<£,bt> r AN ANALYSIS OF CONTRIBUTION OF SATELITE CAMPUSES IN ACCESSING HIGHER EDUCATION: A CASE-OF THE UNIVERSITY OF NAIROBI BY MAINA GRACE WAMUYU E55/CE/14307/2009 A RESEARCH PROJECT PRESENTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF DEGREE OF MASTER OF EDUCATION (pLANNING), KENYATTA UNIVERSITY JUNE, 2012 KENYATTA UNIVERS\TY LIBRARY Maina Grace Wamuyu An analysis of contribution of ImIIIIII~~~II~~IIIIII~IIIIIIIIII~~Ililll! II~ 2012/407504 DECLARATION This project is my original work and has not been presented for a degree in any other university/ or any other award. Date ~ ..... Maina Grace Wamuyu E55/CE/1430712009 The project has been submitted with our approval as University Supervisors: ......~ . Date --- 9. S or \;7c....c.- l \ . Mr. K. Gatimu Lecturer, Department of Educational Management, Policy & Curriculum Studies, Kenyatta University Date Dr. J. K. A. Nyerere Lecturer, Department of Educational Management, Policy & Curriculum Studies, Kenyatta University 11 DEDICATION This study is dedicated to my husband Mr. Bernard Ndegwa and our three great loving kids Meghan, Jubilee, and Eddie. 111 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I acknowledge the power of God, the maker, and the provider of knowledge for enabling me to complete my two years in the right spirit. Most important, I sincerely wish to acknowledge the support from my supervisor Mr. Gatimu and Dr Nyerere, without whom I could not have gone this far with my project work. To all my lecturers who contributed in one way or another in quenching my thirst for knowledge I owe you my gratitude. I owe a great deal of gratitude to my family members for their unfailing moral support throughout my period of study and for understanding and appreciating the demand of the course in terms of time and resources. I cannot forget my classmates who influenced positively in my life and were a source of inspiration throughout my study and for assisting me in sourcing for information and materials for this project. To you all, God bless. IV ABSTRACT In Africa higher education is characterized by extremely low participation rates with the exception of South Africa. Access and equity in higher education in sub-Saharan Africa are fundamentally determined by access to and the quality of secondary education. However there is an increasing quest for higher education which has not been met satisfactorily. There is however need to assess the contribution of the satellite campuses in ensuring access and participation, as quality issue. The University of Nairobi is running several satellite campuses but studies have not assessed the feasibility of the programmes in increasing accessibility and participation. The purpose of this study was to analyze the contribution of satellite campuses to access to higher education. The study utilized the case of the University of Nairobi. The objectives of the study were i) To analyze the enrollment levels in the various courses offered at the University in the past 5 years; ii) To analyze the contribution of the satellite campuses in the enrollment levels in the University of Nairobi; iii) To determine the influence of accessibility of the campuses in participation of its current students in higher education; and iv) To determine the problems faced by the satellite colleges in ensuring access to higher education of the target population. The theoretical framework for this study focused on a theory of learning with specific reference to the theory of Communities of Practice. The research adopted a descriptive research design on a population of administrators and students in these campuses. The target sample was 36 administrators and 120 students of the University from the satellite campuses. Simple random sampling technique was used to recruit students in each of the satellite campuses into the study. Purposive sampling was used to sample the administrators in the campuses. Two questionnaires, one for administrators one for students was used to collect information from the study respondents. Piloting was done on a small representative sample that was not included in the study. This ensured pre-testing the instruments for validity and reliability prior to the main study. From the findings, most of the students in satellite campuses in University of Nairobi pursue business related courses, while very few pursue their masters or postgraduate studies in these campuses. The current enrollment levels in all the courses offered in the satellite campuses in the University was indicated by the administrators as having increased mainly due to expansion and availability of teaching staff. From the fmdings, the objectives for setting up satellite campuses by the University were to ensure opportunity to pursue university education is available to residents in various parts of the country with offerings particular to fields of study that characteristically have a low fmancial overhead. The study recommended that the University of Nairobi needs to develop more satellite campuses in the major towns in Kenya with considerable reduced fee. This will ensure more participation and access of higher education by students from many areas. More learning facilities as well as teaching workforce should be enhanced by the University to improve delivery of services in a concretemanner. v TABLE OF CONTENTS DECLARATION ii DEDICATION ., iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT iv ABSTRACT v LIST OF TABLES xi LIST OF FIGURES .. xii ABBREVIATIONS ~ xiii CHAPTER ONE 1 1.0 INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 Background 1 1.2 Problem Statement 5 1.3 Purpose of the Study 6 1.4 Objectives of the Study 7 1.5 Research Questions 7 1.6 Assumptions of the Study 8 1.7 Limitations of the Study 8 5f 1.8 Delimitations 8 1.9 Significance of the Study 9 1.10 Theoretical Framework 9 VI 1.11 Conceptual Framework 10 1.12 Definition of Key Terms 12 CHAPTER TWO .; 13 2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW 13 2.1 Introduction 13 2.2 The Role of the University in Higher Education 13 2.3 Nature and Mechanics of the Free or Low Tuition Fee Cut-Off 16 2.4 Access to University Education and Attendant Concerns , 22 2.5 Privatization of higher Education in Kenya 23 2.6 Universities and Globalization 25 2.7 Satellite Campuses and Higher Education 27 2.8 Educational Marketing 31 2.9 Demand Side Financing Versus Supply Side Financing in Education in Kenya 33 2.10 Challenges Facing the University Sector in Kenya 34 2.11 Summary and Conclusion 34 CHAPTER THREE 36 3.0 METHODOLOGy 36 3.1 Introduction 36 3.2 Research Design 36 3.2.1 Variables 36 VII 3.3 Study Locale 37 3.4 Target Population and Sample Size 37 3.5 Sample and Sampling Techniques ; 37 3.6 Research Instruments 38 3.7 Piloting 38 3.7.1 Validity 38 3.7.2 Reliability 39 3.8 Data Collection Procedure 39 3.9 Data Analysis and Presentation 40 4.0 DATA ANALYSIS, PRESENTATION AND DISCUSSION 41 4.1 Introduction 41 4.2 Findings on Background Information 41 4.2.1 Distribution of Respondents by Gender 42 4.2.3 Duration of Staff Working Life 44 4.2.4 Student High school Attended 45 4.2.5 Student Home Setting 45 4.3 Courses Offered in Satellite Campuses 46 4.3.1 Distribution of Students by Course 47 4.4 Enrolment in Satellite Campuses 49 V1ll 4.4.1 Nature of the Course Being Pursued by Students in Satellite Campuses 50 4.5 Contribution of the Satellite Campuses in Enrollment 52 4.5.1 Whether the Satellite Campuses Have Achieved their Objective 52 4.5.2 State of the Facilities of the Campuses 53 4.5.3 Levels of Staffing in Satellite Campuses 54 4.6 Problems Faced by Satellite Campuses 55 CHAPTER FIVE 57 5.0 SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 57 5.1 Introduction 57 5.2 Summary 57 5.2.1 Enrollment levels in the Various Courses Offered at the University 57 5.2.2 Contribution of the Satellite Campuses in the Enrollment Levels 58 5.2.3 Influence of Accessibility ofthe Campuses in student's Participation 59 5.2.4 Problems Faced by the U.o.N. Satellite Colleges in Ensuring 60 5.3 Conclusion 61 5.4 Recommendations 62 5.4.1 Recommendation For Further Studies 63 REFERENCES 64 APPENDIX I: QUESTIONNAIRE FOR ADMINISTRATORS 69 IX APPENDIX II: QUESTIONNAIRE FOR STUDENTS 71 APPENDIX III: OBERVATION SCHEDULE 73 APPENDIX IV: BUDGET ; 74 APPENDIX V: WORK PLAN 75 APPENDIX VI: RESEARCH PERMIT 76 APPENDIX VI: LOCATION OF U.o.N. EXTRAMURAL CENTERS 77 x LIST OF TABLES Table 4.1: Students' and Administrators' Gender 42 Table 4.2: Nature of the course being pursued by students ; 51 Table 4.3: Has the satellite campus achieved its Objective? 53 Table 4.4: Description oflevels of staffing in satellite campuses 54 Xl LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1.1: Conceptual framework 11 Figure 4.2: Distribution of Administrators by Age ; .43 Figure 4.3: Distribution of Students by Age 43 Figure 4.4: Administrators' Duration ofWorking .44 Figure 4.5: Student's home setting 46 Figure 4.6: Students enrolment in satellite campuses .49 Figure 4.7: Administrators' comment on the state of the facilities of the campus 53 KENYATTA UNIVERSITY LIBRARY XlI CE HELB ICT JAB JKUAT KACE KCSE PES SPSS UNESCO ABBREVIATIONS Continues Education and Program Higher Education Loan board Information Communication and Technology Joints Admissions Board Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology Kenya Advanced Certificate of Education Kenya Certificate of Secondary Examination Private Entry Scheme Statistical Package for Social Sciences United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization Xlll CHAPTER ONE 1.0 INTRODUCTION This chapter gives a brief introduction of the research study b~ looking into higher education from a global perspective and narrowing down to Africa, East Africa and specifically in Kenya. Kenya's public universities enrollment has also been highlighted. A statement of the problem justifying the need for research in satellite campuses in the University of Nairobi has been provided. The chapter explores the objectives, the research questions, assumptions, limitations and delimitations, significance, theoretical framework, conceptual framework, and definitions of key terms addressed by the study. 1.1 Background The topic of access to and participation in higher education has been in focus currently all over the world. This is compounded with the increased participation in the primary and secondary education resulting in demand for higher education. In Brazil, given the impressive expansion of higher education enrollment since the 1990s, the topic of access and social inclusion has become part of the federal government's priorities agenda. The official policy now focuses on improving the participation in higher education of students from low-income groups. But in formulating these policies, the federal government deals with the fact that higher education in Brazil is offered in very unequal proportions by its different providers (Musisi and Mayega, 2008). In Africa higher education is characterized by extremely low participation rates with the exception of South Africa. Access and equity in higher education in sub-Saharan Africa are fundamentally determined by access to and the quality of secondary education (Knight, 2008). 1 Higher education in Egypt faces four major challenges. The first and main challenge is severely overcrowded institutions resulting from the limited capacity to meet increased demands; the second is the increased cost resulting from the rising expenses involved with offering or getting higher education; the third is inadequate financing resulting from the continuous fall in public funding per student and the scarcity of supplementary funding; and the fourth is the predictable result of the first three: poor quality of education (Knight, 2008). In East Africa, Governments and university leaders introduced dual track tuition policies in East Africa in order to expand higher educational capacity (and hopefully quality) without introducing politically unpopular tuition fees upon all students and families. A particular form of tuition fee policy that has been labeled dual track appears to achieve some real revenue supplementation, but with problematic impacts on equity. Dual track tuition policies are characterized by a highly restricted, "merit-based" entry to free or very low cost higher education, with other applicants not so admitted permitted entry on a fee-paying basis. In Kenya, the assumed average cost of each degree program is Ksh 120,000 (US$I,5343) per year of which the government covers Ksh 70,000 (US$895) leaving the remaining Ksh 50,000 (US$639) to the student to raise from the Kenyan Higher Education Loan board (HELB) or private sources. Governmentally-sponsored students are entitled to a means-tested HELB loan that at best (and only for the poorest students) covers up to three quarters of educational and living costs for the year (Marcuccci et al., 2010). Public universities still dominate in enrolments, even though there are more private institutions. The total enrolments of self-sponsored students (Module II) at the University 2 of Nairobi (UoN) in 2004/2005 was more than the regular full-time students and also higher by 7,687 students than the enrolment in all private universities. Enrolments in the self-sponsored programmes are actually higher since many students are integrated (attend the same classes as regular students, as opposed to mainly evening and school-based study) in full-time study. What this attests is that public universities have been able to increase their internal capacity much faster than the private universities (Otieno, 2007). Kenya's school enrollment indicators have been somewhat above average for Sub- Saharan Africa as a whole. Deteriorating quality in the previously up-market public sector schools and universities is creating openings at the smaller, high end of the market for those who can afford high fees. Effective demand for schooling substantially exceeds supply. If present trends continue, the gap will certainly widen because of population growth, and the Government's fiscal difficulties and civil service inefficiency, which prevent the public sector from providing the quality of education demanded. Private schools and Universities can help bridge the gap between supply and demand. The number of private schools and enrollment has been rising rapidly. There are now over 600 private schools in Kenya, including twelve universities and numerous secondary and postsecondary vocational and technical schools. In spite of this rapid growth, there still is unmet demand, evidenced by long lists of students waiting for admission (Karmokolias and Maas, 2006). The provision of widely spread education and training opportunities has been a long- standing objective of the Government of Kenya. Since Independence, the Government has sought to address the challenges facing the education sector through a range of policy initiatives, often with mixed results (Otieno and Colclough, 2009). 3 The first step toward the introduction and development of university education in Kenya was taken in 1961, when the then Royal College, Nairobi, was elevated to University College status under special arrangement with the University of London. However it was not until 1970 that the University college of Nairobi attained University status. In just 30 years public higher education had expanded from a single University to 6 public Universities. In spite of this growth, public universities in Kenya have faced enrollments beyond their capacity to plan and finance, fiscal challenges beyond their control, a decline in quality beyond their anticipation, and weak management practices beyond their level of training (Oketch, 2003). There are currently7 public universities and 18 private universities in Kenya today. In addition, the demand for higher education has seen conversion of many mid level colleges and polytechnics to University colleges; for example the previous Nairobi and Mombasa polytechnics are now university colleges. While enrolment in the public universities amounted to 31,600 in the 1990/91 academic year, there were some 77,000 students enrolled in the public universities in 2005, of whom roughly 33,000 were privately sponsored (Mwiria, et al., 2006). The rapid expansion and higher admission in institution of learning has also been cited for compromising the quality of education offered in technical institutions. Technical, Industrial, Vocation and mid-level colleges have a distinct niche in the education landscape; 'that of providing technical skills necessary for technical and industrial growth. Furthermore these colleges provide courses that universities do not offer. The expansion of higher institutions however threatens learning and nature of qualifications offered by these institutions. Universities today are turning to mid-level colleges to 4 accommodate the large number of admissions both in the regular and parallel programmes. This has resulted in the conversion and upgrading of technical and mid- level colleges to university-college campuses. The upgrading of mid-level colleges which began in 1988 after a Presidential directive has witnessed over ten colleges and institutes upgraded to university colleges or constituents of main stream public universities. The public universities have worked to make university education more accessible by locating campuses near their target populations. JKUAT has done this through its Continuous Education Programme (CEP), which involves accrediting tertiary institutions located in various parts of the country to run its courses under the supervision of the university. The University of Nairobi's College of Education and External Studies offers programmes through its regional Extra-Mural Centres in Mombasa, Kisumu, Kakamega, Nyeri and Nakuru. Kenyatta University has also set up regional centres in all eight provinces of the country to manage its distance-education programmes. Similarly, universities that are located far from urban areas (such as Egerton and Moi Universities) have been compelled to set up campus centres in the nearest towns, including Nakuru and Eldoret. 1.2 Problem Statement The university expansions being experienced in Kenya have been partly influenced by demand from the working community. Part of these individuals probably did not have the chance for automatic entry immediately after the completion of their secondary education while others want a second or higher degree. Most of them are driven by the need to upgrade their certificates in order to become competitive in the job market. The satellite 5 colleges are situated in various towns to be able to accommodate the numbers of students and also to be close enough to the working communities so they do not have to leave work to attend university but rather take up evening and weekend classes (Chacha, 2004). The Mushrooming of satellite colleges have been criticized as being avenues of compromising quality of higher education (Mukabi et al., 2010). However there is an increasing quest for higher education which has not been met satisfactorily. This is evident from the large numbers of about 3000 Kenya students seeking University education in other countries every year (Mukabi et al., 2010). According to Mwiria (2007), the expansions have been curbed with a lack of clear mechanisms. He states that: There has been a large body of legislation that has been growing over the years and has created numerous problems, the most serious being; the absence of a mechanism for the determination and assess.mentof universal quality standards; chronic resource deficits for programme expansion, and research and staff development, and the lack of decision- making autonomy for the universities and ; the absence of a clear mechanism for the opening of satellite public university campuses across the country. The response to the growing demand for university education by expansion is vital, but mere expansion alone is not enough. There is therefore need to assess the contribution of the satellite campuses in ensuring access and participation, as we are doing on quality issue. The University of Nairobi is running several satellite campuses but studies have not assessed the feasibility of the programmes in increasing accessibility and participation. 1.3 Purpose of the Study The purpose of this study was to analyze the contribution of satellite campuses to access to higher education. The study utilized the case of the University of Nairobi. 6 1.4 Objectives of the Study The study was guided by the following objectives aiming at; 1. Analyzing the enrollment levels in the various courses offered at the University in the past 5 years 11. Examining the contribution of the satellite campuses in the enrollment levels in the University of Nairobi lll. Determining the influence of accessibility of the campuses in participation of its current students in higher education tv. Verifying the problems faced by the satellite colleges in ensuring access to higher education of the target population 1.5 Research Questions The study sought to answer the following research questions; i. What is the enrollment levels in the various courses offered at the University in the past 5 years? 11. How does satellite campuses contribute in the enrollment levels in the University of Nairobi 111. To what extent does the accessibility of the campuses influence the participation of its current students in higher education? tv. What are the problems faced by the satellite colleges in ensuring access to higher education of the target population. 7 1.6 Assumptions of the Study 1. The enrollment levels in the University have been varying in the past few years. The levels of enrollment in different courses in the University are relatively different. 11. The establishment of satellite campuses has enhanced enrollment in the various courses offered by the University 111. Geographical distance of the Universities hinders the prospective students from enrolling in the higher education. IV. There are challenges associated with setting up of satellite campuses 1.7 Limitations of the Study The study was conducted in the University of Nairobi including its satellite campuses. The University of Nairobi was chosen because it runs the highest number of satellite campuses distributed throughout the country. The University has been the one recoding the highest number of students. The study did not extend to other Universities hence the generalizability of the study was not possible. The Universities have however different systems of operation and hence the different enrollment levels. The study did not include the private Universities due to manageability. 1.8 Delimitations The quantitative delimitations of the study are that it only recruited students and administrators. The parents were not recruited into the study; however their views were gotten from the students. Parents were not recruited because of difficulty of finding them. The distance learning students were not included because of the difficulty of finding 8 them. The qualitative delimitation of the study is that only students who were in session were recruited into the study. 1.9 Significance of the Study The study provided data on the enrollment in the satellite campuses in each programme and degree courses offered. It also provides data on the impact created by the campuses in ensuring rapid expansion of the universities. The study also provided useful information on the role that the campuses have played in ensuring access to higher education of the target population. The fmdings have indicated that the setting up of satellite campuses by Universities ensure opportunity to pursue university education is available to residents in various parts of the country with offerings particular to fields of study that characteristically have a low financial overhead. The findings replenished the data bank on the contribution of satellite campuses in developing knowledge in the community as well as offering data for future reference. 1.10 Theoretical Framework Yin (2009, p. 40) indicates that ''the use of theory, in doing case studies, is an immense aid in defining the appropriate research design and data collection". He adds that this theoretical orientation is a vehicle in making generalizations of the case study results. One of the objectives of this research was to analyze the contribution of the satellite campuses in the enrollment levels in the University of Nairobi. The theoretical framework for this study focused on a theory of learning with specific reference to the theory of Communities of Practice. Lave and Wenger (1991. p. 98) define Communities of Practice as "a set of relations among persons, activity and world. over time and in relation with other tangential communities of pI3£tice". The theory posits that learning is 9 essentially a social phenomenon that takes place in an organized structure of communities. These communities share in values, language, and beliefs. Therefore, real knowledge is found in the interactions that take place within the communities of practice. Hence, according to this theory, the process of learning cannot be dissociated from the membership to a community of practice. Communities are viewed as the "basic building blocks of a social learning system" (Wenger, 2000, p. 229). This theory was relevant to this study in the sense that the creation, sharing and provision of access to higher education in University of Nairobi enable a collaboration mechanism within its constituent campuses and further with other universities in Kenya facilitating the building of a local 'Community of Practice' within which intellectual interactions coordinate all knowledge generated within and among universities for the benefit of the universities and the country at large. 1.11 Conceptual Framework The conceptual framework for this study was based on the role of demand side fmancing in increasing access to higher education The conceptual framework indicates the inputs and output and a process model where the inputs are the demanding for schooling. This quest is as a result of employers demand for qualifications and increased participation in secondary education. The demand for schooling also is subject to government incentives to public and private institutions e.g. loans. The government support also enhances participation of the poor and rural populations. This leads to the output factor; that is increased enrollments, retention, participation and completion of the students. This shown in figure 1.1 below; 10 Employers demand for qualifications, increased participation in secondary education Availability, Accessibility, Acceptability, Adaptability Increased enrollments, retention, participation and completion Demanding for schooling Figure1.1: Conceptual Framework Government incentives to public and private institutions e.g. loans and infrastructure development Participation of the poor and rural populations 11 1.12 Def"mition of Key Terms Administrator: Can occasionally serve as the title of the general manager. In this study administrators were the course coordinators in the DnN satellite campuses Higher education: Refers to, education beyond the secondary level, especially education at the college or university level. Enrollment: Refers to, the total number of students properly registered and/or attending classes at the Univemty_ Satellite campus: Refers to, ranch campus is a campus of a college or university that is physically detached from the mam UIli-iersity or oollege area, and Is often smaller- than the main campus of an institution. Student: Refers to,a learner, or someone who attends an educatioml institmion 12 CHAPTER TWO 2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Introduction Literature is reviewed in areas of mission and role played by the higher education, access to University education, general aspects of Satellite Campuses and the roles satellite campuses have played in Kenya. 2.2 The Role of the University in Higher Education In a knowledge-based economy the university serves in many functions, which include providers of knowledge, interactions with communities through outreach activities, and more recently as collaborative research and technology parks. Since the emergence of universities in the 11th century, the generation of knowledge has been the primary focus of the institution (The Economist 1997). Universities originally provided knowledge in the form of grammar, logic, rhetoric, music, and astronomy. Modem day universities have adapted to the needs of a knowledge-based economy, and therefore provide knowledge in the form of community service, product creation, and research development (The Economist 1997). Although the shape of knowledge has evolved over time, universities have maintained their role as the key providers of knowledge. Walshok (1995) suggests that the knowledge needs of today's society have evolved from the traditional get an education and enter the workforce philosophy into knowledge needs that are continuous and present in everyday life. Walshok (1995, 141-151) specifically identifies eight "knowledge needs" that research universities can meet. These knowledge needs include 1) basic education for socially, economically, and culturally diverse 13 population, 2) general education in social traditions, cultural values, and building blocks of knowledge essential to the development of learning skills and critical thinking" 3) credentialing and certification for the work of the world, 4) professionallwork related updates in response to economic, social, environmental, and workplace change, 5) knowledge brokering across fields and ~ 6) technological updates tbmugh technology diffusion, transfer, and exchange, 7) development of skills for participation in civic events, and S) enflan.cement of tOO quality of lite. UI1WeJ!sities' transition from formal teaching methods to participatory teaching methods reflects the changes in the knowledge needs of the public. Universities now functions in a dual role. On the one hand, they provide the basic building blocks oflmowledge to undergraduates in the form oftradttionallecmre classes such as biology, English, and calculus. On the other hand, universities develop a network of services delivered through various outlets. Luger and Goldstein (1Wl), for example,. identify university-based programs, which include technology parks, research centers, collabomtiOll between publW and pmate entities, and new product development_ University based programs occur outside of the main campus classroom, and involve the access and utilization of resources in the community. These programs suit the needs of a knowledge-based economy by providing opportunities for continuing education needs. The type of knowledge associated with university-based progtam£ include human capital formation, transfer of existing know-how, technological innovation, capital investment, provision of regionalleadembip, kn@wtedge-ba..~ mfiastrr.:!cture,. ~d the contribution to the regional milieu (Luger and Goldstein 1997). 14 Within university-based programs, the role of the university begins to shift away from traditional methods of teaching and learning. For example, the role of the university in technological innovation has significantly increased since the late 1970's (Luger and Goldstein 1997). Many research institutions now have offices on campus that deal explicitly with patents and licenses (Luger and Goldstein 1997). The creation of these offices represents the trend towards participation in the community, not just educating the community. Another perspective described by Conceicao and Heitor (1999), views the accumulation of knowledge (ideas and skills) as the primary responsibility of the university in the knowledge-based economy. They suggest that teaching represents the ability of the university to educate through a process referred to as learning by learning. Teaching provides the basic building blocks necessary to develop the ideas and skills needed to participate in the knowledge based economy. Challenges to traditional teaching include dispersal of resources and changing needs of the target audience. Conceicao and Heitor (1999) also identify research as the objective of the university in the knowledge based economy. They suggest that universities play more critical role today than years ago in the areas of research and demand, research and teaching, and research and learning. These many faucets of research illustrates the universities need to be flexible in a variety of situations. In summary the university serves in many functions the generation of knowledge, provide knowledge in the form of community service, product creation, and research development, develop a network of services delivered through various outlets, transfer of existing know-how, technological innovation, capital 15 investment, provision of regional leadership, knowledge-based infrastructure, and the contribution to the regional scene. 2.3 Nature and Mechanics of the Free or Low Tuition Fee Cut-Off In all three East African countries, the cut-off points for sponsored admissions are set based .on government estimates of the number of students that they are able to support. Particularly in Kenya and Uganda, it is rapidly becoming more accurate to think of the university financing system as one in which most students have to pay tuition fees, while only a few academically excellent students receive merit scholarships (Carrol, 2004). In Kenya, students who attain the prescribed cut off point (COP) are admitted into the \ regular state supported programs by the Joints Admissions Board (JAB), a non-statutory body made up of the Vice Chancellors, Deputy Vice C~ Principals and Deans of the six public universities and representatives from the Ministry of Education. In principle, Kenya Certificate .of SeoondaIy Education (KCSE) holders with C+ and above qualify for public university admission; however, this cut off point depends on the total public university student capacity of about 10,000 studems. Therefore~ the JAB sets tIJ.e entry cut off for government-sponsored students from year t.o year. If a greater proportion of the students have high passes in a particular year~ the cut oft' will be higher and viee versa. For example, the cut off for admission in 2005 admission was 64 points higher than in 2~ 2001).. N.on-JAB students who are admitted on a self-paying basis gain entry to universities on stages .of the module II programs, candidates had to be Form Four school leavers who met the minimum entry requirement of C+ but could not meet the entry cut off point for 16 government sponsorship. In an attempt to increase the number of self-sponsored students, various institutions made admission conditions more flexible and accepted students from different academic backgrounds including holders of A level certificates, Kenya Advanced Certificate of Education (KACE) from the old 7-4-2-3 system, PI holders, diploma holders, and certificate holders from other governmentally-recognized institutions. Even the conditions for admission into postgraduate programs have since been eased to allow holders of passIlower second class qualifications to enroll in ~ programs provided they have a given number of years experience in a profession relevant to the area of study (Otieno 20(4).. When the first KCSE students were admitted into the public universities in the early 199Os, the cut-off point for government sponsotship was pla£ed at a grade C (59 points1 but a student's admission was pegged on his/her performance in individual critical subjects. By 1992, the cut-off point had risen to a minimum of gmde B-. When the number of examinable subjects was reduced from ten to eight in 1993, the cut-off point remained at B-. During the intake for the 1994 KCSE camtid'ates,. the mi»im entry cut- off point was placed at a grade B- (63 points). The basic cut-f of score is required to qualifY for government sponsmstip,. but fur a stmlmt to>enrnB in his chosen fiel~ he/she must also meet the subject cluster cut-off for the specific program. Between 1990 and 1999, the course cluster cut-offs were cakuIated t:tiredly :fi:mndIe sum 0.£ the taW SOOKS in each of a number of relevant subjects. Since 1999, the course cluster cut-off, used to arrive at the candidates wIlD qua:lify to take .' the pl&:es available in public univeJlSities,. was changed to a function called the weighted cluster cut off (Mwiria 2007). 17 In Uganda, the public universities run two different admission processes. The first, conducted by the Public Universities Joint Admissions Board (PUJAB), selects those students who will be awarded government scholarships (publicly sponsored students) based on the number of students that the Government of Uganda' (GOU) decides to sponsor. That number currently stands at about 4,000 (distributed among the four public universities). Before the admissions process, all faculties within the university provide information on the number of students that they can accommodate and decide on the distribution of government-sponsored and privately sponsored students. All students who wish to be considered for admission under government sponsorship to public universities are required to fill out the PUJAB application form. Students are asked to rank their top 6 choices of degree programs at public universities and 4 choices of diploma programs at other public tertiary institutions. Needy students, in particular, pay close attention to their choices, since some programs are much more competitive (with higher cut-off points) than others. The minimum qualification for entry into Makerere and other public universities is 2 principal passes at the Uganda Advanced Certificate of Education Examination (UACE). However, to earn a government scholarship, students need to be outstanding. Most students will sit for either three or four subjects in their area of study (arts or sciences). Similar to the Kenyan system, their scores on the various subjects are then weighted based on the requirements of individual pmgram& widJ.in faculties, and the top-scoring students are admitted (Kawooya, 2007). The cut-off point for admission into a particular program is detennined by the lowest score of the last person accepted into that program. For example, if the Faculty of Law decides to take only 50 government-sponsored ~ it milks the applicants a£COIding 18 to their weighted scores, and takes the top 50. The weighted score of the 50th student becomes the cut-off point for Law for that year. For science applicants, programs like Medicine, Dentistry, and Architecture are very popular and as such have high cutoff points. Whereas for arts students Law, Mass Communication, and Social Work and Social Administration have lower cut-offs. Affirmative action policies, which add additional 1.5-4 points to a student's scores, are in place for women, applicants with disability, talented athletes, and the biological children of Makerere employees. The second admissions process, for private admission, happens after the PUJAB admissions. Whereas the Private Entry Scheme (PES) was started at Makerere, all public universities now have similar programs. Students who do not get a government scholarship are invited to put in applications under the PES. There are a few students who get government scholarships for a program that was not their first choice, who reapply under PES. The private admission selection process is similar to the PUJAB process and public universities do the admissions jointly. At Makerere, where programs are offered during the day and evenings, the higher performing students are put in the day programs, where they study together with the publicly-sponsored students (Kawooya, 2007). There are no legal limitations on the number of privately-sponsored students that are allowed in the institutions, but the government-sponsored students have first priority. Faculties differ in the proportion of private students that they accept. In Forestry, for example, 13 percent of the students are self sponsored, while in the Institute of Psychology, 90 percent are. The reasons for the differences are many and varied and they have to do with both supply and demand side constraints. However, the Universities and Other Tertiary Institutions Act (The Act) of 2001 does give the Board of an academic 19 unit the power to regulate the admissions of students subject to the approval of the academic senate. In Tanzania, the University of Dar es Salaam establishes criteria and-sets minimum cut- off points for admission in the individual degree programs, based on the number of students that the government sets for admittance under its sponsorship. Unlike the policies in Kenya and Uganda, the government also determines the distribution of students among campuses and programs. In 2003-04, for example, the government issued a directive saying that it would sponsor 2,555 students of which 400 must be in the arts program, 200 in the arts education program, 260 in the education program, 290 in the commerce program, 315 in the engineering program, 420 in the science program, 250 in the doctor of medicine program and 250 in the University College of Lands and Architectural Studies (Ishengoma, 2004). Admission to the government sponsored places is based on pass mark achievement on the Advanced Certificate of Secondary Education Examinations (ACSEE). The minimum entry cut-off points set by the University of Dar es Salaam vary from 6.5 to 10.5 points depending on the degree programs with female applicants having a slightly lower cut-off point to make up for past discrimination. A limited number of non-traditional students enter public universities through Mature Age Entry Examinations and through distance learning conducted by the Open University of Tanzania that operates in all 25 regions of Tanzania Mainland (Mercucci et al., 2010). Admission to the self-sponsored places is also based on results of the ACSEE exam. Candidates must receive principal level passes in appropriate subjects with a total of at least 5 points from three subjects obtained at the same sitting. Like in the other two 20 countries, the different programs have additional admission criteria Mainland (Mercucci et al., 2010). In Uganda, the level of tuition fees for the private entry scheme students are set by the faculty subject to approval by the Academic Senate and the University Council. Fee levels vary and science faculties tend to charge more than humanities faculties. Tuition fees average about 1,800,000 Ush (US$948) per year. Tuition increases are generally difficult to get passed by the University Council due to the government representatives who usually block such increases. In Kenya, tuition fees for privately sponsored students vary between 96,000 Ksh (US$I,227) for most programs to 450,000 Ksh (US$5,754) for dental and medical programs. In Tanzania, tuition fees for the privately sponsored students range between Tsh 600,000 (US$529) and 1,000,000 (US$881) for medicine and law (2004 exchange rates: $1= 1,8897 Ush; $1=78.194 Ksh; $1 =1,134Tsh Mainland (Mercucci et al., 2010). Given the financial stakes in admission to the free or low-tuition fee tracks, and given the reputations of official corruption in most developing and transitional countries, it is not surprising that interviews and secondary source research in Uganda and Kenya revealed the allegations of corruption in the allocation of government spots in Kenya and of cheating and corruption on the national exams in Uganda. However, within the field research conducted under the auspices of the University of Buffalo's East African Dual Track Tuition Fee Project, nothing more concrete than anecdotes can be offered (Carrol 2004; Otieno 2004). 21 2.4 Access to University Education and Attendant Concerns Mwiria (1994) observes that one of the issues of concern in democratizing Kenya's public universities revolves around ethnic (regional), gender and class differences. At the . ethnic/regional level, members of those communities which made earlier and more stable contacts with European settlers, missionaries and colonial authorities tended to have more access to formal educational opportunity- all through the education ladder - than their counterparts from those communities which did not experience such contacts. In the post- independence era, this early historical advantage tended to coincide with economic advantage, a factor of tremendous impact given that the factor to pay for education is increasingly becoming one of the key, if not the determinant of whether or not one proceeds to benefit from higher and more specialized levels of education. Mwiria (1994) further notes that in terms of gender inequities, Kenyan women have always and continue . to be conspicuously underrepresented in the Kenyan universities. Another issue of concern is at the social economic level where students from low economic backgrounds are threatened by high education costs. The rising costs of living are making it difficult for students from poor backgrounds to remain in college. Even where they do many of them have to engage in income generating activities to make ends meet. This point is further supported by that denotes that despite the rapid expansion of higher education over the past decade, challenges to access and equity remain (Sessional Paper, 2005). Women in Kenya as in many other African countries have lagged behind men in their access to formal education (Koech, 2000). Consequently, fewer women are able to take up academic and administrative positions within the universities. In Kanake's study of 22 the public universities, women accounted for a small percentage of university lecturers, especially in technical courses and in administration (Kanake, 1997). The results from private universities showed a similar trend to public universities though, but Daystar is an exemption since its major criterion for recruitment is personal salvation and of which majority are women. The demand for University education in Kenya has been on the rise. However lack of access to the university education has seen Kenyans trooping to Uganda for university education. Approximately 21 000 Kenyans have turned to Ugandan Universities to achieve their education dreams. Education in Uganda from primary to university is relatively cheaper due to the stronger Kenyan shilling (Atieno, 2010). In summary access to University education in Kenya revolves around ethnic (regional), gender and class differences. However lack of access to the university education has seen Kenyans trooping to other countries like Uganda for university education. 2.5 Privatization of Higher Education in Kenya The privatization of public universities and the entry of private higher education institutions in Kenya constitute critical period in a strategy for the development of higher education in the country. The institutions and programmes are important in inserting Kenya's presence and contribution into the global knowledge economy. This is possible if the institutions and programmes are founded on missions that integrate a vision of social responsibility and research into their operations. The drive for the privatization of higher education and the growth of private university institutions have not developed out of a policy context initiated by Kenya. Public universities also integrated a business model into the conventional mission of the university to run most of their programmes 23 KENYATTA UNIVERSITY llRRAk'V profitably. Universities for their part have taken time to formulate policies that guide the operation of the private programmes. Strikes over the distribution of income from the programmes between lecturers and non-teaching employees in all the public universities continued during the period of this study. Financial and administrative governance of the programmes has also created tension in all the universities. Issues related to student admissions versus their academic profiles, teaching and assessment has occasionally fuelled student riots (Otieno, 2007). The private universities have been established in the same context. Globalization, as the ideological project of economic liberalization, opened most sectors that were previously dominated by public provision, to private providers. This coupled with increasing demand for higher education forced Kenya to start the process of was however one that the government had always wanted to pursue. By the 1990s, the thinking within government policy circles was that such expansion should be undertaken with strict government regulation, and in any case through the public university system. In this respect, under the universities investment project (UIP) proposals of 1990, the promotion of private universities was supposed to complement expansion that was to take place in the public universities (Ngugi, 2009). The privatization of public universities and the promotion of private universities were therefore supposed to meet targets that government wanted to achieve through higher education, that is, expand access while addressing equity issues, and improve quality through research and teaching. Any assessment of the challenges and prospects for private higher education should therefore gauge the extent to which privatization and private universities have addressed the above concerns. This section briefly recasts some of the challenges private higher education in 24 Kenya has to overcome to facilitate its growth and expansion. The prospects that would facilitate this expansion are pointed out (Otieno, 2007). In summary, the need for the privatization of higher education and the growth of private university institutions have not developed out of a policy context initiated by Kenya. Public universities also integrated a business model into the conventional mission of the university to run most of their programmes profitably. The privatization of public universities and the entry of private higher education institutions in Kenya thus; constitute critical period in a strategy for the development of higher education in the country. 2.6 Universities and Globalization Globalization affects many facets of society. The delivery of higher education is no exception. Recently, the International Association of Universities (lAU), a subsidiary of the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), identified globalization as a thematic priority area in the realm of higher education. UNESCO defines globalization as "the flow of technology, economy, knowledge, people, and values across borders. Globalization affects each country in a different way due to each nation's individual history, traditions, cultures, resources, and priorities" (UNESCO 2003,4). The issues for higher education that UNESCO identifies include; The growing importance of the knowledge society/economy; The development of new trade agreements which cover trade in education services; Innovations related to information and communication technologies (lCTs); The emphasis on the role of the market and the market economy Source: (UNESCO 2003, 6) 25 These issues change the ways in which institutions, states, and regions shape policy and make educational decisions. One solution to the issues raised by globalization is internationalization. Sometimes the terms internationalization and globalization are used interchangeably, however the more correct interpretation is that internationalization acts as a solution to issues raised by globalization (UNESCO 2003). Knight (2003, 2) defmes internationalization "at the national, sector, and institutional levels as the process of integrating an international, or global dimension into the purpose, functions or delivery of postsecondary education." More specifically, internationalization "includes a broad range of elements such as curriculum, teaching learning, research, institutional agreements, student/faculty mobility, development cooperation" (UNESCO 2003, 4-5). Therefore, higher educational institutions operationalize internationalization through the creation and execution of study abroad programs, the management of centers and institutes, and the facilitation and participation in international research cooperation and exchanges. In the context of this research, globalization and internationalization both serve as relevant terms. The argument presented within this research suggests that the forces of globalization as identified by UNESCO have created the need for universities to respond through the internationalization of educational programs. Universities have aggressively pursued the expansion of educational programs and opportunities by offering and participating in study abroad programs, international co-operations, and satellite campuses. The forms of education described above all fit into the guise of transnational education. Transnational education describes, "all types of higher education study programs, or sets of courses of study, or educational services (including those of distance education) in which the learners are located in a country different from the one where the 26 awarding institution is based. Such programs may belong to the education system of a State different from the State in which it operates, or may operate independently of any national education system" (International Association of Universities, 2004). In summary, globalization enhances ''the flow of technology, economy.knowledge, people, and values ... across borders. Globalization affects each country in a different way due to each nation's individual history, traditions, cultures, resources, and priorities" Universities have aggressively pursued the expansion of educational programs and opportunities by offering and participating in study abroad programs, international co- operations, and satellite campuses. 2.7 Satellite Campuses and Higher Education It is a widely accepted notion that higher education institutions in general and universities in particular, exist to nurture the human resources by teaching, to carry out research and to serve the community. Doghaim (1991) states the following "It is needless to say that the role of universities has been internationally accepted as serving three aims: teaching, research and serving the community (society) in the wider sense" (p. 99). A UNESCO report further notes that "The core missions and values of higher education, in particular the mission to contribute to the sustainable development and improvement of society as a whole, should be preserved, reinforced and further expanded" (UNESCO, 1998,p.3). This will be achieved through providing opportunities for higher learning and for learning throughout life, training students using courses and content that is tailored to meet present and future needs of the society, advance, create and disseminate knowledge through research, preserve, promote and disseminate national, regional, international and 27 historic cultures of the community, contribute to the development and improvement of education at all level and help protect and enhance society values. According to Cabal (1993), teaching and research are the intellectual functions of the University. Service on the other hand is viewed as the social function or role of the university that links educational and intellectual role of the university on the one hand and societal development on the other. In summary the mission of higher education institutions in general and universities in particular, exist to nurture the human resources by teaching, to carry out research and to serve the community where learning throughout life, training students using courses and content is tailored to meet present and future needs of the society. The demand for higher education worldwide is growing at a tremendous rate because of the value placed on the, knowledge and attitudes acquired through such training. This trend can further be attributed to the increase in participation and achievement in post- primary education and further education. There has also been rapid change in the occupational structure of employment in the recent years. This means that expansion of these higher institutions of learning is very important (Omulando, 2010). The continuous increasing demand for university education in Kenya has forced universities to be more innovative to meet this demand. In response to this, public universities established the privately sponsored program/modules that offer lectures to students who are not government sponsored in the evenings and weekends, and sometimes on a regular schedule together with the regular government sponsored students. Mwiria (2007) states the following " expansion has also been fuelled by the opening of the public universities to privately sponsored students under the so-called 28 'parallel' degree programme. Since this expansion was not accompanied by a commensurate increase in government funding, the result has been a steady decline in quality and increasingly serious questions about relevance. The current trend is to establish satellite campuses in various towns across the country to be closer to the target population. "The public universities have worked to make university education more accessible by locating campuses near their target populations" (Mwiria and Ng'the, 2007). Many universities are beginning to establish satellite campuses far away from their main Campuses in order to extend their educational services. The campuses may be established in other countries or in the same country. Although the major motive is generally believed to be the extension of educational services to those who do not have adequate access, there is a further observation of the quest to establish one's institution's presence elsewhere, to assist a political ally. While this strategy is not altogether a new one, the driving factor cannot be detached from globalization, and the need to help those countries with low level of technological and infrastructural development. Sometimes, the pattern of migration of their citizens would also influence the establishment of a country's satellite campuses. For example, the National University of Singapore has established satellite campuses in India, China and the United States, where Singaporeans have always found homes (Thrift, 2000) just as the Monash University in Australia has established campuses in South Africa and Malaysia. According to Koech (1999), the external degree programme of the University of Nairobi as being particularly beneficial to serving teachers and other Kenyans in employment that would otherwise not have been able to enroll for university education on a full time basis. 29 It recommended that the programmes be expanded in order to reach many deserving and qualified Kenyans. It also hailed parallel degree programmes that have helped individuals who had otherwise been barred from public university admission (Republic of Kenya, 1999). Universities historically benefit from self governance with little interference from external forces such as the State or a board of directors. However, in an era of legitimacy and accountability, universities are better served by adopting policies that illustrate transparency. Therefore, one challenge that a university faces when adopting policies to promote "borderless education" is maintaining its legitimacy, while allowing outsiders in to examine and explore the structure of the university (Bjamason et al 2000). A second change to the governance of a university focuses on the types of knowledge that the university supports. As a result, universities need to explore how the diversification into nontraditional mechanisms of learning can benefit a university. Walshok (1997) suggests that universities re-structure programs and policies to reflect support for flexible formats of information dissemination, ongoing evaluation of programs developed by the university, and high connectivity between upper administration and university programs. Critics of the restructuring of university administration feel that many policies spread administrators and educators too thin. As a result, the quality of programs decline and do not represent the best product that a university could produce. While the expansion of campus networks focuses predominately on how the university system expands, the enhancement of university-community partnerships explores how universities spill out of the classroom and into the communities. These spillovers help strengthen the economic vitality of a community. In a speech, Richard M. Rosan, president of the Urban Land 30 Institute (2002), summarized this phenomenon with the suggestion that research institutions "have the resources to provide a stream of knowledge know how and human capital, serving as the fuel for innovation, entrepreneurship and regional synergy." Universities become promoters of economic development and places of technology generation. Specific tools that assist in the creation of strong university-community relationships include solid partnerships between stakeholders, the examination of all issues to develop trust, communities and universities should embark on a series of short and long term strategic planning efforts, and after implementation of programs continuous evaluation should occur (Rosan 2002). In summary, the increasing demand for university education in Kenya has forced universities to be more innovative to meet this demand. In response to this, public universities established the privately sponsored program/modules that offer lectures to students who are not government sponsored in the evenings and weekends, and sometimes on a regular schedule together with the regular government sponsored students. The result of strengthened university community partnerships include improved town-gown relationships, increased support base for university activities, and increased classroom educational opportunities for students. 2.8 Educational Marketing This infiltration of foreign universities in Kenya in search of university students at a time of reduced government expenditure on the public university sector has compelled public universities to generate supplemental sources of income to meet the government's shortfall. One of the most important ways that public universities have employed to enhance their revenue has been through initiation and expansion of privately sponsored programmes that are popularly known as parallel degree programmes. This has created a 31 cutthroat competition for university students in Kenya between local universities (both public and private) and foreign institutions. This has resulted in aggressive marketing of the programs in the media and other avenues in order to get more customers (Ngome 2010). Competition for students is intense among public and private universities. According to educationists, the emerging academic capitalism has reduced some degrees and diplomas to mere marketable commodities. "The commercial dimension of higher education in Sub-Saharan Africa is determining the very nature and conditions in which courses are taught," (UNESCO 2010). The public universities have increased their capacities to take in more students who qualify for university admission by upgrading many middle level colleges to the status of university colleges and campuses affiliated to their respective universities. These include Kenya Polytechnic University College of University of Nairobi, Pwani University, College of Kenyatta University and Mombasa Polytechnic University College of Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology. Others include Kisii University, Kimathi University College of (JKUAT), Kenya Science Campus of University of Nairobi, Taita Taveta Campus of JKUAT, Kitui Campus of Kenyatta University and Kabianga Campus of Moi University (Ngome 2010). Besides the expansion of existing capacities for government sponsored students commonly known as regular students, all private and public universities host parallel degree programmes at their main campuses and like their foreign university counterparts are competing to collaborate with middle level institutions as catchments areas for students to generate income. In the words of the scholar "Institutions of higher learning are in a massification race and compete to acquire middle level colleges in the pretext of meeting higher education demand. Universities have abandoned their core responsibilities and have become money machines" (Abagi 12 2007) Distance institutions have also expanded tremendously in public, private and foreign universities in the country without clear organizational structures and governance. This poses a serious threat to the quality of university education in Kenya. In summary, in education marketing, the most important ways that public universities have employed to enhance their revenue has been through initiation and expansion of privately sponsored programmes that are popularly known as parallel degree programmes. This has created a cutthroat competition for university students in Kenya between local universities (both public and private) and foreign institutions. 2.9 Demand Side Financing Versus Supply Side Financing in Education in Kenya Studies of education outcomes often are framed in terms of the supply-side factors, but demand-side factors are also important in determining education outcomes. Participation in school is regarded here as an input and completing school with the acquisition of desired knowledge and skills is regarded as a desirable outcome. The desired outcome in this argument is thus the acquisition of the necessary skills that the country needs to drive us towards VISION 2030. Both these depends upon various demand factors at the household level and within the broader social environment (Chacha, 2004). Examining both supply and demand factors in the determination of education outcomes provides a more complete framework for policy making and assessment. In analyzing the determinants of education outcomes, education economists have studied specific aspects of supply and demand for education. Typically such models are formulated with households on the demand side and learning institutions as the production units on the supply side. Households demand more education because there is a private economic rate of return to acquiring human capital as well a social and cultural benefit. But more 33 education has accost to household, especially poor and rural, which face serious income, asset, and credit constraints. Cultural impediments to female education and formal sector employment are also important demand factors. School quality and learning outcomes can playa role in both supply and demand of education, as with most goods and services (White 2004). Demand factors often include judgments on the part of families about the returns to schooling in terms of marketable knowledge and skills compared to school costs in terms of both direct costs and indirect ones. A favorable calculation could increase the demand for education, even by poor and rural households (Atieno, 2010). 2.10 Challenges Facing the University Sector in Kenya There are various challenges that face University education in Kenya include. These are; declining quality of education; declining quality of teaching staff; underfunding of public universities; use of inappropriate unit cost by the government; congestion in lecturer theatres and hostels; limited democracy for faculty; limited use of ICT; poorly stocked libraries; lopsided enrollment (declining enrollment in physical sciences, technology and,; engineering degree based programme/ increasing enrollment in social sciences; increasing marginalization of minority groups at both teaching and student level; increasing ethnicization of university education; declining research output; exodus of the most qualified faculty to greener pastures; limited linkage between university and industry; students cooking in hostels (Ngome 2010). 2.11 Summary and Conclusion The literature reviewed here has focused on the history on the history of university access approaches in East Africa. It has particularly emphasized the aspects of tuition fees in Kenya. The literature has also focused on the introduction of satellite campuses and the 34 various challenges facing the University education in Kenya The studies reviewed in the literature reviewed have focused on the short.coIDings. Most of the studies have not focused on the contributions of the campuses in access to education. This study therefore explored the contributions of these campuses to access 35 CHAPTER THREE 3.0 METHODOLOGY 3.1 Introduction This chapter is organized under the following subsections, the research design , target population, sample size and sampling procedures, research instruments, data collection procedures and data analysis. 3.2 Research Design The research adopted a descriptive research design. Descriptive survey is a method of collecting information by interviewing or administering a questionnaire to a sample of individuals (Orodho, 2009). It can be used when collecting information about people's attitudes, opinions, habits or any of the variety of social issues (Orodho and Kombo, 2002). It utilized both the quantitative and qualitative approaches. The design was relevant in this study as it (study) sought to examine the oontn1mtion of satellite campuses in accessing higher education where student's and administrators' attitudes, opinions, on the issue of study was analyzed through ooth quamit.ative and qualitative: approaches. 3.2.1 Variables The independent variables of the study include the factors leading to demand of higher education. The independent variables were associated with enrolment in satellite campuses in regards to availability, accessibility, acceptability and adaptability. The dependent variable of the study was the access to higher education.. Enrollments determine the need for expansion of University and hence the need for satellite campuses. 36 3.3 Study locale The study was carried out in the University of Nairobi. The University is located in the capital Nairobi and has the highest number of satellite campuses in major towns in the country. The University of Nairobi has the highest number of satellite campuses. The University of Nairobi's College of Education and External Studies offers programmes through its regional Extra-Mural Centres in Kisumu, Kakarnega, Kisii, Kapenguria, Mombasa, Lokichogio, Meru, Garissa, Nyeri, Nakuru, Thika and Nairobi. The total population of students and course coordinators in all the centers is 11,120 (11, 020 students and 100 course coordinators) 3.4 Target Population and Sample Size The University of Nairobi has a total of 12 satellite campuses in Kisumu, Kakamega, Kisii, Kapenguria, Mombasa, Lokichogio, Meru, Garissa, Nyeri, Nakuru, Thika and Nairobi. The study incorporated all the satellite campuses in the study. The target populations were the administrators and students of the University that were included in the study. Administrators provided information on enrollment levels in the various programmes while the students provide information on the role of the colleges and campuses in ensuring the gain access to higher education.. 3.5 Sample and Sampling Techniques Simple random sampling was used to 10 recruit students in each of the satellite campuses into the study thus totaling to 120 students. Purposive sampling technique was used to sample three administrators in each of these campuses totaling to 36 respondents.. According to Patton (1990), Purposive sampling targets a certain group producing exactly what is needed in some eases - study of organimti~ mmtIllmdy, or some otIrer clearly 31 defined and relatively limited group. This is because there are specific administrators in the campuses who were recruited to provide information on enrollment. 3.6 Research instruments Questionnaires were the mam research instrument. Two questionnaires, one for administrators one for students was used to collect information from the study respondents. The questionnaires were designed as simple closed ended questions as well as open ended questions. The study also analyzed relevant documents, e.g. reviews, journals articles, University handbooks as well as the university calendar. 3.7 Piloting Piloting was done on a small representative sample that was not included in the study. The sample was drawn from Ambank house school of business satellite campus which did not take part in the study. The sampling ensured that the research instruments do not have potential misunderstanding. 3.7.1 Validity Orodho (2009) define validity as the accuracy and meaningfulness of inferences which are based on the research results. In other words validity is the degree to which results obtained from the analysis of the data actually represents the phenomena under study. Content validity of the research instrument was done through expert judgment by the supervisors and colleagues to find out if everything works well and detect any potential misunderstanding or biasing effects of different questions. It also helped in testing the feasibility of the study techniques and to perfect the questionnaires concept and wording. 38 Convergent and discriminatory validity were estimated m order to test if the questionnaire measured what it intended to measure. 3.7.2 Reliability Orodho (2009) defines reliability as a measure of the degree to which a research instrument yields consistent results or data after repeated trials. The stability of questions was assessed in terms of test-retest reliability. The questionnaires were administered twice to the same group of respondents. The second administering was done after a two weeks lapse time to check whether the same results can be obtained. Spearman rank correlation was used to compute the correlation coefficient which was used to determine the extent to which the contents of the questionnaire are consistent in producing the same response every time the instrument is administered. The correlation coefficient (r) obtained was 0.75. This was considered high reliability for the research tools. 3.8 Data Collection Procedure The study sought approval from the Kenyatta University graduate school. A permit was also sought from the ministry of Higher Education, Science and Technology before conducting the study. Consent was sort from individual respondents and the institutions that were included in the study. Then an advance letter was sent to the sample respondents explaining the purpose of the study. The respondents were guided through the questionnaires which were also translated where necessary. Relevant documents were then analyzed to give information on the levels of enrollment in various courses. Confidentiality, anonymity and informants' consent was put in place as requirement conditions for the whole research process. In respect for the informants and in order to protect them from abuse of data they give for the research against their people, data was 39 presented in such a way that it cannot be linked to individuals who gave it except by the researcher who may need to seek clarification during analysis of data. 3.9 Data Analysis and Presentation Data collected was analyzed using descriptive statistics methods, (frequency, and percentages). Quantitative data collected through the questionnaires was analyzed according to emerging patterns or opinions derived through statistics using Statistical programme for social science (SPSS) and Ms excel. Graphical presentation of data included pie charts and bar graphs. 40 CHAPTER FOUR 4.0 DATA ANALYSIS, PRESENTATION AND DISCUSSION 4.1 Introduction This chapter presents the data that was found on an investigation into the contribution of satellite campuses to access to higher education a case of the University of Nairobi (College of Education and External Studies). The research was conducted on a sample of 120 students from various satellite campuses belonging to the University which are located in Kisumu, Kakamega, Kisii, Kapenguria, Mombasa, Lokichogio, Meru, Garissa, Nyeri, Nakuru, Thika and Nairobi. In addition, 3 course coordinators in every Campus were interviewed as the key respondents. Out of 120 questionnaires issued to the respondents (students), 90 were returned duly filled in making a response rate of 75 percent, which is an adequate response rate for statistical reporting. All the questionnaires from the coordinators were returned duly filled. Mugenda and Mugenda (1999) stated that a response rate of 50 percent and above is a good response rate. This commendable response rate was made possible after the researcher administered the questionnaires and further reminded the respondents to fill-in the questionnaires. 4.2 Findings on Background Information The study initially sought to inquire information on various aspects of respondents' background, i.e. the name of college, age, duration of working, level of education, and the position of the respondent. This information aimed at testing the appropriateness of the respondent in answering the questions regarding the contribution of University of Nairobi's satellite campuses to access to higher education. 41 4.2.1 Distribution of Respondents by Gender The study inquired on the gender of all the respondents involved in the study. The findings are presented in table 4.1. Table 4.1: Students' and Administrators' Gender Students Administrators Gender frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage Female 41 45.56 12 33.33 Male 49 54.44 24 66.67 Total 90 100.00 36 100.00 On gender, majority of the student's respondents 54.44 percent were males while the rest 45.56 percent of them were females. In addition, majority of the administrators, 66.67 percent were males while the rest, 33.33 percent were females, thus indicating that there are gender disparities in students and administrators in satellite campuses. 4.2.2 Distribution of Respondents by Age In order to understand the age of the respondents (administrators and students), they were asked to indicate the age category in which they fell. Findings are presented in figure 2 and 3 respectively. 42 31~Oyear5 Over50years Figure 4.2: Distribution of Administrators by Age According to the figure above, 52.8 percent of the administrators were aged between 41 and 50 years, 27.8 percent were between 41 to 50 years while only 19.4 percent were aged between 31 and 40 years. This reveals a vivid conclusion that most of the staffs in the University's satellite campuses are in their active age group (41 and 50). Figure 4.3: Distribution of Students by Age According to the figure above, 39 percent of the students were aged between 31 and 40 years, 33 percent were below 30 years, 17 percent were between 41 and 50 while only 11 43 percent were aged over 50 years. Thus as can be noted majority of the students in satellite campuses of University of Nairobi are aged between 31-40 years, implying that majority could be working, thus attending classes as part-time learners. From the findings, the administrators were designated from course coordinators, chairmen of departments, deans as well as principals of the satellite campuses. 4.2.3 Duration of Staff Working Life The administrators were asked to indicate the duration in which they have been working in the university. Figure 4.4 indicates the duration in which the respondents have been working in the university. 26.7 Lessthanlyear 1-5 years 6·10years 11-15 years Over 15 years The study was also inquisitive to investigate the duration of working of the administrators in satellite campuses. According to the figure above most of the respondents 26.7 percent had worked in the University for a period of over 15 years, 23.3% had worked in the University for a period of between 11-15 years and the same percent (20%) were those 44 Figure 4.4: Administrators' Duration of Working had worked for either 6-10 years or 1-5 years. Only 10% had worked for less than 1 year. It depicts therefore that, most of the administrators had stayed in the university for a period of over 15 years; implying that they had enough experience and would give reliable information in regard to contribution of satellite campuses of University of Nairobi to access to higher education. 4.2.4 Student High school attended The study sought to establish the nature of the school attended by the respondent (students). Table 2.2 presents the findings. Table 2.2: Student High school attended Frequency Percentage Girl's boarding school Boy's boarding school Mixed school Total 20 23 47 90 22.2 25.6 52.2 lOO From the table, 52.2 percent of the students were from mixed school, 25.6 were from boy's boarding school while 22.2 percent were from Girl's boarding school. These findings indicate that majority of the students in satellite campuses in the University of Nairobi are from mixed school 4.2.5 Student home setting The study inquired the respondents (students) to indicate the nature of their home setting. Figure 5 presents the fmdings on nature of home setting. 45 percentage '11.1 .~(j.7 22.2 Urban settir g Sem l,. rba n sett' ngRl,.ralsetti g Figure 4.5: Student's home setting Figure 4.5 above present's findings on the student's background setting. From the findings, 41.1% came from semi urban area, 36.7% from urban setting while 22.2% were from rural area. The findings therefore indicate that majority of the students in satellite campuses of University of Nairobi were from semi urban area. From the findings, 74.4% of the students stated that they enrolled in the satellite campus by choice. 25.4% indicated that they enrolled through parents', friends' workmates or other relative influence. 4.3 Courses Offered in Satellite Campuses According to Cabal (1993), teaching and research are the intellectual functions of the University. From the findings as provided by the course cordinators, various courses are offered in these satellite campuses as was noted by the study. These ranges from certificates, diploma, bachelor, master, Post graduate diplomas and PhD. At bachelor 46 level, Bachelor of project planning and management, Bachelor of education science/ art as the study noted are offered. The campuses also provide certificate in business management certificates in, Guidance and counseling, Personnel management and industrial relations, Public relations, Purchasing and supplies and Sales and marketing among others. They also offer Diploma in human resource management, Diploma in public relations, Diploma in purchasing & supplies management and Diploma in sales & marketing. At masters level Master of Arts in project planning and management and Master in distance education are offered in these campuses while at Post graduate level, Phd in project planning & management are offered. 4.3.1 Distribution of Students by Course The study in this area sought to establish the various courses and distribution of the respondents (students) pursuing the various courses in satellite campuses of University of Nairobi. The findings are presented inform of frequencies and percentages in table 4.3. 47 Table 4.3: Distribution of Students by Course Course Bachelor of project planning and management Bachelor of Education (Arts) Certificate in Guidance and counselling certificate Personnel management and industrial relations Public relations Purchasing and supplies Sales and marketing Diploma in human resource management Diploma in public relations Diploma in purchasing & supplies management Diploma in sales & marketing Master of arts in project planning and management Pgd in human resource management Phd in project planning & management Total Frequency Percentage 10 11.11 20 22.22 3 3.33 1 1.11 2 2.22 5 5.56 8 8.89 3 3.33 10 11.11 11 12.22 10 11.11 5 5.56 1 1.11 1 1.11 90 100.00 Luger and Goldstein (1997), identify university-based programs, which include technology parks, research centers, collaboration between public and private entities, and new product development. From the findings, most of the students who participated in the study were pursuing Bachelor of Education (Arts), Bachelor of project planning and management, Sales and marketing, Diploma in purchasing & supplies management, Diploma in sales & marketing and Diploma in public relation. These were indicated by 22.22%,11.11%,12.2%,11.1%,12.2, and 11.1%. Very few respondents were pursuing certificate in personnel management and industrial relations Post graduate in human resource management and PhD in project planning & management. The findings 48 therefore imply that most of the students in satellite campuses in University of Nairobi pursue business related courses, while very few pursue their masters or postgraduate studies in these campuses. 4.4 Enrolment in Satellite Campuses The study further sought to find out the enrolment trend (for the last 6 years) in satellite campuses of University of Nairobi. The findings are presented in the figure 4.6. Enrolment 12000 ....------------------- 2010,10875 10000+--------------=:;..",."fflf)~944 008,9124 8000 +--------::.J~~~I:I_P.:/--------I- Zu.J ~...Joc:::zw 6000 +----~'--------------- -Enrolment4000 +-_---=--'.l.JJ.J...J..,.!U..ll!±. _ 2000 +------------------- o +--~--~--~-~--~--~-_. 2004 2005 2006 2007 YEAR 2008 2009 2010 2011 Figure 4.6: Students Enrolment in Satellite Campuses Figure 6 above presents the findings on the trend or enrolment in satellite campuses for a period of five years (2005-2010). The graph was drawn from the data from the University (see appendix iii). It is clear from the graph that there has been a steady increase in enrolment from 4264 students in 2005 to 10875 students which indicates 155% increase over a period of 5 years. 49 As noted by Mwiria (2007), expansion of satellite campuses and enrolment has been fuelled by the opening of the public universities to privately sponsored students under the so-called 'parallel' degree programme. The trend of enrollment in satellite campus in the past five years was described by the administrators as having been elevated, maintain a steady upward state. The current enrollment levels in all the courses offered in the satellite campuses in the University was also indicated by the administrators as having increased mainly due to expansion and availability of teaching staff. This was coupled by the fact that despite the increase in various upcoming colleges in areas where these campuses are situated, introduction of part time classes as well as considerable fee attracted more students due to flexibility in time as well as low costs. The study noted that majority of the students in these satellite campuses, prefers business courses to technical and health courses. These ranges from personnel management and industrial relations, public relations, purchasing and supplies and sales and marketing human resource management. 4.4.1 Nature of The Course Being Pursued By Students in Satellite Campuses The study asked the students to indicate the nature of their courses based on the mode of learning in satellite campuses. The aim was to find out the most preferred mode of the study. Findings are presented in table 4.2 below; 50 Table 4.2: Nature of the course being pursued by students frequency percentage Regular 10 11.11 Evening classes 36 40.00 Open learning 44 48.89 Total 90 100.00 From the table, 48.89% of the student indicated that they pursue open learning course, 40% stated evening classes, while 11.11% stated regular courses. There were several reasons stated in regard to the choice. For those who preferred regular course, the explained this preference offered the best focus in regard to the objective of the course, that is the ability to do pursue the course without other tasks. Walshok (1995) suggests that the knowledge needs of today's society have evolved from the traditional get an education and enter the workforce philosophy into knowledge needs that are continuous and present in everyday life. The study learnt that these were mostly youths who either were employed or not. Similar reasons were provided by those who preferred open learning or evening classes. The choice for either of their choice was motivated by the fact that they would engage in other chores/task which generated fees for their learning. The mode of learning suits those who are in employment with evening classes taking place from 5pm-8pm. Delivery of learning notes is also facilitated through an organized mode between the lecture and the student through E-mail in soft copies. 51 4.5 Contribution of the Satellite Campuses in Enrollment The continuous increasing demand for university education In Kenya has forced universities to be more innovative to meet this demand (Omulando, 2010). From the findings, the objectives for setting up satellite campuses by the University were is to facilitate the opportunity to pursue a university education is available to residents in various parts of the country with offerings particular to fields of study that characteristically have a low financial overhead. This was motivated by the fact that the market needs required particular skills especially in business for instance management skills; which the university identified and thus supplemented. Other objectives were to enhance the University's diversified growth to tap the needs of people in higher education in Kenya. The campuses offers academic programmes using Open and Distance Learning methods which are a convenient mode of teaching and learning. The ODL teaching methods involve the extending of learning, or delivering of instructional resource-sharing opportunities to locations away from a classroom, building or site by using print, video, audio, computer, multimedia communications, or some combination of these with other traditional delivery methods such as face-to-face. 4.5.1 Whether the Satellite Campuses have Achieved their Objective The study in this part sought to inquire from the respondents (administrators) if the satellite campuses have achieved their objectives. The findings are presented in table 4.3 below. 52 Table 4.3: Have the Satellite Campuses Achieved their Objective? Response Frequency percentage Yes 32 4 36 88.9 11.1 100.0 No Total According to Conceicao and Heitor (1999), research and development is one of the objectives of the university in the knowledge based economy. From the findings, 88.9% of the administrators felt that the satellite campuses had achieved their objectives while the rest (11.1%) denied, thus indicating that majority of the administrators of satellite campuses in University of Nairobi believes that their setting has enhanced achievement of the objectives. 4.5.2 State of the Facilities of the Campuses In order to determine the suitability of the facilities in satellite campuses in teaching, the study asked the administrators to comment. The findings are presented in figure 4.7 below. Figure 4.7: Administrators' comment on the state of the facilities ofthe campus 53 From the figure, 69% of the administrators stated that the state of the facilities of the satellite campus is good, 25 stated the state as excellent while 6% stated it as poor. The findings thus indicate that majority of the administrators perceive the state of the facilities of the satellite campuses as good. 4.5.3 Levels of StatTmg in Satellite Campuses This area sought to determine the nature of the levels of staffing in satellite campus of University of Nairobi. This was in order to indicate the availability of the teaching staffs in the campuses. Findings are presented in table 4.4 below. Table 4.4: Description of Levels of StatTmg In Satellite Campuses Frequency percentage Very high 2 5.6 High 22 61.1 Low 10 27.8 Very low 2 5.6 Total 36 100.0 From the table, 61.1% of the administrators indicated that the levels of staffing in the campus are high, 27.8% indicated levels as low, while 5.6% indicated very high and very low. Thus, it can be noted for the findings that despite an indication by the administrators that satellite campuses in the University of Nairobi have high levels of staffing, still there is a perception by some that the levels are low. 54 The Koech Report (1999) hailed the external degree programme of the University of Nairobi as being particularly beneficial to serving teachers and other Kenyans in employment that would otherwise not have been able to enroll for university education on a full time basis. Lack of appropriate time, lack of information -ke Date: loth February, 2012 Our Ref: Grace Wamuyu Maina Kenyatta University P.O.Box 43844 NAIROBI RE: RESEARCH AUTHORIZATION Following your application for authority to carry out research on "Contribution of satellite campuses to access to higher education: A case of the University of Nairobi," I am pleased to inform you that you have been authorized to undertake research in the University of Nairobi for a period ending 3r'Marc/I, 2012. You are advised to report to The Vice Chancellor, University of Nairobi before embarking on the research project. On completion of the research, you are expected to submit one hard copy and one soft copy of the research report/thesis to our office. . ~ DRM.K.RUGUTT, P;D~-~ • DEPUTY COUNCIL SECRETARY Copy to: The Vice Chancellor. University of Nairobi 76 APPENDIX VI: LOCATION OF UoN EXTRAMURAL CENTERS \~----------------------------------------------- COl..l..EGE OF EOUCAnON AND EXTERNAl.. STUDIES e t;8 a Loklchogio Lodwar. .Wajir KE YAeKapeogu riaorea L e88Mgo • akamegaK1sumu L 0 BOgoria e t4rueL ~ eria 6r;: a V'it$h EOUA!OA eGarissa _NAIROBI•Mac os Ma •Watamu Bay INDIAN OCEAN ..- _.__ ._- ..---- ..-~--- KENYATTA UNIVERSITY LIBRARY 77