiscent of that of Foster, has been recently expressed by Castro (1987, 603) when he notes Vocational education appears to be in the hands of people and institutions responsible for other aspects of labour market policy. And so, pre-occupied as they are the dismal employment prospects facing most countries, rich and poor, it is unemployment rather than training that gets most attention. Another reason is the poor performance of several vocational education and training programmes, particularly in the Third World. When these fail - and sometimes they do - the failures are highly visible. The mis- match between what is offered and what is expected by graduates and employers has been documented in numerous well researched studies, and the short-comings of vocational education and training have been subjected to m~ch critical analysis. General education may not be fairing any better, but its dysfunc- tion is not as obvious. Court and Kinyanjui (1988) have given a contemporary contextual reflection on the role of vocational educa- tion and training in their-comprehensive review of Education and Development in Sub Sahara Africa: The - 65 - Operation And Impact of Educational Systems. The review carries close resemblance to the recent World Bank policy paper already cited. Evans (1981, 11) poses \ pertinent questions to be taken into consideration when formulating a non-formal education programme when he observes Non-formal education presents a challenging problem for today's educational planners. The diversified nature of the activities included in non formal education poses dif~~ cult questions for those wishing to apply systematic traditional planning procedures to this field. What purpose can and should non formal education serve? How should these activities be related to formal education? Can non formal education be effectively ?la~ned, a~d if so, i~ ~hat ~ays a~d by whc~? with increasing atte~tion a~d resources bei~g given to non formal education i~ many cou~tries today the competences of educational planners must be developed and expanded to include effective ~ethods of ~orking i~ this area of educational planning. Taking the case of rural development, Coombs (1971) has illustrated f om programmes from different countries how non formal education has been utilized in working to eliminat.e rural. poverty . .Since Vocational Rehabilitation Progammes as known in developing countries are the creation of, and are operated in very .close consultation .with, th~ International Labour - 66 - Organization, the researcher's first attention to the subject was drawn to the publications emanating from that source, giving information on the disabled, and specifications on conducting their programmes. Inter- national Labour Standards on Vocational Rehabilitation (I.L.O., 1984) is a basic text. The programme of Vocational Rehabilitation was instituted by the I.L.O Recommendation No.168 of 20th June, 1983 entitled Voca- tiona1 Rehabilitation and Employment (Disabled Persons) {;(~).rr Recommendation, 19~3. The full text is attached in this thesis as an appendix. Convention Number 159 of the same title and date was also passed (I.L.O., 1983). All the three International Labour Organization instruments with explanatory notes for implementation are contained in the single publication. Abe (1986, 19-20) has summarized the main features of the International Labour Organization standards as - equality of opportunity and treatment for all categories of disabled people - men and women. - corrc ret e measures to create jobs for disabled people, including financial incentives to employers, support for the creation of production workshops, various types of sheltered workshops, small-scale industries and co-operatives of disabled. people; and the elimination of physical and communication barriers; - 67 - - organizing services for disabled people, with the fullest possible community participation, particularly by associa- tions for employers, workers and disabled people; - training of rehabilitation personnel; - promotion of rural services by means of mobile rehabilitation units, training of community rehabilitation workers, loans and grants to encourage the formation of co-operatives and self employment; - equal employment policies; - disabled people and their organizations to be consulted on planning and implementation of policies affecting them; - social security schemes should assume res- ponsibility for the development and running of vocational rehabilitation services. A how to-do-it text is I.L.O.s (1982) Basic Principles of Vocational Rehabilitation of the Disabled largely used a handbook by I.L.O. experts on Vocational Rehabili- tation working in different parts of the world. In its five chapters, the publication throws light on the concept and development of Vocational Rehabilitation, then Vocational Assessment and Work Conditioning, Voca- tional Guidance, Vocational Training and Retraining, Placement and right through to employment of disabled persons. The methods of organizing a vocational rehabilitation centre are set out in Vocational Assessment and Work Preparation Centres for the Disabled (I.L.O., 1974). - 68 - The standardized terminology used in Vocational Reh litation is all compiled and defined in the three rn United Nations Organizations Languages: English, Sp and French is a single glossary entitled Vocational Rehabilitation and the Employment of the Disabled: Glossary (I.L.O., 1981). Legislation from over 100 countries from various parts of the world on Vocati Rehabi~itation is reviewed in Vocational Rehabilita Services for Disabled Persons: Legislative Provisio (I.L.O., 1983). A publication dealing with a relab subject is Comparative Study on Legislation, Organi and Administration of Rehabilitation Services for ti Disabled (U.N., 1976). This publication, however, ( not confine its subject to Vocational Rehabilitatiol only; it deals ~ith medical and social re~abilitati( as well. The importance attached to the subject 0: employmen as the soal of Vocational Rehabilitatio~ is ur.dersc< by the sizeable number of International Labour Orga. publications. The Manual on Selective Placement ( 1984) which was first published in 1965, has appear· in a revised edition as the authoritative tp.xt for placement officers for the disabled. Ada~tation of for the' Disabled (.I.L.0.',·11973).was published in an effort to try to widen the employment possibilities for the disabled as recommended in the already refe to .LL ..O.:.Re'commendation.Number 9-9 of 1.955. - 69 - A useful report on employment creation for disabled persons containing papers presented at a conference in Sweden under the heading Work for the Disabled: Voca- tional Rehabilitation and Employment Creation (I.L.O., 1980) can be read alongside other publications like The Role of Government Employers and Trade Unions in the Vocational Rehabilitation of Disabled Workers (I.L.O., 1982) and Co-operatives for the Disabled: Organization and Development (I.L.O., 1978) as a possible strategy for finding employment for disabled persons. The challenging problem of the Vocational Rehabilitation of the Mentally Retarded is tackled in a report of a seminar organized by I.L.O. (1978), while an example of the currently much discussed community based rehabi- litation services is reported in Community Based Rehabi- litation Services for the Disabled (I.L.O., 1982). The International Labour Organization Director General's Report to the International Labour Conference in 1981 entitled Vocational Rehabilitation of the Disabled: Full Participation and Equality (I.L.O., 1981) is a comprehensive state-of-the art resume on the programmes of Vocational Rehabilitation as conceived and run by the International Labour Organization as at 1981. It is a summary of the contribution of the International Labour Organization to the vocational rehabilitation of disabled persons. - 70 - In addition to the publications already cited, the journal International Labour Review sometimes carries quality articles on vocational rehabilitation and employment of disabled persons. Publications on Kenya's Rehabilitation Programme Most of the publications on Kenya which were consulted during this research were not confined to Vocational Rehabilitation. They covered all aspects of disability problems and programmes. As already mentioned, the legal basis for the establishment of the Vocational Rehabilitation Programme is the Sessional Paper Number~ 5 of 1968 (Kenya, 1968). Closely related to it was the account of progress recounted in Towards Restoration of Security (Kenya, 1970) which includes brief descriptions of the work leading charitable organizations such as the Association of the Physically Disabled of Kenya, Kenya Society for the Blind, Salvation Army, Kenya Society for Deaf Children and the Kenya Society for Mentally Handicapped Children have done for the disabled. In 1976, the International League of Societies for the Mentally Handicapped (Sterns, 1976) published a report of a survey covering selected developed and developing countries, which included Kenya, of the social and economic conditions of the mentally retarded. The country report on Kenya covers locally run programmes for the disabled - 71 - up to 1971. The summary of findings is in part two on the developing countries. Addressing itself to the prevention of disability before it plays havoc with the life of Kenyans is the report of the International IMPACT (KENYA) seminar which was conducted during the launching of the programme in Kenya in November, 1984. The report summarizes The Nairobi Declaration (U.N.D.P., 1985) and recommends emphasis on provision of primary health services, secondary prevention, attention to water associated disabilities and accidents as the .strategy for eliminating avoidable disablement and, thus, enhancing the existence of a disability free,healthly population capable of engaging in productive work. The Declaration records disability incidence as follows - Blind persons - Physically Disabled Persons - Deaf Persons 180,000 400,000 300,000 One very curious observation in the disability incidence data is that the professionals, while conceding that the number of the mentally retarded persons is most probably higher than for other disabilities, they have not supplied a guesstimate. The Declaration quotes President Daniel arap Moils IMPACT (KENYA) launching speech on the need for - 72 - A new approach and dimension in fighting disability through the~deliberate efforts to prevent its occurrence in our society. In 1980, the ~orwegian Agency for International Development had a short survey conducted on services for the disabled, mai~ly relati~g to its technical assistance to the Asso- ciation for the Physically Disabled of Kenya (Pausewang and Sobones, 1980). While in the first place it concentrates on the recipient association, it goes on to take into account other organizations of the handicapped and recommends increased provision for the disabled in the form of educational and vocational rehabilitatio~ opportunities on the lines ~rovided by the Government, public education to cultivate a more favourable attitude towards the disabled, and i~tenslfication o~ efforts on disability Tt~ K~nya ~ational Council of Social Service which is t~~ ~arast3t3: organization c~3rs~d with r~sponsibility of co-ordinatins all the charitable orsanizations in the country, has been responsible for the organization of several se~inars and the issue of useful publications through its standing committee on the handicapped. The Dire tory of Voluntary Organization in Kenya (K.N.C.S.S., 1988) contains information on charitable organizations, including those serving the disabled, most of them affiliated to the_Council .. The:Social .and Vocational: Rehabilitation - 73 - Resources Vol.l (I.L.O., 1984, 63-77) carries information on rehabllitation facilities on Kenya. Many of the entries require up dating, however. A precise description of Kenya's approach to rehabilitation, ~ith re~erence to the rura 1 areas, and cover anq the exper .i.rr.e nta1 comrnuni based rehabilitation is contained in Attitudes and Acoroac Towards Rehabilitation in Kenya with an Emphasis on Rural Areas (Ayodo, 1985). A study by Kamau (1986) addressed the occupational aspirations of the physically handicapped and reco~~ended increased efforts o~ creating public awareness and more realistic occupational g icance institutions. M2Jeh'Sr(i (1985) has produced A Manual for Cornmu:1ity Based Rehabilitation. The first twenty pages gi~e l~ dcta1.l the approach the Department of Social S2r~ices ""·3.Sadopt i no in its introduction of cO::-_~'.l:1it\·3a.sec Re~abilitation. The report on the Natio~al ~or~shop on Traini:1g Needs of the Disabled conducted by the ~ation, Council of Social Service at Kakamega (K.\..C.S.S., 1981) consists of papers presented by participants and has resolutions aimed at improving serV1.ces for disabled persons addressed t.ov Gov ernmen t.: Ministries', the council itself and Civic bodies. The same year, 1982, saw two more workshops. organized by. the Kenya" Na t ionaI Council or,Social. Service on. the. subjects bf: Ment aI Har.di cap - 74 - Two papers on services for the blind In ~ those included in the ~roceedings of the quennal Conference (I~ter~ational Council of the Visually Handicapped, 1983). Fi tc concentrates on the teachers of the blind programme at Highridge Teachers' College while Mwangi (267-272) presents the pligh in Kenya from the viewpoint of a helper. The Special Education Section produced a on the Disabled (Auka and Mc~eel, 1980) a information to the public during the nati the disabled, on t~e se~:ices 3vailable f i:1 the country. h brni . . h IT e su ITilSSl.O:1 In t e pu' •: t:-:·, \!::.is':r:es.:: Ec uc a t i.o r;, EI suggestions ai~ed at i~pr~vlng the con~lt disabled both .i r: the c c ur. t r ,' a r.d at t he - Se ve ra l pub Licat io ns or. \'~catio!!al Rehab: ~elfar~ of the disabled h3~~ been publis~ circulated by the Divisio~ of Vocational of the Department of Social Services ov' half of .this decade. They are of intere 0: rehabilitation in Kenva because the d as the S.ecretariat of the Na t i oria I RehabL. wh i ch co+o rd i ria tes all the services for - 75 - rendered by Government Ministries and Voluntary Organizations. The official publications reflect Government policy on the disabled and also outline the plans of implementation. An outline of the role played by the Division of Vocational Rehabilitation in providing training and resettlement facilities for the disabled is given in the booklet The Vocational Rehabilitation Programme in Kenya (Kenya, 1980). Apart from the information it gives on the voca- tional rehabilitation centres, it gives a justification for the programme and an estimation of the incidence of disability, based on international estimates. The publication, which needs updating, is the most informative single publication on Vocational Rehabilitation in Kenya. A summary of the Kenyan vocational Rehabilitation Programme is given in the African Rehabilitation Journal of November, 1986 (Ayodo, 1986). The deliberations of the 1981 workshop and subsequent conference on the Disabled are summarized in a single publication (Kenya, 1984). The recommendations are incorporated in the Plan of Action for the 1980s (Kenya, 1983). The publication outlines programmes the Government intends to implement for the improvement of the welfare of the disabled for the period 1981 to 1990, in corres- pondence with the United Nations Organization's decade for the disabled. - 76 - The rationale for Kenya's outstanding participation in major national and international sporting events for the disabled is outlined in the speech of the Minister for Culture and Social Services, printed in the brochure 1890 Kenya's Olympic Disabled Team (Ayodo, 1980). Signi- ficance has been given to programmes for the disabled in successive Government four year Development Plans. The 1979/83 Development Plan, apart from identifying the disabled as a handicapped socio-economic target group, also gave a detailed forecast for expansion (Kenya, 1979). Attention is given to the role of Vocational Rehabilitation Division and the plans for expanding vocational training and resettlement facilities for the disabled as part of the overall need for development of human resources in the 1984/88 Development Plan (Kenya, 1983). RESEARCH,EFFICIENCY AND EVALUATION IN VOCATIONAL REHABILITATION The problems posed by the provision of services for disabled persons call for a dire need for a constant examination into wide ranging subjects covering disabling "-conditions, incidence of disability, medical rehabilitation, special education, vocational rehabilitation, psychological and social rehabilitation, rehabilitation programme administration, selective job placement and activities of daily living. During the course of this study, the researcher came across a good number of publications - 77 - and monographs dealing with investi~ntive efforts aimed at improvement of services for disabled persons. The researcher made special efforts to obtain the bulk of the research literature from the United States of America and they have a bias on Vocational Rehabilitation. A text found to be valuable was Wright and Trotter's (1968) Rehabilitation Research which gives an outline of the various traditional areas of rehabilitation research up to 1965. Areas dealt with are cardio-vascular disease, cele- bral-palsyepilepsy, mental and personality disorders, mental retardation, neurological disorders, orthopeadic disorders, respiratory and pulmonary conditions, aging and chronic illness, homebound disabled, rural disabled, workmen's compensation, workshops and centres, evaluation, prediction, counselling and counsellors, special studies, administrative or programme studies and additional projects in vocational rehabilitation. Fundamentals of Evaluation Research in Vocational Rehabilitation co-authored by Cook and Cooper (1978, 7) of Arkansas Rehabilitation Research and Training Centre is a standard text covering topics ranging from concepts to the mechanics of design and data processing. The researcher felt particularly intrigued with the authors' case for the need for programme evaluation and accountability in social action programmes when he asserts •Perhaps the greatest influence in spurring - 78 - the development and conduct of prcgramme evaluation was, and is, a political awareness of dwindling of the vast sums of money spent on various social pro- grammes. The current mood of "less is more" in government seems certain to carryover into the 1980's and programmes such as vocational rehabilitation will continue to be held accountable. Bolton has written several books on rehabilitation research which introduce the concepts, methodology and case study illustrations. Bolton and Cooper (1980) in Readings in Rehabilitation Counselling Research, although having a slant for counselling, throws light on rehabilitation research theory, design, programme evaluation and research utilization in rehabilitation apart from specialized topics like assessment of outcomes, prediction of outcomes, factor analysis and case weighting systems. The book consists of articles contributed by various rehabilitation researchers. The authors say on page 5 concerning current issues in rehabilitation research, that Rehabilitation research is a discipline concerned with the problem of adaption to disability and handicap. Rehabilitation research is a special discipline in that it possesses a basic knowledge of how to assess the medical and behavioural problems asso- ciated with disability. Rehabilitation is distinct from disciplines concerned with prevention of and treatment of disease or disorder ••.• - 79 - Bolton (1979) in Rehabilitation Councelling Research has dealt with statistical evaluation ln rehabilitation in addition to other topics mentioned in the preceding text. Weisinger, Robinault and Bennet (1975) of the Institute of Crippled and Disabled Rehabilitation and Research Centre in New York in Vocational Rehabilitation Programme Evaluation: Selected Readings, have edited a useful text on evaluation applicable to rehabilitation, written by several authors under the three sections; basic issues, models and approaches, and techniques in evaluation. Chapter 17 is devoted to cost-benefit analysis in vocational rehabilitation. A closely related publication form the same institution is Robinault and Weisnger's (1975) Programme and Evaluation: Selected Topics For Vocational Rehabilitation. Spaniol (1979) in Follow-up Studies: Selected abstracts had summarized model follow-up studies in Vocational Rehabilitation which are precursors to this study. Reagles (1979) in his masterly text A Handbook For Follow-Up Studies in the Human Services has provided an almost indispensable guide on follow-up studies where he discusses design, execution, and utilization of the research. In the early stages of this study, the annual Research Directory of the Rehabilitation Research and Training Centres (1981) compiled by the National Institute of Handicapped Research proved a constructive indicator of examples of possible researches which could be - 80 - contemplated for young Vocational Rehabilitation Programme in a developing country like Kenya. The reported on- going, planned and completed research projects from the American Universities with vocational Rehabilitation as core research area, were a particular attraction to this researcher. It is unfortunate that the directory has been out of publication since 1982. Rehab Brief, already cited brings to the rehabilitation researcher and practitioners a focus on latest research in a shortened discussion Rehabilitation advances in the United States of America. This researcher found the back issues for 1983 and 1984 quite informative on a number of Vocational Rehabilitation topics. The Journal of Rehabilitation has provided interesting current researches from different parts of the world, thus introducing in this researcher's literature perusal an element of internationality as opposed to concentration on United States of America originated reasearch publications which have been relatively more accessible. The African Rehabilitation Journal aims at publishing material useful to furthering the interest of, and improving the situation of disabled persons in the African region (July, 1984). The Australian Disability Review carries informative articles on rehabilitation (1984). Administration of rehabilitation programmes and facilities is the concern - 81 - of Journal of Rehabilitation Administration (1982) while at the local scene, the Journal of East African Research and Development carries articles on topics including the handicapped (1983). Brief summaries of British researches on the disabled have been compiled by Sandhu, Hamilton and Hood (1983) in a Directory of Non Medical ~ese~rch Relating to Han~ic~~2ed People. At a more general level several publications are important in helping one to conceive a study of this nature in a wider perspective of evaluation research. Texts found useful were Suchman's (1967) Evaluative Research: Prin- ciples and Practice in Public Service and Social Action Programmes, Davis' (1974) Evaluating Educational Investment and Cooley, and Paul's (1967) Evaluation Research in Education. The Pro~eedings of the Fifth Congress of the International Association For the Scientific Study of Mental Definciency as edited by Mittler and De Jong (1981) presented a collection of research based pepers delineating the frontiers of knowledge in mental retardation. The Keynote address by the Association's incumbent President, Dr. M. J. Begat on page XXI states, in part Mental retardation is a universal problem. No society has as yet managed to escape its • - 82 - social consequences. For the individual so handicapped, self fulfilment is often an unattainable goal. For the fami ly, it is a psychological burden, often characterized by chronic stress with potnntially devasta- ting impact on family as?irations and sta- bllity. Communities and societies are no less vulnerable, because few can afford the wastage of human resources, .their most precious asset. The cost of domiciliary care, of special programmes in education and training, of clinical diagnosis and biomedical treatment, and of under-achievement and under- productivity runs into billions of dollars annually. Even these stlggering economic costs, ~owever, cale into insi~ni:icance when compared to the effects of hu~an trauma and mlsery. for displaying efficiency in adm i n i ster i r.q proqramrnes :or the disabled. Apart :rom the already mentioned 1.:".0. ?roject e~alu3tic~ reoc rt 0:-. t r:...:i\~r:.:.:::::. \"ocetior:al. - Rt.::-- .ab i Li ta t i on Pr oq rararne, the As soc i a t ion for the Physically Disabled 0: Kenya had two different r~~orts on the runnine of its projects which have pointed to the r:ced :or increased efficiency. The first rp.~ort (A.P.D.K., _980) called for regard for cost c f f cc t i vc nc ss in allocation of resources to institutions of the.disabled. It sinsled out Bombolulu G.3rdcns at thcCo~st Pro~i::.cc as o?~rating under fairyland conditions with inexhaustable funds at its disposal! In 1984, another repor: on the adrninis~ratior: n: the - 83 - Association of the physically Disabled of Kenya was produced, wi th recommendations for improved e ffecti veness, sponsored, as the other report was, by the Norwegian Agency for International Development, NORAD. Kenya should not be seen to be alone when cost effective- ness is under discussion in connection with programmes for disabled persons. The grim economic situation facing all deve loping coun tr ies, char act erLzed; by dwindl ing resources in the face of escalating demand for goods and services, thus militating against the realization of 09timum standards of living is reverberated by Marfo, ~alker and Charles (1983) when they note that The vast maJcrit~ of t~2 ~orld'5 million Cisabled 8erso~s live in develc91n9 countries today. a~d it is estimated that by the year 2000, t~e de~elo?i~; ~orld ~il: account :or more tha;. eighty percent of the wo rLd I s d i saLle-d pO;:'-..:.:..3t:10:-..... SC<=r- I :t:> I/1 ~I I I I \ \ ,. Co.-.-..' I N D I /\ ~l I' . ..._ •.•1:..-;.;;;..~::;.;•••..••..•.•-:=.: ;.......;.--......it C E'NTRf:S ., N KENYA,iOCAilON ~L ~E HASf LITATI ON i<>.nal H ha.b.i.1.i.t.a. ion Centres in. K nya_ NSTITUTION DISTRICT PROVINCE NO _ ADMI'l"l'ED TRADE ~riranjas Rural Voca- .ional Rehabilitation 'errt re . Murang'a Central 60 Tailoring, Traditional Crafts, Leather work, Agriculture, Woodwork and Knitti Kabarnet Rural Voca- Baringo tional Rehabilitation Centre. Rift Valley 50 Woodwork, Tailoring, Leatherwork, Metalwork, Traditional Crafts ~adarua Rural Voca- .Lona l, Rehabilitation :entre. Nyandarua Central 60 Spinning and Weaving, Leatherwork, Tailoring, and Agriculture. ~ura Rural Vocational Taita Taveta ~ehabilitation Centre Coast 50 Tailoring, Woodwork, Leatherwork, Agri culture and Traditional Crafts ~mbu Rural Vocational Embu ~ehabilitation Center Eastern 50 Tailoring, Woodwork, Leatherwork, Leatherwork, Traditional Crafts, Agriculture Kisii Rural Vocational Kisii Rehabilitation Centre Nyanza 65 Tailoring, Traditional Crafts, Leatherwork and Agriculture Kericho Rural Vocatio- Kericho nal Rehabilitation Cnt. Rift Valley 50 Leatherwork, Agriculture, Traditional Crafts, Woodwork and Tailoring. ..../Cont. INSTUTION DISTRICT PROVINCE Kakamega Rural Voca- tional Rehabilitation Centre. Kakamega Cloth Printing, Agriculture, Tailoring, Woodwork, Leatherwork, Traditional Crafts. Western 50 Itando Rural Voca- tional Rehabilitation Centre. Kakamega Home Science, Leatherwork, Tailoring, Agriculture, Traditional Crafts. Western 50 Odiado Rural Voca- tional Rehabilitation Centre Busia Leatherwork, Woodwork, Agricultur Tailoring. Western 50 Industrial Vocational Rehabilitation Centre Nairobi Nairobi 100 Typing, Shorthand, Telephony, Book-Keeping, Metalwork, Tailorir Woodwork, Leatherwork, Book Printing. TOT A L 635 - 96 - Population Sample A total of three hundred and fifty one (351) ex-trainees of Rural Vocational rehabilitation Centres were visited at random at their working places in their home environments. The follow-up covered a total of twenty one districts out of the total 41 districts in Kenya, namely Kiambu, Kirinyaga and Murang'a in Central Province; Kilifi, Kwale and Taita Taveta in Coast Province; Kitui and Machakos in Eastern Province; Kisii, Kisumu, Siaya and South Nyanza in Nyanza Province, Baringo, Elgeyo Marakwet, Kajiado, Laikipia and Trans Nzoia in Rift Valley Province; Bungoma, Busia and Kakamega in Western Province. Thus, at least one district was covered in all the seven rural provinces of Kenya where the disabled ex-trainees of the Rural Vocational Rehabilitation Centres are settled in self employment. The choice of districts visited, as well as that of the individual clients were done by simple random sampling. Several other districts were also visited but the researcher tried to trace the ex-trainees, also referred to as clients, without success. Location of the ex-trainees was made possible with the assistance of the extension officers of the Department of Social Services and Social Workers "in local authorities. The 351 clients who were interviewed cut across the geographical, ethnic and economic spectrum of rural Kenya as can be seen from the Table 3: 2 below. - 97 - Table 3:2 Sample of Disabled Ex-Trainees Interviewed. PROVINCE DISTRICT NUMBER INTERVIEWED Central Kiambu 15 Kirinyaga 16 Murang'a 9 Sub Total 40 Coast Kilifi 2 Kwale 6 Taita Taveta 2 Sub Total 12 Eastern Kitui 28 Machakos 20 Sub Total 48 NorthEastern Mandera 1 Nyanza Kisii 19 Kisumu 7 Siaya 11 South Nyanza 13 Sub Total 50 RiftValley Baringo 8 Elgeyo Marakwet 26 Kajiado 4 Laikipia 4 Trans Nzoia 6 Sub Total 48 Western Bungoma Busia Kakamega 44 13 95 Sub Total 152 Grand Total 352 - 98 - Research Instrument A questionnaire was used in the follow-up study. It was divided into three sections: the first part solicited background demographic information of the ex-trainee, the second part the vocational rehabi- litation training received while the last part concentrated on information about the employment position. The follow-up questionnaire was personally administered to the ex-trainees by the researcher with the assistance of the local Social Workers who, in most cases, were known to the clients. Reaching the ex-trainees proved time consuming and expensive because of special transport used and persons involved in loccation. The questionnaires were administed to the 351 respondents over a period of six years, ending in 1989. During the period, the researcher had the support of the Ministry of Culture and Social Services, the Naional Council of Science and Technology, and Moi University, respectively. The study was, essentially, a one-shot follow-up (or tracer) survey in which effor s were made to visit the disabled ex-trainees only once at their post vocational rehabilitation settlement or resettlement situation. In order to test for the vadility , the questionnaire was administered-=- to a few ex-trainees whose responses indicated its efficacy in eliciting required data. Method of Data Analysis The data has been calculated manually by the researcher using a pocket calculator and the results are expressed in percentages. - 99 - In determining the profitability of the Vocational Rehabilitation Programme, the ration of costs to benefits has been computed in cost-benefit model. An additional method used to determine the programme's worthwhileness is the rate-of-return analysis. The formula used for calculating rate of return is: n Bt - Ct (1 ± r) t = 0> t = 1 where n = Number of years income is earned B = net benefits of the project C = cost of the project T = time (1 ± r) t = Rate of discount CHAPTER FOUR RESULTS AND DISCUSSION In this chapter, the results obtained from the questionnaire responses which was administered to the disabled ex-trainees of the Rural Vocational Rehabilitation Centres are presented. The tabulated date is analysed and discussed with' each independent variable influencing the ultimate resettlement position of the rehabilities focussed on separately. An effort is made to relate the results to two objective of the study, namely:- (i) Examining the efficacy of the vocational rehabilitation programme in resettling the rehabilities. (ii) Attempting a cost - benefit analysis of Government involve- ment in the Vocational Rehabilitation Programme. The discussion attempts to test the two hypotheses that:- (i) There is a significant difference in the form of returns acruing to trained disabled persons from their lifetime earnings as compared with their untrained counterparts. (ii) There is marked difference between the returns realized from earnings accruing to a trained disabled person and that from an able bodied person in a comparable programme. The major dependent variable looked at by the study instrument is the settlement/resettlement status of the disabled ex-trainee as determined by the income accruing after vocational rehabilitation training. Some independent variables considered by the questionnaire are sex, the duration of training, the trade of specialization, income from regular trade, tool kit and additional income. AlegebraicaUy, it can be stated:- Income (Resettlement) Adequency = f (Sex, Training, Trade, Duration, Tool Kit, Additional income. In subsequent pages, an attempt is made to examine each variable. - 100 - Sex of Respondents Of the 351 disabled ex-trainees interviewed 263 or 75% were males and only 88 or 25% were females. Most of the women tended to prefer Tailoring, Weaving, Spinning and Knitting, with very few opting for Woodwork, Leatherwork, Agriculture or Printing. Men, however, spread across all the six major trades, with a greater concentration on Leatherwork and Tailoring. Table 4:1 below summarizes the data. Table 4:1 Sex of Respondents Sex Male Female Number 263 88 351 Percentage 75% 25% 100% Duration of Training Most of the respondents, 198 which comprised of 56% indicated they had trained for two years while 143 which comprised of 40% showed they had spent one year in residential vocational rehabilitation training, 9 or 3% indicated they spent three years. - 101 - Table 4:2 below summarizes the data:- Table 4:2 Length of Vocational Rehabilitation Training. Period One Year Two Years Three Years Number Percentage 41%144 198 9 56% 3% 351 100% Trade The respondents indicated they had trained in six major trades inthe following descending numerical order: Leatherwork 146 or 42%, Tailoring 123 or 35%, Woodwork 54 or 15%, Weaving/ ~inning or Knitting 14 or 4%, Agriculture 5 or 1% and Cloth Printing4 or 1%. Some 10 or 3% of the respondents did not indicatethey had trained in any of the trades for self- employment. The data is summarized in Table 4:3 below:- - 102 - Table4: 3 Trade of Specialization of Respondents Trade Number Percentage Leatherwork 146 42% Tailoring 123 35% Woodwork 54 15% Weaving/Spinning/. Knitting 14 4% Agriculture 5 1% Printing 4 1% None Indicated 10 3% 351 100% 1001Ki t Adequacy ~rly all the respondents indicated they had been provided lith a tool kit at completion of vocational rehabilitation nining. They, however, gave strikingly 4ifferent responses ~n asked whether they considered the tool kit adequate in itartingthem off in self employment. While the majority, .9ar 51% found it satisfactory, 159 or 45% considered it insuf- 'icient. Some 13 respondents or 4% indicated they had not :eceivedany tool kit. The information is summarized in Table :4 below. - 103 - Table 4:4 Adequacy of Tool Kit provided to Respondents Response Number Percentage Adequate Not Adequate No Indication 179 159 13 51% 45% 4% 351 100% Mditional Income A large majority of the respondents, 284 or 81% indicated theyrely on the income they earn from the regular self- employment in the trade in which they were trained at the fucational Rehabilitation Centre and have no extra source. Some 67or 19%, however, indicated they had supplementary income. ~ly few of them gave figures as to how much they earned from theextra sources. The Table 4:5 below summarizes the data:- ~~le 4:5 Additional Source of Income For Respondents Response' Number Percentage Additonal Income 67 19% No Additional Income 284 81% 351 100% - 104 - Resettlement Whenasked whether they regarded themselves as settled in self-employment, 199 or 57 % of the respondents indicated they were settled while 152 or 43% saw themselves as not satisfactorily settledand gave reasons such as inadequacy of the tool kit, ~oblems with finding affordable premises to work in~ local charges and finding a market for finished products. The Table 4:6below summarizes the data:- Table4: 6 Settlement Status Status Number Percentage Settled Not Settled 199 152 57% 43% 351 100% IncomeFrom Regular Trade Animportant determinant of self reliance in resettlement for theself employed disabled ex-trainees of Vocational Rehabili- tationCentres is income accruing from the trade. Some 89 or 25% of the respondents indicated that they were earning an income of between KShs. 101/= to KShs. 200/= per month; 36 or 10% indicatedthey had a monthly income of between KShs. 201/= and ~hs 300/=; 18 or 5% had a monthly income of between KShs. 301/= and KShs. 400/=; 5 or 1% had an income of between KShs· - 105 - 401/= to Kshs.500 per month; 30 or 7% had an income of between Ksh.501 to Kshs.1,000 a month and only 9 or 3% indicated they had a monthly income of above Kshs.1,000 A large number, 98 or 28% of the respondents gave no sepecific figures of their income. The Table 4:7 below gives a break- down of the income figure, thus:- Table 4:7 Monthly Income of Respondents from Regular Trade. Amount of Income in Number PercentageKShs. per month 1 - 100 89 25% 101 - 200 75 21% 201 - 300 36 10% 301 - 400 18 5% 401 - 500 5 1% 501 - 600 10 3% 601 - 700 7 2% 701 and above no response 98 29% 351 100% - 106 - From the responses, it is apparent that information on income from the disabled ex-trainees of the Vocational Rehabl1itation Centres was not easy to get. Income Sufficiency When asked to state whether or not the income they get from their self-employment was sufficient to maintain them and their dependants, only 62 or 18% of the respondents expressed satisfaction. The rest, 289 or 82% indicated it was not enough. Information is,given in Table 4:8 below: Table 4:8 Adequacy of Income of Respondents Response Adequate Inadequate 62 18; 289 351 82~ 100~ Age 0: Respondents: ~ost of the respondents, 228 or 65~ gave their age as being between 21 and 30 years, while 86 or 25% gave their age as being between 31 and 40 years. Only 18 or 5% were under 20 years - 107 - old while those aged above 41 were 13 or 4%. The Table 4:9 below summarizes the data: Table 4:9 Age of Respondents Age Range Number Percentage Below 20 years 18 5% 21 - 30 years 228 65% 31 40 years 86 25% 41 - 50 years 13 4% 51 and above 1 02% No Response 5 1% 351 100% DISCUSSION ~e Cost of Vocational Rehabilitation Training Directinvestment in the vocational rehabilitation of disabled ~rsons can be seen in terms of the expenditure incurred by the Departmentof Social Services in running the national programme. In the current financial year 1989/90 the Government allocated KShs.11,684,000 to be spent on the programme's current expenses. ~e tan operational Vocational Rehabilitation Centres cater for atotal of 635 disabled trainees with an average training periodof 18 months (the ex-trainee responses gave 40% as having taken one year and 56% as having taken two years). - 108 - Foreach financial year, the Government therefore spends an averageof KShs. 18,400/= for recurrent expenses per rehabili- tee. For the average training period of 1~ years, that would come toKShs. 27,600. The Expenditure figures are got from the AnnualRecurrent Estimates while the enrolment figures were fuundin the Department of Social Services. Sinceadmission for Vocational Rehabilitation training does notpresuppose previous school attendance, the assumption isthat expenses on it constitute the only investment in h~an resource development to take into account. When it isfound necessary to teach functional literacy to the rehabi- litee,it is done within the context of their essentially rocational rehabilitation training. ~ere is not much difference to the rehabilitees in terms oftraining cost between the various trades because no fees arepaid for tuitio~maintenance,~ tool kits by them and theirfamilies. Monthly allowance is provided to cater for traveland out-of pocket expenses. A trade such as tailoring ~comes expensive at graduation because the sewing machine ~ich is a major ciomponent of the tool kit costs much more than thecomponents of the tool kits provided for the other trades. A complete leatherwork tool kit, for instance, costs roughly KShs. 5,000/= and so does a Woodwork, Agriculture or Knitting md Weaving tool kit. A tailoring tool kit costs about KShs. 10,000.00. This, in effect, makes Tailoring bound to have a lowersocial rate of return. The same would apply to a trade - 109 - like Metalwork with essential welding equipment costing over KShs. 14,000/= as a component of the tool kit. None of the respondents trained in Metalwork were interviewed, it being a course introduced over the last three years only in the Rural Vocational Rehabilitation Centres. It is the author's contention that for most of the fairly severely disabled persons undergoing training in Rural Vocational Rehabilitation Centres, the opportunity cost in termsof foregone earnings is not a major component of the total training cost. As compared to vocational training of the non-disabled youth in the Youth Polytechnics, the cost of vocational rehabili- tation training is bound to be much higher since, in addition to the provision of special equipment for mobility and availa- bility of medical rehabilitation personnel such as nurses, physiotherapists or occupational therapists, the cost of whose services have to be included in the total training costs, boarding costs are also included. Youth Polytechnics are mostly non residential training insti tutions which are run by theOccupational Instructors and partial cost of purchases of training equipment. The trainees pay fees for tuition, andmeet travel, accommodation and out of pocket expenses. Sincethe expenses of training are partially borne by the traineeand his/her family, it would mean that the priv.ate ~ternal rate-of-return would be much lower than is the case withrehabilitees in Rural Vocational Rehabilitation Centres. - 110 - f The able bodied youth of comparable education, age and socio-economic background can be regarded as potential recruits to the agrarian labour force and the loss of suc earnings while undergoing Vocational training in the Yo~ Polytechnics is a valid opportunity cost to be added on t the other direct training costs. with the recently intrc cost-sharing strategy for most educational and vocationa~ training institutions, it would appear that unless the p< of providing vocational rehabilitation training entirely Government expense is also reviewed, potential private r to the disabled will be fairly high, thus encouraging mo clients to participate in the programme. Returns To Vocational Rehabilitation The extent of success of vocational rehabilitation erfol judged by the earnings acruLng, f r.om -:the sel f-employment ties of the ex-trainee. In a case where the ex-trainee no previous job pri or to admission for vocational rehal tation training, it is referred to as settlement. Wher, ex-trainee has a job which was interrupted by the onset disability, getting down to a post vocational rehabilit training job is referred to as resettlement. Satisfact settlement/resettlement can be seen .to be largely deter by the amount of income earned by the ex-trainee. A di ex-trainee who earns an income from his/her regular trc which would.compare to_spme.standard.minirnum income in - III - similar environment, thus ensuring enjoyment of a minimum standard of living, can be regarded as being satisfactorily , resettled/settled. One such standard could be the minimum monthly wage in the rural areas as set by the government which is currently Kshs. 600 Alternatively, the national income per capita per month coming to Kshs.500 can be used. The responses from the ex-trainees gave a disappointing picture of their resettelement/settlement position. Altogether, 61% of the respondents indicated they have an income of below KShs.400 monthly. With a non-response from 98 interviewees or 28% of the total number of respondents have incomes accruing fromtheir post training self-employment which is above KShs.500 per month. ~st of the respondents, 65%, indicated their ages ranged between 21 and 30 years and another 25% aged between 31 and 40 years. Assuming a normal working life of up to the age of55 years which is Kenya I s age of compulsory retirement ingovernment, it can be estimated that many of the disabled inthe vocational rehabilitation training programme start wrking from the age of about 20 years, which gives them a wrking life of approximately 35 years. That can be seen as the period when returns to investment in vocational reha- Mlitation training can be realized in the form of earnings fromself-employment in the trades the rehabi1i tees had ~ecialized in. Taking KShs.200 per month as close to the meanearning of the respondents, the life-time earnings of ilierespondents can be KShs.200x35x12 = Kshs.84,000 This ~uld give a Cost: - 112 - ben~fit ratio of 1:3. Thus over the life-time of the disabled ex-trainees, overall benefits as a result of vocational rehabi- litation training outstrip the costs by 300%. This has, however, not taken into account the fact that the entire cost of vocational rehabilitation is borne by the society while the benefits accrue largely to individual disabled persons. Social Rate of Return With the stream of income calculations in the foregoing paragraph of KShs.200 per month for a period of 35 years and assuming a rate of interest charged by government parastatal funding establishments such as the Industrial Development Bank or The Kenya Industrial Estates at 14% and also assuming the cost of training one disabled person overa total period of one and a half (l~) years at Kshs.27,600, the social rate of return to investment in Vocational Rehabilitation training can be given by calculating theformula: n Bt - ctv- = 0r)t1 (1 + Where n = Number of years income is earned B = net benefits of the project C = Cost of the project t = time 1 + r = Rate of discount - 113 - The social-rate-of-return to the investment in vocational rehabilitation training is comparable social rate-of-return, to investment in education are 21.7% for primary, 19.2% for secondary and 8.8 % for universi ty. The private rate-of-return of investment in vocational rehabilitation training is 55% Compared to other rate-of-return to investment in various levelsof education in Kenya such as primary (32.7%), secondary (30%), university (27.4%) (Psacharopoulos, 1973, 59) it is apparent this is an attractive return rate. This isas a result of the almost zero expenditure incurred by the families of the disabled trainees while they are under- goingresidential training and during resettlement in self employment. It is assumed also that no foregone earnings ileinvolved as the alternative to training means a life of dependence for even basic activities of daily living on family members. Sincethe training cost is borne solely by the government, itmeans, therefore, that the social rate-of-return to investment in vocational rehabilitation training in Kenya ismuch lower than the private rate-of-return. This means thatwith increased earnings accruing to the disabled ex- traineesfrom self employment, the profitability of investment tothe government and the individual would be increased to quiteattractive levels. - 114 - Looked at in a broader perspective, the total benefits the, society realizes as a result of the economic self reliance of the disabled can be seen as transforming them from perpetual dependants on society and families into productive individuals contributing to national income. Their .conaumptLon capability gets enhanced and with it, the indirect tax contribution. They are thus turned from economic liabilities to social and economic assets. Thus account needs to be taxen of the costs of not providing vocational rehabilitation to disabled persons ln a population. Thus account needs to be taken of the costs of not providing vocational rehabilitation to disabled ~ersons In a population. Such costs would include assistance with activities of daily living and general maintenance such as provision of food, shelter and clothing, all o~ which would d~rect the family's and society's resources to meeting the costs of dependence. Depending on the severity of disability, a person or persons could be assigned to cater for the needs of the disabled member of the family. Apart from providing vocational training, vocational rehabilitation training prepares the rehabilitees to cope with their essential daily needs on their own. Although it may not be readily quantified, the economid value of those important components of vocational rehabilitation training, a ready comparison needs to be made with the view 'society has of the consumption dimensions of - lIS; - educationwhich is accommodated as an indispensable component of thefunct i.oriof education for which society and families have to ~y dearly in the face of competing demand for limited resourcesby other sectors of the economy. Just like education, rocationalrehabilitation of the disabled can be treated as a Erit good, the provision of which needs to be ensured by ilieGovernment so as to ensure some minimum basic needs and standardof Li.vLnq for a sizable sector of the population. ~en the costs and returns of education are being computed, ~count is taken of the opportunity cost of the time of studentswhich they are spending on acquiring education but ~ich they could spend on doing productive work for which they could be earning income. In the case of the disabled ex- traineesof the ruraI vocational rehabili tation centres coveredin this study, the researcher assumed minimal earnings furegonebecause of the physical toning up and development of ilierehabilitees' residual productive capacity. without rocationalrehabilitation intervention, little economic value us conceived of the productive potentialities of the reha- Mlitees. The value added to their residual vocational capa- dtiescan be seen as conspicuous in a rural setting with the ~~isition of the level of income arrived at with the data in this study. VocationalRehabilitation and Employment ~ problem of findirig employment for the disabled is addressed - 116 - by the Kenyan vocational rehabilitation programme. For -the responses to the researcher's uestionnaire, the ex- trainees have shown a general effort to settle/resettle in their trades and utilize the skills inculcated during the period of training and earn incomes through self employment in the rural areas. They acknowledge the problems which they experience in the process and wish them ameliorated, which also suggests appreciable psychological preparation for employment. It provides an example of a case where, in a rural situation, employment is being generated and where the kind of training offered lS directly relevant for the potential job opportunities in the rural environment. This can be looked at in the light of the experience of the hitherto much dis- cussed mismatch between the education provided to the youth and the available Job opportunitles, resultl~g In school leaver u~employment. The craze for the acquisition of certificates whose values have progressively deteriorated over ti~e which has been a critizised charqteristic of the Kenyan educa- tional syste~ has been absent in the ~ural vocational rehabili- tation training where emphasis has been on attendance and skill acquisition. The advocacy for vocationalization of the formal education which is . now acclaimed in the 8:4:4 educational system in Kenya is highlighted in the programme. What seems apparent is the desire to have the settlement/ resettlement resources enhanced so that the disabled ex- trainees realize a more_sustaining income level comparable - 11 7 - to those prevailing in the rural small scale businesses run by <. a-rtisans with government suppo r t such as Jua Kali (Open Air) enterprises. In their responses to the questionnaire, the disabled ex-trainees and Social Workers supervising t~ei performance in resettlement have recommended increased assis tance to secure business premises, loans, raw materials and marketing of their products. Efficiency in vocational Rehabilitation From the questionnaire responses, it is clear that while the average training period in the Rural Vocational Rehabili· tation Centres is one and half years, a good number of res- pondents indicated their training lasted one year only while sore indicated as long as three vears. Since the trainir.s currie 'lum for the institutions . . ~ -lS unl.J..or::1or the varicus trades except for Traditional Crafts, a review with a view to making the length of time uniform and shorter while main- taining skill level could be :easible: The Rural Vocational Rehabilitation Centres are built to standard specifications in terms of physical structures for accommodation and training. Records held in the Department ( Social Services and a personal visit to the institutions by researcher confirmed this together with enrolment figures. institutions could easily increase their intake of trainees - 118 - '"an optimum operational capacity, thus greatly reducing the overhead costs of vocational rehabilitation training and at the same time increasing the supply of the sought for training opportunities. An optimum Occupational Instructor/trainee ratio could be considered. In the questionnaire responses, the ex-trainees did not complain about the training given at the institutions and the facili- ties they enjoyed while there. With the apparent adequate facilities, there could be room for improving the potential competitiveness of the graduates of the Rural Vocational Reha- bi1itation Centres by ensuring high levels of skills attainment. The role of literacy in successful business operations, espe- cia1ly in record keeping could be critically looked at. All these foregoing reflections could have the effect of maximizing the use of the available vocational rehabilitation resources and, thereby, ensuring the full utilization and return to every shilling spent on the training and employment of the disabled. Equity In Vocational Rehabilitation Fromthe questionnaire responses, it can be observed that graduates of the Rural Vocational Rehabilitation Centres engagein income generating activities in the rural areas ~ose returns are quantifiable in terms of earnings per month. - 119 - Th~expenditure outlay lavished by the Government for the institutional_ training of the disabled constitutes an invest- ment in human resources development. Because the costs of vocational rehabilitation training are fully borne °by the Government and, like other similarly financed educational programmes, the larger proportion of returns accrue to the individual in the form of lifetime earnings, its income distribution potential could be considerable. It could be used to increase incomes for the poor whose ability to meet educa- tional and training costs for themselves and their offsprings is limited. There is generally a direct relationship between disability and poverty in that disability limits an indivi- dual's productivity and at the same time calls for special oe}fl}~n=anHFeo to counteract its effects by the individual and the family, thus diverting scarce resources from other uses. To the rich, ~overnment financed vocational rehabi~itaLion can be seen as tantamount to a subsidy from the tax paye~s in the same vein that free education has been criticized of unduly benefiting the rich at the expense of the poor. If vocational rehabilitation were to be used ln servlng the ends of equity and distributive justice in the same way the education system in Kenya is currently being made to serve, attention could be focussed on the distribution trend of vocational rehabi~itation institutions. From the questionnaire responses, it appear-s- - that apart from the disproportionate geographical concentration of disabled -120 - ex-trainees, there is also a disproportionate respresentation of the sexes. The location of the operational Rural vocational Rehabilitation Centres also reflect a disproportionate geographical concentration. By the time of completion of this study, construction work was underway at Garissa ln North Eastern and Machakos in Eastern Provinces. Most of the res- pondents covered by this study had orthopeadic or physical disabilities. None of them had mental retardation while very few had visual handicap or deafness. Vocational rehabilitation services for these other disabilities need to be stepped up. CHAPTER FIVE CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS This study has brought out to the researcher a number of issues which need focussing upon by policy makers, service providers, administrators and consumers of vocational rehabilitation services which are outlined below in this concluding chapter. CONCLUSION~: 1. Human Resources Development The conceptualization and running of the Kenyan vocational rehabilitation programme and recognition of the productive value of disabled persons in an overall attempt to mobilize the entire manpower in the country into participation in produc- tive work, thereby contributing towards creation of national wealth is underscored in the Literature review. Vocational rehabilitation training which aims not only at imparting working skills and attitudes but also at ensuring requisite medical rehabilitation and continued physical capability of the residual abilities of the disabled is a conscious effort to develop human capital by the Kenya Government. Apart from the desire to uphold dignity through provision of an essential service to a disadvantaged group in the population, investment considerations feature prominently in the provision of vocational rehabilitation for disabled Kenyans. The consistent budgetary expenditure pattern by the Government on the Special Education and Vocational Rehabilitation Programmes is a manifestation of commitment to uplift the welfare and productive capacity of the disabled. - 122 - 2. Employment The Kenyan vocational rehabilitation programme performs an effective training and resettlement role for the disabled. Most of the clients who went through the programme in the rural based institutions and were traced in this study ended up finding an occupation in which they have settled as self- employed persons with incomes. The training curriculum manages to equip them with relevant skills and attitudes for their self-employment in the rural areas. The programme's approach fits in with Kenya's policy of emphasizing creating employment opportunities in the rural areas especially in the small scale informal sector. It seems. to be one strengthened in the general attack on unemployment in the country alongside others such as the youth polytechnic movement and the youth centres. It is encouraging to note that the Department of Social Services is trying to reinforce, with the assistance of the International Labour Organization, the programme by introducing supplementary initiatives such as the Community Based Rehabilitation which de-emphasizes the costly institu- tionalized training, sheltered employment schemes for groups of severely disabled rehabilttees , working co-operative movements and loaning facilities as borne out in the Literature review. 3. Earnings of Rural Vocational Rehabilitation Graduates This study has come .up with fairly low levels of earnings for the ex-trainees of Rural Vocational Rehabilitation Centres, approximately one third of the legal monthly minimum wage for rural areas. While the income is considered by the researcher, as inadequate for maintaining a disabled graduate at a decent - 123 - minimum standard of living in view of the reduced chances he has for engaging in complementary income earning activities, the researcher sees it as a substantial private return to the graduate who never met the cost for vocational rehabilitation training and whose earnings foregone during the period was negligible. The benefits in terms of total accruing lifetime earnings are treble the training costs met by the Government. There are other un quantifiable positive spill over effects to the community arising from the social and economic self reliance attained by the graduate which include enhanced participation in social activities, payment of taxes, or raising a family as in characteristic of all provision of education. This study has revealed significant high rates of return (55% private high rate -of-return to investment in vocational rehabi- litation and 26.3% social) which are much higher than hitherto realized in education in Kenya. 4. Efficiency in the vocational Rehabilitation Programme The cost of providing rural vocational rehabilitation training which stands at Kshs. 27,600/= for the H year training period is high and if it was to be borne by individual rehabilitees and their families, could be prohibitive. The survey of the enrolment pattern and the physical facilities in the rural vocational rehabilitation centres has shown that while each of the institutions has the. capacity of accommodating one hundred disabled trainees, the current average enrolment is only fifty (50) while the programme has a waiting list of about 5,000 applicants. There is, therefore, a crucial need to increase the internal efficiency in the programme. - 124 - 5. Equity Considerations Vocational rehabilitation training is capable, as demonstrated in this study, of cultivating income earning capacity of disabled persons and also generating employment for them. This income distribution role can be utilized to reduce the poverty levels of the beneficiaries of the programme and their families. Allocation of the resources for the programme such as the location of the institutions has been shown in the study to be concentrated in certain geographical areas of the country and also that provision of the facilities have tended to favour men rather than women as seen from the trades offered and the enrolment patterns. It is noted from the study that the quality of training offered by the various institutions is the same and so are the standard tool kits provided for the same trades. This could have the effect of equalizing incomes of the reha- bilitees, allowing only for individual physical and, or background differences. 6. Certification The Rural Vocational Rehabilitation Centres' practice of gearing training to pre-conceived self employment market has made it possible to ignore the prevalent concern for a recognized national certificate at the end of each cour se. Disabled graduates traced in this study have not indicated disillusionment with the certificates of attendance issued by the Department of Social Services, whose value does not equate with the trade certificate issued by the Directorate of Industrial Training in the Ministry of Labour. This can be seen as an example of playing down the value and role of examinations and - 125 - certificates which critics of the formal education systems have been reiterating. But, most likely, with the increase of artisan competition for rural markets for their Jua Kali made products, a higher degree of skill mastery may be required to ensure markets for disabled extrainees of the Rural Vocational Rehabili- tation Centres. 7. Disability categories From the responses in the questionnaire and also from the Literature survey services provided by the Government belong to the orthopeadic or physically handicapped category as contrasted with the deaf, blind and mentally handicapped. RECOMMENDATIONS: 1. Follow-up activities for the disabled ex-trainees of Riz-al Voca- tional Rehabilitation centres need to be strengthened and the findings utilized as the basis for continued improvement of the general physical and productive condition of the disabled ex-trainees. These should include a general review of self reliance status as judged by the competence with which the Activities of Daily Living (A. D. L.) are discharged, on the one hand, and the in-service training to up date vocational skills, on the other hand. / 2. Initiatives aimed at providing self employment for disabled ex-trainees of rural vocational rehabilitation centres should also .take .inte "aceount arrangements for marketing ·their finished products and also consultancy .services on how .to sustain. viable enterprises. - 126 - 3. It is important that resettlement resources for the disabled ex-trainees of rural vocational rehabilitation centres be increased so that higher level of earnings can be realized, comparable to those earned by able bodied counterparts running small scale enterprises in the rural areas. It is desirable that the ex-trainees realize earning- equivalent to the prevailing minimum wage. The high private rate of return indicates a need to introduce an element of cost sharing so that families meet some costs of training the disabled, in line with the contemporary structural adjustment initiatives. 4. The overhead training costs in the rural vocational rehabilitation centres can be reduced by increasing the internal efficiency of the programe. This can be done by increasing the number of trainees so that the existing physical facilities at the insti- tutions are fully utilized. The training period can also be reduced while retaining the curriculum content. Some shorter courses can be introduced whose local marketability are proven. Cost effectiveness needs to be exhibited more in the process of training and resettling the rehabilitees. The existing Rural Vocational Rehabilitiation Centres can almost double their trainee capacity without lowering the quality of instruction with the exercise of more stringent efficiency measures by administrators of the programme. 5. The location of rural vocational rehabilitation centres should take. geographical considerations into account. Training curriculum and enrolment needs to cater for an increased proportion of disabled women. - 127 - 6. The rural vocational rehabilitation centres should consider offering trade tests as a measure aimed at ensuring high level skills for the rehabilitees. 7. Rural Vccational Rehabilitation centres should be built for the deaf, blind and mentally handicapped persons so that the benefits of vocational rehabilitation training is spread to disabled persons of all the four major categories. FURTHER RESEARCH IMPLICATIONS From the conclusions and recommendations of this study, there is need to conduct further research in the following areas on the Kenya Vocational Rehabilitation Programme:- (a) The rate-of-return to society and the individual beneficiaries of the Rural Vocational Rehabilitation Programme which has proved to be higher than in other educational programmes need further investigation, especially with a view to accommoda- ting graduates of the Industrial Rehabilitation Centre who are earning standard wages in the open labour market. (b) The relationship between the literacy and numeracy level of the disbaled ex-trainees and their post training performance, especially in self employment requires illumination. 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(1987) Terminal Report of KEN/85/015: Vocational Rehabilitation of Disabled Persons (Geneva, I.L.O/U.N.D.P) I.L.O./U.N.D.P Vocational Rehabilitation of Disabled Persons Kenya: Terminal Evaluation Report of KEN/78/004 (Nairobi, 1984: U.N.D.P) Kamau, Margaret Njoki A Comparative Study of the Occupational Aspirations of the Physically Handicapped Secondary School Students and the Actual Job· Placement of these Graduates (Nairobi, 1986: Unpublished M.Ed Thesis submitted at Kenyatta University) - 149 - Newspaper Articles Daily Nation, Thursday, 23rd June, 1988 Kenya Times, of 10th November 1984 Sunday Nation of 11th November 1984 Sunday Nation of 5th October, 1980 Sunday Standard of 5th October, 1980 The Standard of 9th November, 1984 - 150 - APPENDIX "A" Questionnaire for follow-up of Ex-trainnes of Vocational Rehabilitation Centres SECTION A Background Information' 1. Name of Trainee (underline surname) 2. i) ii) 3. Age Sex: Male years Female [Jo Marital Status: oSingle Marriedo Widowed 0 Divorced D 4. Dependants: i) Number of children supported by trainee ii) Number of other people supported by trainee 5. i) ii) iii) iv) v) vi) vii) viii) 6. Home address Sub-location Assistant Chief's Name Location Chief's Name District Province Postal address (if different from home address) i) Full name of father/guardian ii) Is father/guardian alive or dead? Alive , o Dead [j - 151 - iii) Occupation of father/guardian iv) Address of father/guardian v) Full name of mother vi) Is mother alive or dead? Alive 0 Dead vii) Address of mother 7. Disability of trainee SECTION B: Training 1. Rehabilitation centre attended 2. Period of training: From to 3. What trade did the trainee specialize in SECTION C: Resettlement l. How has the trainee settled? i) In self employment Yes 0 No D ii) In wage earning employment Yes 0 No 0 iii) Was the trainee provided with a Yes Notool kit? 0 0 iv) If (iii) if yes, is the tool Yes 0 No 0kit adequate? v) Indicate if not settled: Settled Notyet 0 Settled [ vi) His/h~r estimated monthly income from regular occupation Kshs. cts vii) Apart from the regular occupation for which he/she was trained, does the Yes 0 trainee have another source of income? No 0 viii) If answer to question (vii) above is yes, estimate the amount of extra income per month Kshs. cts - 152 - ix) If trainee has an employer, give the name and address of employer 2. i) What kind of occupation is the trainee involved in at the moment? ii) What problems does the trainee experience in his/her work? (Use the back of this sheet if space provided lS not enough) iii) Are there any charges levied by the local authority? Yes o No o iv) Please indicate the amountchargecl Shs. v) Does he/she experience any problems in obtaining a licence? Yes o No o vi) If (v) above is yes, then please explain vii) Is the income earned from the occupation sufficient to maintain the trainee? Yes ri No 0 viii) What development and or investments has the training made since settling? ix) Since he/she left the Rehabilitation Centre, how many times has the trainee been visited by a Government Officer? 3. Recornrnendatton/cornrnentof interviewing officer (use the back of this sheet if space provided is not sufficient) Name of interviewing officer Signature Designation Date ~ 153 - APPENDIX "B" ILO Recommendation 168 RECOMMENDATION CONCERNING VOCATIONAL REHABILITATION AND EMPLOYMENT (DISABLED PERSONS) The General Conference of the International Labour Organisatior Having been convened at Geneva by the Governing Body of the International abour Office and having met in its Sixty- ninth Session on 1 June 1983, and Noting the existing international standards contained in the Vocational Rehabilitation (Disabled) Recommendation, 1955, and Noting that since the adoption of the Vocational Rehabilitation (Disabled) Recommendation, 1955, significant developments have occurred in the understanding of rehabilitation needs, the scope and organisation of rehabilitation services, and the law and practice of many Members on the questions covered by that Recommendation, and Considering that the yea~ 1981 was declared by the united Nations General Assembly the International Year of Disabled Persons, with the theme "full participation and equality" and that a comprehensive World Programme of Action concerning Disabled Persons is to provide effective measures at the international and national levels for the realisation of the goals of "full participation" of disabled persons in social life and development, and of "equality", and Considering that these developments have made it appropriate to adopt new international standards on the subject which - 154 - take account, in particular, of the need to ensure equality of opportunity and treatment to all categories of disabled persons, in both rural and urban areas for employment and integration into the community, and Having decided upon the adoption of certain proposals with regard to vocational rehabilitation which is the fourth item on the agenda of the session, and Having determined that these proposals shall take the form of a Recommendation supplementing the Vocational Rehabilitation and Employment (Disabled Persons) Convention, 1983, and the Vocational Rehabilitation (Disabled) Recommendation, 1955, adopts this twentieth day of June of the year one thousand nine hundred and eighty-three the following Recommendation, which may be cited as the Vocational Rehabilitation and Employment (Disabled Persons) Recommendation, 1983. 1. Definitions and Scope In applying this Recommendation, as well as the Vocational Rehabilitation (Disabled) Recommendation, 1955, Members should consider the term "disabled person" as meaning an individual whose propospects of securing, retaining and advancing in suitable employment are substantially reduced as a result of a duly recognised physical or mental impairment. 2. In applying this Recommendation, as well as the Vocational Rehabilitation (Disabled) Recommendation, 155, Members - 155 - should consider the purpose of vocational rehabilitation, as defined in the latter Recommendation, as being to enable a disabled person to secure, retain and advance in suitable employment and thereby to further such person's integration or reintegration into society. 3. The provisions of this Recommendation should be applied by Members through measures which are appropriate to national conditions and consistent with national practice. 4. Vocational rehabilitation measures should be made available to all categories of disabled persons. 5. In planning and providing services for the vocational rehabilitation and employment of disabled persons, existing vocational guidance, vocational training, placement employment and related services for workers generally should, wherever possible, ~2 used ~~th a~y necessary adaptations. 6. Vocational rehabilitation should be started as early as possible. For this purpose, health-care systems and other bodies responsible for medical and social rehabilitation should co-operate with those responsible for vocational rehabilitation. II. Vocational Rehabilitation and Employment Opportunities 7. Disabled persons should enjoy equality of opportunity and treatment in respect of access to, retention of and advancement in employment which, wherever possible, corresponds to their own choice and takes account of - 156 - their individual suitability for such employment. 8. In providing vocational rehabilitation and employment assistance to disabled persons, the principle of equality of opportunity and treatment for men and women workers should be respected .. 9. Special positive measures aimed at effective equality of opportunity and treatment between disabled workers and other workers should not be regarded as discrimina- ting against other workers. 10. Measures should be taken to promote employment opportunities for disabled persons which conform to the employment and salary standards applicable to workers generally. 11. Such measures, in addition to those enumerated in Part VII of the Vocational Rehabilitation (Disabled) Recommendation, 1955, should include: (a) appropriate measures to create job opportunities on the open labour market, including financial incentives to employers to encourage them to provide training and subsequent employment for disabled persons, as well as to make reasonable adaptations to workplaces, job design tools, machinery and work organisation to facilitate such training and employment; (b) appropriate government support for the establishment of various types of sheltered employment for disabled persons for whom access to open employment is not practicable; - 157 - (c) encouragement of co-operation between sheltered and production workshops on organisation and management questions so as to improve the employment situation of their disabled workers and, wherever possible, to help prepare them for employment under normal conditions; (d) appropriate government support to vocational training, vocational guidance, sheltered employment and placement services for disabled persons run by non-governmental organisation; (e) encouragement of the establishment and development of co-operatives by and for disabled persons and, if appropriate, open to workers generally; (f) appropriate government support for the establishment and development of small-scale industry, co-operative and other types of production workshops by and for disabled persons (and, if appropriate, open to workers generally), provided such workshops meet defined minimum standards; (g) elimination, by stages if necessary, of physical, communication and architectural barriers and obstacles affect~ng transport and access to and free movement in premises for the training and employment of disabled persons; appropriate standards should be taken into account for new public buildings and facilities; (h) wherever possible and appropriate, facilitation of adequate means of transport to and from the - 158 - places of rehabilitation and work according to the needs of disabled persons; (i) encouragement of the dissemination of information on examples of actual and successful instances of the integration of disabled persons in employment; (j) exemption from the levy of internal taxes or other internal charges of any kind, imposed at the time of importation or subsequently on specified articles, training materials and equipment required for rehabilitation centres, workshops, employers and disabled persons, and on specified aids and devices required to assist disabled persons in securing and retaining employment; (k) provision of part-time employment and other job arrangements, in accordance with the capabilities of the individual disabled person for whom full-time ~mployment is not immediately and may not ever be, practicable; (1) research and the possible application of its results to various types of disability in order to further the participation of disabled persons in ordinary worki~g life; (m) appropriate government support to eliminate the potential for exploitation within the framework of vocational training and sheltered employment and to facilitate transition to the open labour market. 14. III. 15. 16. - 159 - 12. In devising programmes Lor the integration or reinte- gration of disabled persons into working life and society, all forms of training should be taken into considerat~oa; tnese shOUltl lnclude, where necessary and appropriate, vocational preparation and training, modular training, training in"activities of daily living, in literacy and in other areas relevant to vocational rehabilitation. 13. To ensure the integration or reintegration of disabled persons into ordinary working life, and thereby into society, the need for special support measures should also be taken into consideration, including the provision of aids, devices and ongoing personal services to enable disabled persons to secure, retain and advance in suitable employment. Vocational rehabilitation measures for disabled persons should be followed up in order to assess the results of these measures. Community Participation Vocational rehabilitation services in both urban and rural areas and in remote communities should be organised and operated with the fullest possible community partici- pation, in particular with that of the representatives of employers', workers' and disabled persons' organisations Community participation in the organisation of vocational rehabilitation services for disabled persons should be facilitated by carefully planned public information measures with the aims of: - 160 - 17. Community leaders and groups, including disabled persons themselves and their organisations, should co-operate with health, social welfare, education, labour and other relevant government authorities In identifying the needs of disabled persons in the community and in ensuring that, wherever possible, disabled persons are included in activities and services available generally. 18. Vocational rehabilitation and employment services for disabled persons should be integrated into the mainstream of community development and where appropriate receive financial, material and technical support. 19. Official recognition should be given to voluntary organisations which have a particularly good record of providing vocational rehabilitation services and enabling disabled persons to be integrated or reinte- grated into the worklife of the community. IV. Vocational Rehabilitation in Rural Areas 20. Particular efforts should be made to ensure that vocational rehabilitation services are provided for disabled persons in rural areas and in remote communities at the same level on the same terms as those provided for urban areas. The development of such services should be an integral part of general rural development policies. 21. To this end, measures should be taken, where appropriate, to: - 161 - (a) designate existing rural vocational rehabilitation services or, if these do not exist, vocational rehabilitation services in urban areas as focal points to train rehabilitation staff for rural areas; (b) establish mobile vocational rehabilitation units to serve disabled persons in rural areas and to act as centres for the dissemination Qf informatioI on rural training and employment opportunity for disabled persons; (c) train rural development and community development workers in vocational rehabilitation techniques; (d) provide loans, grants or tools and materials to help disabled persons in rural communities to establish and manage co-operatives or to work on their own account in cottage industry or in agricultural, craft or other activities; (e) incorporate assistance to disabled persons into existing or planned general rural development activities; (f) facilitate disabled persons' access to housing within reasonable reach of the workplace. v. Training of Staff 22. In addition to professionally trained rehabilitation counsellors and specialists, all other persons who are involved in the vocational rehabilitation of disabled persons and the development of employment opportunities should be given training or orientation - 162 - in rehabilitation issues. 23. Persons engaged in vocational guidance, vocational training and placement of workers generally should have an adequate knowledge of disabilities and their limiting effects, as well as a knowledge of the support services available to facilitate a disabled person's integration into active economic and social life. Opportunities should be provided for such persons to update their knowledge and extend their experience in these fields. 24. The training, qualifications and remuneration of staff engaged in the vocational rehabilitation and training of disabled persons should be comparable to those of persons engaged in general vocational training who have similar duties and responsibilities; career opportunities should be comparable for both groups of specialists and transfers of staff between vocational rehabilitation and general vocational training should be encouraged. 25. Staff on vocational rehabilitation, sheltered and production workshops should receive, as part of their general t~aining and as appropriate, training in workshop management as well as in production and marketing techniques. 26. Wherever sufficient numbers of fully trained rehabilita- tion staff are not available, measures should be considered for recruiting and training vocational rehabilitation aides and auxiliaries. The use of such aides and - 164 - disabled persons and their organisations, should be able to contribute to the formulation of policies concerning the organisation and development of vocational rehabilitation services, as well as to carry out research and propose legislation in this field. 33. Wherever possible and appropriate, representatives of employers', workers' and disabled persons' organi- sations should be included in the membership of the boards and committees of vocational rehabilitation and training centres used by disabled persons, which make decisions on policy and technical matters, with a view to ensuring that the vocational rehabilitation programmes correspond to the requirements of the various economic sectors. 34. Wherever possible and appropriate, employers and workers' representatives in the undertaking should co-operate with appropriate specialists in considering the possibi- lities for vocational rehabilitation and job reallocation of disabled persons employed by that undertaking and for giving employment to other disabled perons. 35. Wherever possible and appropriate, undertakings should be encouraged to establish or maintain their own voca- tional rehabilitation services, including various types of sheltered employment, in close co-operation with community-based and other rehabilitation services. 36. Wherever possible and appropriate, employers' organisa- tions should take steps to: (a) advise their members on vocational rehabilitation - 163 - auxiliaries should not be resorted to as a permanent substitute for fully trained staff. Wherever possible, provision should be made for further training of such personnel in order to integrate them fully into the trained staff. 27. Where appropriate, the establishment of regional and subregional vocational rehabilitation staff training centres should be encouraged. 28. Staff engaged in vocational guidance, vocational training, placement and employment support of disabled persons may experience and, within their competence, deal with the resulting needs. 29. Where appropriate, measures should be taken to encourage disabled persons to undergo trainingas vocational rehabilitation personnel and to facilitate their entry into employment in the rehabilitation field. 30. Disabled persons and their organisations should be consulted in the development, provision and evaluation of training programmes for vocational rehabilitation staff. VI. The Contribution of Employers'and Workers' Organisations to the Development of Vocational Rehabilitation Services 31. Employers' and workers' organisations should adopt a policy for the promotion of training and suitable employment of disabled persons on an equal footing with other workers. 32. Employers' and workers' organisations, together with - 165 - services which could be made available to disabled workers; (b) co-operate with bodies and institutions which promote the reintegration of disabled persons into active life by providing, for instance, information on working conditions and job require- ments which disabled persons have to meet; (c) advise their members on adjustments which could be made for disabled workers to the essential duties or requirements of suitable jobs; (d) advise their members to consider the impact that reorganising production methods might have, so that disabled persons are not inadvertently displaced. 37. Wherever possible and appropriate, workers' organisations should take steps to: (a) promote the participation of disabled workers in discussions at the shop-floor level and in works councils or any other body representing the workers; (b) propose guidelines for the vocational rehabilitation and protection of workers who become disabled through sickness or accident, whether work-related or not, and have such guidelines included in collective agreements, regulations, arbitration awards or other appropriate instruments; (c) offer advice on shop-floor arrangements affecting disabled workers, including job adaptation, special work organisation, trial and employment and the - 166 - fixing of work norms; (d) raise the problems of vocational rehabilitation and employment of disabled persons at trade union meetings and inform their members, through publica- tions and seminars, of the problems of and possibi- lities for the vocational rehabilitation and employment of disabled persons. VII. The Contribution of Disabled Persons and Their Organisations to the Development of Vocational Rehabilitation Services 38. In addition to the participation of disabled persons, their representatives and organisations in rehabilitation activities referred to in paragraphs 15, 17, 30, 32 and 33 of this Recommendation, measures to involve disabled persons and their organisations in the develop- ment of vocational rehabilitation services should include: (a) encouragement of disabled persons and their organisations to participate in the development of community activities aimed at vocational reha- bilitation of disabled persons so as to further their. employment and their integration or reinte- gration into society; (b) appropriate government support to promote the development of organisations of and for disabled persons and their involvement in vocational rehabi- litation and employment services, including support for the provision of training progralrrmesin self- advocacy for disabled persons; - 167 - (c) appropriate government support to these organisa- tions to undertake public education programmes which project a positive image of the abilities of disabled persons. VIII. Vocational Rehabilitation Under Social Security Schemes 39. In applying the provisions of this Recommendation, Members should also be guided by the provisions of Article 35 of the Social Security (Minimum Standards) Convention, 1952, of Article 26 of the Employment Injury Benefits Convention, 1964, and of Article 13 of the Invalidity, Old-age and Survivors' Benefits Convention, 1967, in so far as they are not bound by obligations arising out of ratification of these instruments. 40. Wherever possible and appropriate, social security schemes should provide, or contribute to the organisa- tion, development and financing of training, placement and employment (including sheltered employment) programmes and vocational rehabilitation services for disabled persons, ipcluding rehabilitation counselling. 41. These schemes should also provide incentives to disabled persons to seek employment and measures to facilitate transition into the open labour market. IX. Co-ordination 42. Measures should be taken to ensure, as far as practicable, - 168 - that policies and programmes concerning vocational rehabilitation are co-ordinated with policies and programmes of social and economic development (including scientific research and advanced technology) affecting labour administration, general employment policy and promotion, vocational training, social integration, social security, co-operatives, rural development, small-scale industry and crafts, safety and health at work, adaptation of methods and organisation of work to the needs of the individual and the improvement of working conditions.