THE HISTORY OF SPECIAL EDUCATION IN KENYA: A
CASE OF KISUMU AND NYANDO DISTRICTS 1945 - 2003
BY
JACOB A. ONY ANGO ORINDA
A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE SCHOOL OF HUMANITIES
AND SOCIAL SCIENCES IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF
THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF
ARTS OF KENY ATTA UNIVERSITY
FEBRUARY, 2008
J,
KENYAITA UNIVERSITY LIBRAR
DECLARATION
This thesis is my original work and to the best of my knowledge, it has not been
submitted for a degree in any other university.
~~"Signature ~ \ ~ Date 9-\, OAr O~
Jacob A. Orinda Onyango
Kenyatta University, Department of History, Archaeology and Political
studies.
This thesis has been submitted for examination with our approval as University
Supervisors
Signature ~. ~\,a~'D~~ Date _
Dr. Samson M. Omwoyo
Kenyatta University, Department of History, Archaeology and Political Studies
Signature ~ Date -----~---------------
Dr. Lazarus K. Ngari
Kenyatta University, Department of History, Archaeology and Political Studies
Orinda, Jacob A.
The history of
special education in
~~I~J~1I---
11
DEDICATION
To my parents, Gerson Orinda Okollo and Mama Plister Ayiemba Orinda, for
having responsibly brought me up, my wife Joscinter and all our children.
III
ACKNOWLDGEMENTS
This work has become a reality due to the cooperation and support of several
individuals and organizations. In as much as I would have liked to cite all those
who facilitated the completion of this work, it cannot be realistically possible.
However I must not forget to thank Kenyatta University for offering me an
opportunity to pursue a postgraduate degree.
My special appreciation goes to Dr. Samson Omwoyo, the late Prof. Gabriel Jal
and Dr. L. Ngari, my supervisors. I must truly confess that Dr. Omwoyo constantly
gave me professional encouragement throughout the research work. I thank him
most sincrelyfor opening up my eyes on issues that appeared opaque to me. To the
late Prof. Jal, I'm so grateful for clarity, being liberal and to the point. I'm also
grateful to all those who responded to my questionnaires and oral interviews.
Special thanks go to Dr. Karugo of Kenyatta University, Dr. Kochun'g of Maseno
University, Mr. Ayieko Yalo Maseno University, Mr. Charles Anang'a Okello an
oral historian, all heads of Special Institutions (Kisumu and Nyando Districts), staff
of Lillian Foundation: Janet, Sr. Catherine and Christine for useful data.
4'
Equally my thanks also go to members of the Torch Development group. Since my
study was not sponsored by anybody hence obvious financial difficulty, Torch
members; Mr. Joshua Ogunde, Mr. Moses Kasure, Mr. Edward Opiyo and their
spouses greatly supported my family in the course of my study. I must also humbly
thank my only classmate, Susan, who was a source of inspiration throughout the
lV
study. Special thanks also go to my sons, Mark Otieno and Martin Ouma. who
helped in typing this work whenever corrections were made. Last but not least. I'm
sincerely grateful to my wife Joscinter Akoth and all our children for their spiritual
and moral support in my studies.
v
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Declaration ii
Dedication iii
Acknowledgements iv
Abbreviations & Acronyms x
Definition ofTerrns xi
Abstract xiv
Maps xv
CHAPTER ONE 1
Introduction.............................................................................................................. ]
1.1. Background to the Study 1
1.2 Statement of the Problem 4 >'
1.3 Research Questions 5
1.4 Objective of the study 5
1.5 Assumptions of the study 5
1.6 Justification and Significance of the study 6
1.7 Literature Review .1 ••........•.........•..•••••.•••.•••••••••••••.••.•..••.•..••••••...............•....... 8
1.8 Theoretical Framework 15/
1.9 Research Methodology ...................................................•............................. 19
t .'9.1 Introduction 19
1.9.2 Population and Sampling Procedure 20
1-:9.3 Research Instruments 22
1.9.4 Date Analysis 25
vi
CHAPTER TWO ................................................................................................•.. 26
Special Education in Colonial Kenya - Early Experiences 1945 -1963 26
2.1 Introduction 26
2.2 Establishment of Colonialism in Kenya 26
2.2.1 The Coming of Missionaries and Their Impact in the Provision of
Education in Kenya 28
2.2.2 Colonial Government 29
2.3 The Role of the Churches After 1945 32
2.4 Summary........................................................................ . 38
CHAPTER THREE 39
Special Education Programmes in Kisumu and Nyando Districts 1963 -2003 39
3.1 Introduction 39
3.2 Traditional Concept of Handicapped People in Kisumu and Nyando Districts 39
3.3 Programmes in Kisumu and Nyando Districts 42
3.3.1 A Brief History and Work of the Salvation Army 42
3.3.2 A Brief History of the Lutheran Church 45
3.3.3 A Brief History of the Catholic Church 46
3.3.4 The Anglican Church of Kenya 49
3.3.5 Lilian Foundation 50
3.3.6 Kenya Integrated Education Programme (KIEP) 51
3.3.7 Kisumu and Nyando KIEP Program 51
3.3 Summary 53
Vll
CHAPTER FOUR 54
Government and Donor Involvement in Special Education, 1963-1984 54
4.1 Introduction 54
4.2 Effect ofNgala Mwendwa Report and Ominde Commission Report 1964 54
4.3 The Gachathi Report, 1976 (The National Committee on Educational
Objectives and Policies) 61
4.4 The Government Role in the Provision of Special Education in Nyando and
Kisumu Districts 1963 - 1984 65
4.5 Summary 77
CHAPTER FIVE 78
CHALLE GES AND PROSPECTS OF SPECIAL EDUCATION 1984:200378
5: 1 Introduction 78
5:2 The Mackay Report and the 8:4:4 System of Education 78
5.3 Implication of Kamunge (1988) and Koech (1999) Reports in Special
Education 87
5.4 International Concern for Special Education and Effect on Kenya's Model... 95
Effects on Kenya Model of Special Education 98
5.5 Management of Special Education in Nyando and Kisumu Districts 99
5.6 Parental Attitude 101
5.7 Emerging Issues ~........................................................................................ 107
5.8 Summary 113
Vlll
('IIAI>'rER SIX 115
Conclusions................................................... . 115
References... . .. . .. .. . 126
Appendices . i34
IX
APDK.
BEFA
CBM
CCF
CEE
DA lOA
EARC
EFA.
KAPE
KASE
KSD
KIE
KIEP
KISE
KNEC
KPE
KSB
KSMH.
MOEST
NGO
SCE
SNE
TIQET
UNESCO
ABREVIA TIO S & ACCRONYMS
-Association for The Physically Disabled in Kenya.
-Basic Education For All.
- Cristofel Blinden Mission
- Christian Children's Fund
-Common Entrance Examination.
-Danish International Development Agency.
-Education Assessment and Resource Center.
-Education For All.
-Kenya African Preliminary Education.
-Kenya African Secondary Education.
- Kenya Society for the Deaf
- Kenya Institute of Education.
-Kenya Integrated Education Program.
- Kenya Institute of Special Education.
-Kenya National Examination Council.
-Kenya Preliminary Examination.
-Kenya Society For the Blind.
-Kenya Society For the Mentally Handicapped.
-Ministry of Education Science and Technology.
- on-Governmental Organization.
-School Certificate Examination
-Special Needs Education.
-Totally Integrated Quality Education and Training.
-United ations Education, Social and Cultural Organization.
x
DEFINITION OF TERMS
Special Education: The one component of the overall educational system
that relies most heavily on scientific method and
experimental research to improve instruction and to
provide ways to change developmental, learning and
behavioural problems.
Development Partners: International, national or local organizations that
support special education either directly or through
other interested parties.
Impairment: Lacking part or all of a limb, or having a defective
limb, organ or mechanism of the body.
Disability: The disadvantage or restriction of activity caused by a
contemporary social organization which takes little or
no account of people who have physical impairments
and thus excludes them from participation in the~.
mainstream of social activities.
Handicap: Physical disadvantage limiting individual fulfillment.
Xl
Physically Handicapped: Persons with physical, neurological and chronic health
impairments.
Hearing Impaired: An individual manifesting hearing disability which
may range in severity form mild to profound.
Street Children: Persons whose lives are carried out in the streets.
squares, parks, shopping centers; and other public
places.
Gifted and Talented: A person possessing potential abilities that give
evidence of high performance capability in such areas
as intellectual, creativity, specific academic or
leadership ability or in the performing of visual arts
and who by reason therefore requires services or
activities not ordinarily provided by the school
Visually Handicapped: A person whose visual impairment interferes with his
optimal learning and achievement, unless adaptations
are made in the methods of presenting learning
~.
experiences, the nature of the materials using and/or in.
the learning environment.
Mentally Handicapped: Sub-average general intellectual functioning associated
with impairments in adaptive behaviour.
Xll
Development:
Multi-Handicapped:
Small Home:
Inclusive Education:
A positive change for the better. In this case
betterment of lives of the disabled through school
education.
A person possessing more than one form of handicap
e.g. Blind and Deaf.
A building next to or within a regular school meant to
house handicapped children (about 15) who attend that
school.
Providing special education services to learners In
schools nearest to them i.e. their homes
Xlll
ABSTRACT
This study focuses on the history of Special Education in Kisumu and Nyando
Districts of Kenya, 1945-2003.It examines the type of Education given to the youth
before the colonial government and the missionaries. It argues that the colonial
government was not concerned with the education of the Africans except to the
extent that the education would give Africans minimal skills for use in colonial
labor force. Equally the missionaries opened up catechism centers for religious
institutions and basic schools for elementary instructions on arithmetic. reading and
writing. The study established that from 1945, Special Education programs were
started in Kenya mainly spearheaded by churches like the Salvation Army. the
Catholic and other charitable organizations such as the Aghakan foundation. It is
evident through the study that the Kenya government was aware of the needs of the
disabled children as evident in the first education commission's report of 1964
which put forward some recommendations on the care to be put in place.
Subsequent education commissions gave some recommendations on what was to be
done towards the education of the handicapped but there was not much
implementation until late 1980' s when training of teachers for the handicapped was
centralized at Kenya Institute of Special Education. But still only four areas of
handicap have been addressed at K.I.S.E. Programs for the gifted and talented and
even adult literacy for disabled persons have not been addressed by the
government. This further deny a big number of persons with Special Needs the
services they deserve. The study found out that Special Education in Nyando and
Kisumu Districts only gained ground with the establishment of Nyabondo center
for the disabled, Kibos school for the blind in early 1960's, the establishment of
Maseno school for the deaf and Joyland school for the physically handicapped
inI970's. The institutions named above were initiated by the churches, a fact that
confirms the little role the government played in providing education to the
disabled. It must however be noted that the government contributed by providing
teachers for the special programs though much supervision and management was
left in the hands of the sponsors, a fact which compromised quality and led to some
conflicts in administration. The study has established that the challenges that face
Special Education in Nyando and Kisumu Districts includes lack of physical
facilities, qualified personnel, attitude by non disabled, funding, access and
participation among others. Even though some of these are being addressed, when
compared to the non-handicapped, people with disabilities are still highly
disadvantaged.
XlV
Figure 1: The map of Kenya
Area of study
N+
xv
Figure 2: The area of study: Kisumu and Nyando District
NANDI DISTRICT
LAKE
VICTORIA
D Divisionso Districts
,+
o 0 10 20 Ki lometers~~~~~~~~~~ RACHUONYO DISTRICT
SOME SPECIAL PROGRAMME
1. Joyland Special School
2. Lutheran Special School
3. Kibos Special School
4. Joel Omino Special Unit
5. Maseno Special School
6. Kasagam Special Unit
10. Mayenya Special Unit
11. yabondo Special Unit
12. Chemelil Special Unit
13 Abwao Special Unit
14. Tamu Special Unit
IS. Awasi Special Unit
7. Ojola Special Unit
8. Rabuor Special Unit
9. Alara Special Unit
16. St. Anne Special Unit
17. Nyangande Special Unit
18. Bunde Special Unit
XVI
CHAPTER ONE
Introduction
1.1. Background to the Study
Special Education is defined as the component of the overall educational system
that relies most heavily on scientific methods and experimental research to improve
instruction and to provide ways to change development, learning and behavioural
problems, (Haring 1978). This definition has been adopted by this study to analyse
the various aspects of Special Education as they apply to the Kenyan situation. The
first aspect is the syllabus and how dynamic it has been since 1945, the second
aspect is the institutions offering Special Education and how they have been
expanding as compared to non-special institutions, the third aspect is teacher
training and adequacy of teaching staff between 1945 to 2003, the fourth aspect
deals with the funding of Special Education and its programmes between 1945 to
date. For clear understanding of Special Education, categories of persons desiring
this service need to be spelt out. They include persons with physical handicap,
persons with mental handicap, persons with visual impairment, persons with
hearing impairment, persons with specific learning difficulties, persons with more
than one handicap (multi handicapped) such as deaf and blind, persons who are
gifted and talented, persons with behaviour problems, orphans, abused children and
children living on the streets. It should be noted that most of the above categories
have not been addressed by the education system hence the need for this study.
However, even the areas that have drawn some attention and institutional setup, a
lot has not been done in terms of funding, personnel, curriculum relevance,
physical facilities, to mention only a few. It is to be noted that this study only
focuses on the four areas of disabilities, thus, physical, mental, visual and hearing.
This does not mean that the other areas of Special needs are less important, but it is
a recognized limitation by the study given the fact that addressing all the areas
would call for more time and financial resources, the two aspects that seriously
limited this study.
The historical background of Special Education can be traced back to 640 AD in
the United Kingdom, and this evolved over a period of time to cover several
European countries and United States of America by 1817, (Ndurumo 1993: 13-
14). Studies that streamlined this sector are more evident in zo" century Europe
and America. In Africa, churches and voluntary organizations are cited as main
service providers (UNESCO, Special Education, 1969). In Kenya, Special
Education programmes were started in 1945 (Ndurumo, 1993) by churches and
voluntary organizations such as the Aga Khan Foundation. Schools like Thika
School for the Blind and St. Nicholas emerged in mid- 1940s. At independence
and shortly thereafter, the Ngala committee (1964) and Ominde Commission
(1964) made several recommendations on education of the disabled. The gala
Committee recommended the integration of handicapped with non-handicapped. In
1968, the Ominde report formed the basis of Sessional Paper No. 5 which has been
used as a guiding principle in Special Education.
In Nyando and Kisumu districts, formal education was not provided pnor to
independence. (Ondiek,OI, 2003). The schools that existed were mainly run by
2
churches and they were scattered. Pupils used to walk as far as 10 km to reach the
school of their denomination. For example, children belonging to the Catholic faith
would only attend Catholic schools and those of the Protestant faith, protestant
schools. With the distance and the general neglect of handicapped persons, it was
common not to find handicapped children in schools. Neither was there any
reference to them. In Kisumu District, the Salvation Army Church started Kibos
School for the blind in 1963, while the Catholic started Nyabondo centre for
crippled children- otherwise originally known as John F. Kennedy Children's
Home, 1963. These two institutions marked the formal establishment of special
education services in the two districts. Children from Nyabondo centre for the
crippled would go to adjacent Nyabondo Boys Primary School and Nyabondo Girls
Primary School respectively.
Teacher education for the handicapped was also fragmented prior to 1986 when
Kenya Institute of Special Education was opened. Teachers of the Hearing
Impaired Trained in Central Teachers College (present day Kenya Institute of
Education) from 1966-69 then Kenyatta College (present Kenyatta University),
from 1969-1971; then moved to Siriba Teachers Training College up to 1977 when
~.
they moved to Kamwenja Teachers Training College where they trained uP. to
1986, then they moved to Kenya Institute of Special Education in Nairobi. Teacher
Training for Mentally Handicapped started in 1966 at St. Nicholas School then
moved to Highridge Teachers Training College in 1969 up to 1986 when it was
moved to Kenya Institute of Special Education; training of teachers of Visually
Impaired started in Highridge in 1980 up to 1986 then moved to Kenya Institute of
3
Special Education while training of teachers for the Physically Handicapped
children started at Kenya Institute of Special Education in 1987.
1.2 Statement of the Problem
Despite establishing Special Education, inspectorate section and the administrative
unit in the early 1970s and president Moi's declaration of 1980 as the National year
of the disabled, not much has been done to improve the quality and quantity of
Special Education in Kenya. For example in the development plan of 1979-83, out
of the total education expenditure of Ksh.548, 938,000, Special Education received
only Ksh.2,588,000; a big neglect in so far as funding is concerned representing
only 2% of the educational budget. Ndurumo (1993) noted that out of about 1.8
million disabled people in Kenya (1985), 456,500 were school going age yet
special programmes hardly catered for 10% of that population. The above
information made it crucial to study Special Education historically to establish
why, despite Kenya's high education growth, Special Education has lagged behind.
It is against the above background that this study set to analyze the history of
Special Education in Kenya focusing on Nyando and Kisumu districts between the
period 1945 to 2003. It examines the attitude of parents of the handicapped towards
their children and society's response to needs of the handicapped. Equally, it
sought to establish the neglect of Special Education by the government in so far as
staff development, funding, enrolment and the syllabus are concerned and the
conflicts which may have arisen between the government and other stakeholders in
providing Special Education service. The study thus sought to give clear historical
4
background to Special Education, the present situation and future trend for
positive development. Some of the questions the study sought to answer included:
1.3 Research Questions
(i) What are the factors, which contributed to the establishment of special
schools in Kisumu and Nyando Districts?
(ii) What has been the Kenya Govemment policy guiding the development
of Special Education since 1945?
(iii) What is the impact of funding from development partners on the
development of Special Education in Kenya?
(iv) To what extent is the service provided adequate in relation to societal
needs?
1.4 Objectives of the Study
The study has endeavored to attain the following objectives:
(i) To examine factors that contributed to the establishment of Special
schools in society.
(ii) Analyse the governments policy and participation in the development of
Special Education in Kenya between 1945-2003
(iii) To examine the impact of development partners 111 the funding of
Special Education in Kisumu and Nyando Districts between 1945-2003.
(iv) ~ Assess the adequacy of education services provided to the disabled in
relation to social needs.
5
1.5 Assumptions of the Study
The study assumed the following: -
(a) Special schools and programmes have mainly been established and
funded by development partners other than the Kenya Government.
(b) That there is no clear Government Policy on Special Education hence
administration and inspections are not co-ordinated to realize the
education goals for the special children.
(c) That since Special Education provision in Kenya has mainly been the
domain of development partners they dictate terms on management of
the schools hence conflict with other stakeholders such as Ministry of
Education, Parents, and Board of Governors ..
(d) That there is inadequate education provision to the disabled in relation
to societal needs.
1.6 Justification and Significance of the Study
Kenya is one of the countries in tropical Africa with rapid growth in education.
This growth however is not equally reflected in the provision of Special Education.
It was not until a~er the 2nd World War that the provision of services to persons
with disabilities was introduced mainly to rehabilitate war victims. This subject
therefore called for scrutiny owing to its long neglect. The work is significant
because historical study of Special Education in Kenya is lacking. The works that
give information on Special Education are mainly found in education commission
reports such as: Ominde report (1964), Gachathi report (1976), Kamunge report
6
(1988) and Koech report (1999) to mention only a few. These reports are not
historical studies. In fact it is only Ndurumo's work (1993), Exceptional children:
Developmental consequences and intervention, which is a more serious attempt to
address Special Education in Kenya, though it is not a historical study.
This work focuses on Kisumu and Nyando districts (See Figure 1) because:
(i) All the Special Education programmes - the main areas currently being
addressed by Kenya are available, such as Physically Handicapped,
Mentally Handicapped, Hearing Impaired, and Visually Impaired.
(ii) Some of these schools are among the oldest in the country hence can
give better information on the evolution of Special Education in Kenya.
For example, Kibos.
(iii) Maseno School for Hearing Impaired was established in 1975.
(iv) Most of the church organizations which have promoted Special
Education are well-represented such as the Salvation Army, the Catholic
Church, and the Anglican Church of Kenya.
(v) Concentrations of Special Schools in close proximity, save for a few
isolated cases, proved useful to the study, in cost and time management.
It is important to note that dependence on bilateral and multilateral assistance is fast
fading. Coupled with the current thinking of inclusive education, the study is timely
because it hopes to superimpose the past on the present to come up with
recommendations for a better future.
7
1.7 Literature Review
Education has been defined as what happens to us from the day we are born to the
day we die. It is the reconstruction or re-organization of experience, which
increases ability to direct the course of subsequent experience, (Nsubuga, 1977).
Peter, in Kegan, (1978) discuss liberal education and refers to Plato' s view that
education is a process which equips and encourages a man to develop into a full
man by using his reason to the utmost.
Education is aimed at answering economic, political, and social needs of any given
society. Any society is recreated through its youth and therefore, it is important to
equip them with the knowledge with which to sustain the society. The history of
education in Kenya is closely linked with the missionaries and the colonial
government in the late 191h century up to part of 201h century.
For the learners of Special Education, it is in record world over that their treatment
was generally the same, that is, they were treated as second class citizens.
However, durumo (1993) identifies the works of a few individuals before the
establishment of special schools. They include Didymus (AD 309-395) who
devised the first reading materials for the visually impaired,; Pedro pounce de
Leone (a monk) who lived in Spain - in the 161h century and taught a deaf pupil to
read and write arithmetic and speech: George Philip, a German who developed wax
tablets as writing materials for the blind in 1651 and Jean Marc Gaspard Itard
(1775-1838), a French physician who began educating a 12-year old boy found
roaming naked and wild in the forest of France in the early years of 19th century.
8
KENYA TV LIBRA
Itards ideas form the foundation of present day Special Education practices.
Others include: Howe; (1801-1876); Gallardet (1787-1871); Braille (1909-1952)-
who developed the Braille system of reading and writing; Montessori (1870-1952)
and. Jones (1990), looking at the issue of Special Education through the Warnock
report, (1978) argue that the educational experiences of those with Special Needs
can be considerably broadened and enhanced through imaginative management and
skillful use of resources. This argument is relevant to the current study because it
highlights the importance of resources and their management in the development of
Special Education.
Ysseldyde and Algozzine (1979:6) refer to Special Education as a sub-system of
regular education whose purpose is to provide appropriate experiences to students
who are perceived as different from other students in some way. This work is
important to the study because it highlights the content regarding Special Education
to regular education. It, however, fails to explain further under what circumstances
appraisal experiences could be applied and what they are. The work also does not
categorically show what constitutes Special Education and what constitute regular
education.
Gachathi Education Commission Report (1976) highlights several ways through
which Special Education could be improved and expanded. They include public
education aimed at encouraging and enabling the public to identify the various
types of handicaps and to seek appropriate assistance; creation of awareness on the
part of the public on the causes of disabilities with a view to facilitating prevention
9
of their proliferation. The Kamunge Report (1988) states in part: " ... one of the
shortages in Special Education relates to facilities for children with multiple
handicaps. There is need to establish secondary schools for the deaf and additional
ones for the blind". The same views are expressed in the Education Report of 1999,
popularly known as the Koech Report (Koech 1999:99-100). These reports were
informative to this study because they articulated the views of the persons
appointed by the government to look into changes to be made in the education
sector and recommended possible changes. The responsibility to implement the
recommendations rests with the government.
The National Development Plan (1997-2001) states that the government's primary
objective in the Special Education sub-sector is to facilitate persons with special
learning needs to be able to function as productively and independently as possible
in their communities and families through early identification, early intervention
and placement. The report is too general and does not show how placement of
disabled in employment would be carried out. It fails to give specific dates of
implementation of proposed actions. The work confirms the fact that there is less
commitment by the government to give services to children with special
educational needs. Owino and Muya (1986:9) in Special Education abstract in
Africa observe that:
One of the indicators of the development of Special
Education a country has attained is the levels at which the
handicapped are identified. In many African countries,
their incidence is unknown.
10
This work is relevant to the current study because it confirms the weaknesses
evidenced in our provision of Special Education. Baur (1990) highlights the work
of the "Catholic Church in Kenya in its hundred years of existence. He posits that
"... the establishment of St. Lucy's School for the Blind in Meru by the Catholic
sisters in 1958 (Baur 1990:93) was among the activities that saw the growth of the
church in Meru. Special Education programmes were to be found attached to
several Catholic missions such as St. Oda, Nyang'oma, Nyabondo to name but a
few. This work informs the current study because it sheds light on how the
churches were positively occupied with the provision of educational facilities for
the disabled children.
Bishop (1986) in looking at education observes that: "To say that you must stop
them (young people) from seeking education till you are in a position to afford their
education is as difficult, even if it were at all desirable, as asking the world to stop
because you want to get rid of it. The demand for education is hitting the ceiling of
available resources. We in the developing countries require more and more, and
better education but we cannot get either more or better, by doing the same things
in education as we have cione before, even though on a larger and expanding scale.
~.
That way is a blind alley". This work, though does not mention Special Education,
is a useful information because when considering human. rights, the disabled
equally need the excellent education offered to. the non-disabled and the. .
government has no excuse in leaving matters pertaining to Special Education in the
hands of development partners and other well-wishers.
1 1
McKelvey and Peters (1993) look at the disabled persons in Britain and observe
that out of 614 million people with disabilities in the country, 200,000 are school
pupils. They lament the fact that although the Education Act of 1981 endorsed the
principle that disabled children should be educated along side non-disabled, the
practice has not been fully implemented with one in five children being educated in
the same schools as other children. They further observe that determination of
parents is often a major factor affecting where a child with disabilities is educated,
with only those who are prepared to put up a fight succeeding in getting places for
their children in the mainstream schools. Sometimes people with disabilities are
sheltered in such a way as to prevent them from realizing their full potential. This
work is useful to the study because it highlights fundamental issues affecting
education of the handicapped children ranging from the government's involvement
to the society including the disabled students themselves and their parents. The
need for assertiveness is realized in order for the disabled to get their rights in their
communities.
Solity (1993) argues that at any time, the political, social and economic climate
creates the context in which certain educational practices and beliefs are likely to
find favour. The beginning or the 1990s has seen education feature prominently as
a political issue. There has rarely been a time when teaching methods and standards
have not occupied the thoughts of politicians and teachers. Teachers who are able
to retain a sense of direction and examine the assumptions on which changes are
advocated are better able to maintain their perspective, and to bring a critical
awareness to their evaluation of existing or suggested practices. This study, though
12
carried out in a developed country (Britain) has a lot of information on factors
affecting the provision of education in general. When these factors affect the
overall education system then, they are likely to affect more severely the provision
of education for the handicapped. It is, therefore, the intention of this study to fill
the missing gap by examining the role of politics, economic, social and climatic
factors, among others in relation to provision of education to the disabled persons
in Kenya and in particular Kisumu and Nyando districts.
There is inherent fear and pessinusm that education for the disabled is such a
difficult task that it is better be left alone when the government and stakeholders are
not prepared. Musvosvi, (2002), for example, has a lot of reservation for inclusive
education citing the unavailability of jobs for even non-disabled young persons
who graduate from our high schools and colleges. He faults the 8-4-4 system of
education as not addressing the objectives for which it was started. Equally, the
teacher education and teachers' capacity to manage education of the disabled along
with the non-disabled is highly doubted. The work was informative to the study
because the area of Special Education has remained a preserve of just a few,
particularly the religious groups that, approach it, not from the professional view
but from the ~·humanitarian position. Bayers (2002) introduces the factor of
inclusion as a transf~s;d Special Education. He also addresses the issue of policy
and sees Special Education as a field in flux. His work is important to the study
because it discusses the current debate on which direction Special Education should
take. It talks of formulating policies that endeavour to include all members of
society in both educational setup and real life situation.
13
Westwood (1997) talks of differentiation and posits that this principle in
educational programming applies quite as much to addressing the characteristics
and needs of gifted and talented students as it does to meeting the needs of students
with disabilities. He argues that the notion of differentiation is fundamental to the
concept of inclusion. These works shed light on the direction Special Education is
taking and give valuable suggestions on how to manage inclusive classes. He talks
of adaptations in instructional methods which should result in improved success
rates for lower ability students. With these, it should be remembered that the
current thinking about education for the disabled is greatly influenced by the
enlightenment the society has undergone in which people's perceptions have
greatly changed. With the modern technology, the disabled persons are quite able
to perform a wide range of duties which were earlier thought to be impossible for
them. For example, the physically handicapped individuals are able to drive
adapted cars and many disabled have excelled in academic work where the so
called able have failed.
Saina (2002) talks of zero reject philosophy, while Kristensen (2002) Musvosvi
(2002) and Bayers (2002) talk of restructuring of schools, specialist expertise and
response to societal needs as some of the basic tenets which inclusive education
strives to address. The current international feeling as observed by Kristensen
(2002) is that children should go to schools as close to their homes as possible and
that there should be zero reject, that is, no child should be denied admission in any
public school due to disability. However, they recognize the fact that some severe
14
E
cases of disabilities will still need much more specialized attention and this calls
for centres of excellence to offer the complex services.
It is evident from the above analysis that a number of unsolved issues pertaining to
the provision of Special Education still requires attention. At various points in time
these issues have emerged to influence and affect the provision of Special
Education. It is therefore incumbent upon an historical study such as this to analyse
various phases Special Education has gone through in its development. This study,
therefore, narrows the areas of study to Kisumu and Nyando districts and sets to
analyse the historical development of Special Education against the national
background.
1.8 Theoretical Framework
Theory provides a tool of analysis for any social scientific study. Thus several
theories will be used in this study. Special Education is embedded with socio-
cultural conflicts which need multifacet approach for its resolution. To the extent
that it would apply, the functional theory has been used. This theory has its roots in
the nineteenth century positivistic theories of Comte, Spencer, and Durkheim and
developed over the years through the works of the structuralist - functionalist
anthropologists, Malinowski and Radcliffe-Brown to the more contemporary works
of Talcot Persons and Robert Merton. This theory is based on analogy between
biological organic systems and social systems. Here there is interest in the states of,
social wholes, for example a social whole ~ay be the Kenya, Uganda or the
Zambian society; it may be a traditional African society, such as a particular
15
kingdom of Buganda. The importance of parts of a social system or social whole
is seen in terms of their contribution to the survival and maintenance of the whole
system-structure or parts of a system are classified according to such criteria as
contribution to integration of the whole system, kinds of the equilibrium -
sustaining mechanisms adopted, and survival requisites. In this perspective. causal
analysis revolves around how changes in parts or a combination of parts affect the
state of the whole system.
This theory shed light to the fact that man is organized into social systems; social
behaviour and society are understandable only when account is taken of the
interaction - generating properties of social systems; that social processes develop
in the environment of relationships among parts of systems; social systems
represent meeting points of individuals and their needs and the general need of
human beings to associate with one another; that human patterns of organization
exist at different systemic levels from the small, less inclusive to the large more
inclusive; and that it is necessary to understand the relation between levels of
organisation. To the extent that it talks of biological organic and social systems,
one will bring the relationship between diffejentiated service delivery in education
sector where the handicapped and non-handicapped people in society have
negatively contributed to their social acceptance. The society does not seem to
mind that there exist members, the disabled who need adaptations in houses,
transport systems and toilets in order to access such services with less difficulty.
This theory supports the current thinking world over which is tailored towards
16
equal opportunities for all. Inclusion International (1996) states "Inclusion refers
to the opportunity for persons with a disability to participate fully in all of the
educational, employment. recreational, community and domestic activities and
typify everyday society". Kenya being one of the countries with several
programmes in Special Education can benefit from the views expressed in this
theory.
According to Dyssegard and Nielsen (2002) there seem to be a growing
international agreement that inclusive education should be understood as a strategic
approach or process of addressing and responding to the diversity of needs of all
learners and reducing exclusion within and from education in order to afford all
learners basic human right to education, right to equal opportunities and right to
social participation. People all over the world are quickly becoming aware of
abilities of persons with handicaps hence their care and integration into the society
now being addressed more seriously. To the extent that Special Education has
evolved historically because of societal conflict, conflict perspective has been
applied. Most legislations in Europe and America have recognized the rights of the
disabled as a result of some conflicts in the society. For example parents who were
prepared to put up legal fights succeeded in getting places for their children in the
mainstream educational institutions.
According to Giddens (1992) conflict theory owes much to the work of Karl Marx
and George Simmel. Both of these authorities saw conflict as ubiquitous and an
ever present and inevitable feature of social systems. But while Marx ~d emphasis
17
on the divisive nature of conflict, Simmel emphasized its integrative functions.
Marx located the source of conflict in the distribution of resources available to
members of the social system. Parts of the social system fights to ensure that in the
distribution of resources their interests are taken care of. This tends to lead to
unequal distribution of resources which then generate further conflict. One may
give a corresponding analogy of this phenomenon with Special Education
provision. Right from home, if parents have the disabled among the non-disabled,
the preference for schooling would be given to the nondisabled. Equally most
governments do give more attention to regular education than Special Education. In
UNESCO (1991) a survey carried out in 1986-7 found that children with Special
Educational needs had not shared equitably in the global expansion of educational
opportunities. The survey found that in thirty two out of fifty-one countries which
replied to the questionnaire, less than one percent of the school age population was
enrolled in Special Education programs; in forty-four countries the figure was less
than three percent.
The main elements of the conflict theory are that interests are the basic ingredients
of inducement and force to be used to ensure s~ocial life. Therefore, division,
opposition, and hostility are generated by social life. This manifests itself in
structured conflict based on sectional interests, the resolution of which involves the
use of power. Conflict perspective makes it possible to see the other face of society.
It is in seeing this other face of the society that champions of development of
Special Education have strived to give the sector a new look. This theory
18
contributes positively to the study because as Special Education programs have
evolved in Kenya, they have apparently been faced with many social problems
unique to the social structure of the disabled as opposed to other sectors of the
community.
1.9 Research Methodology
1.9.1 Study Area
The study was carried out in Kisumu and Nyando Districts of the Nyanza province,
Kenya, (see Figure 1 and 2). Kisumu and Nyando Districts are two of the twelve
Districts in yanza Province. Up to 1998 the two Districts formed the former
Kisumu District. The area borders Kericho District to the East, andi District to the
North East, Rachuonyo District to the South, Lake Victoria to the West and Bondo
and Siaya Districts to the North West. The area is inhabited by the Jo-Nyakach, Jo-
Kano, Jo-Kisumo, Jo-Kajulu and Jo-Seme of the Luo community. Total population
of the area is 887,801 with average density of 416 persons per Kilometer Square.
Out of the ~13 primary schools and 1.90 secondary schools in the area, 27 primary
schools and 1 secondary school offers some form of Special Education. 4 out of the
27 are Special schools while the rest are units. The one secondary school caters for~.
the physically handicapped and it practices inclusive education. The area is
endowed with natural resources such as ballast and sand, which are used for
construction both within the District and the neighboring Districts. Agricultural
crops include sugarcane, cotton, bananas, coffee 'and maize. Fishing is equally an
important economic activity. Equally pottery, basketry and mat making are part of
19
economic activities. Most of these activities do not support the people effectively
because of lack of support by the government. Sugar and cotton industries are
dwindling yet they are the main cash crops of the area. This has affected the general
development of education of the area and in particular the education of the
disabled. Most of the small homes and units started by the churches are facing
enrolment difficulties just because parents cannot afford to sustain them. Examples
of such institutions are Abwao small home and Nyang'ande small home.
Kisumu District has four administrative divisions namely, Winam, Maseno,
Kombewa and Kadibo. It borders Siaya District to the West, Vihiga District to the
orth Nandi to the East and Winam Gulf to the South. Similarly yando District
has five administrative divisions namely, Upper Nyakach, Lower Nyakach.
Nyando, Miwani and Muhoroni. It borders Kisumu District to the West, Nandi
District to North, Kericho District to the East and Rachuonyo District to the South.
Since all categories of special programmes are represented in the area of study. it is
the hope of the researcher that this study forms the basis upon which other related
studies may benefit in so far as the development of Special Education in Kenya is
concerned.
1.9.2 Population and Sampling Procedure
The target population in this study was (557) which comprised of 5 head teachers
of special schools; (20) Head teachers of special units; (70) Teachers of Special
schools; (135) teachers of special units; (6) Ministry of Education officials; (1)
Provincial Director of Education; (5) Donor organizations; (4) Churches; (2)
20
District Education Officers; (1) Kenyatta University and (1) Maseno University;
Special Education department( 1);(200) parents; (2) Kenya Institute of Education
staff and 2 Kenya Institute of Special Education staff; (lOO)Students and (2)
Kenya National Examination Council staff. Sample size was 97 people, sampled
through purposive stratified random sampling. The respondents were identified
using both purposive and random sampling. Random sampling was used while
selecting teachers for the study while purposive stratified sampling was employed
to identify head teachers and representatives of the non-governmental organization,
education officers who had useful information relevant to the study. These samples
were drawn from a list of special schools and units, which were obtained from the
educational offices in the two districts. The sampled population thus stood as
follows;
Table 1. 1: Break down of the Sampled Population
Provincial Director of Education -Nyanza 1
District Education Officers -Nyando and Kisumu 2
Kenyatta University Special Education department 1
Kenya Institute of Special Education 1
Maseno University Special Education Department. 1
~.
Kenya Institute of Education 1
Kenya National Examination Council 1
Churches and other development partners 7
Head teachers of special schools 5
Head teachers of special units 10
21
Teachers of special schools 14
Teachers of special units 17
Ministry of Education officials 6
Parents 20
Disabled children 10
TOTALS 97
1.9.3 Research Instruments
The research used primary and secondary sources of data. Secondary data entailed
examination of written work on the development of Special Education in Kenya
since 1945 with the aim of delineating the:various approaches and interpretations as
they touch on the development of Special Education. The materials comprising of
books, thesis and periodicals were obtained from various institutions, universities
and public libraries. In addition primary data was obtained from the archives which
included Kenya National and other libraries, particularly the Catholic Secretariat,
the Salvation Army library, Kenya Society for the Deaf, Sight savers, Association
for the Physically Disabled of Kenya, the Kenya Institute of Special Education
library and the Ministry of Education - Special Education section. Magazines and
newspapers also formed an important source of primary data.
Finally oral sources were also used since they provided first hand information key
informants were identified. The target population comprised of donors, both local
for example Kenya Society for the Deaf, Association for the physically disabled of
22
Kenya, Local Churches - the Catholic, Salvation Army, Anglican Church of
Kenya; International Donors such as, Lillian Foundation of Holland, Ministry of
Education officials at the policy making level, heads of special schools (primary
and secondary) and programs, in Kisumu and Nyando districts. the Disabled in
schools and those out of school, parents of the disabled, social workers, teachers of
the disabled, Director of Kenya Institute of Special Education. Director Kenya
Institute of Education and Heads of Special Education departments at Kenyatta and
Maseno Universities. The above population is closely connected to the
development of Special Education in Kenya hence the decision to include them in
the study.
The researcher applied the following tools in collecting data:
• Questionnaires - These were designed to collect pertinent data from
Ministry of Education officials, heads of Special Institutions, Programs,
Director of Kenya Institute of Special Education, Director of Kenya
Institute of Education, Teachers of the Disabled (see attached appendices).
• Interview schedule - This consisted of structured items with accuracy
checks on the responses. This was orally administered by the researcher
~'and his assistants to key informants.
• Observation - The researcher toured the programmes under study with an
observation checklist and recorded information regarding availability,
adequacy and suitability of equipment in the programs.
23
Questionnaires were administered to the head teachers, principals, teachers in-
charge of integrated programs to state their sources of funding, its adequacy and
impact; specific donors both local and international to state their objective in
funding special programs. estimated level of support, the impact of the support and
the vision; the ministry officials and Directors of Kenya Institute of Special
Education and Kenya Institute of Education to respond in government financial and
manpower contribution in Special Education, staff training and curriculum for the
handicapped students respectively.
As for the interview schedule and observation the researcher went back with the
response after the interview for analysis. The methods of data collection stated
above have both shortcomings and strengths. Oral interviews are subject to
problems like exaggerations, failing memory and inaccuracy in terms of dating. But
this is countered by some of the strengths such as the fact that the researcher is able
to get information directly and can detect cheating and distortions straight away by
posing probing and corroborative questions.
Written sources, smce they undergo editing and other selection processes may
change meaning of original information. However they are permanent records,
which can be revisited again and again. Both primary and secondary sources were
corroborated for accuracy, reliability and validity in the writing of thesis.
24
1.9.4 Data analysis
Two methods were used to analyze the data. The theory used helped to critically
examine the collected data together with the use of field notes. Secondly, the
historical method of corroboration of facts and evidence was used with oral
information gathered. The analysed data was then arranged into five chapters.
These included:- background to the study, special education in colonial Kenya -
Early Experience (1945-1963), special education programmes in Kisumu and
Nyando districts - 1963-2003, government and donor involvement in special
education 1963-1984 and challenges and prospects of special education, 1984-20030
25
CHAPTER TWO
Special Education in Colonial Kenya - Early Experiences 1945 - 1963
2.1 Introduction
In this chapter, the early experience of Special Education in Kenya is analyzed with
specific reference to Kisumu and Nyando Districts. Contribution of the Christian
Missionaries and the churches they represented are discussed. The development of
education before independence was mainly the preserve of the missionaries who
linked education with Christianity and western civilization. (Eshiwani, 1993). In
Kenya, a department of education was created in 1911. The whole of the colonial
period, the schools started by the colonial government included Alliance, Maseno,
Mangu, Kagumo, Kakamega, Nyeri and Kisii. The rest of the schools then were
started by churches. The colonial government needed those schools to generate an
educated labor force and to provide chiefs and headmen capable of participation in
indirect rule (Eshiwani 1993: 16). In reaction to both the colonial and missionary
education, which looked at most African values as inferior and barbaric, the few
Africans who had attained the same education, established independent African
schools to protect the African values. In 193~9an Independent Teacher Training
College was established in Githunguri. It was later closed down in 1952 when a
state of emergency was declared (Eshi wani 1993: 18)
2.2 Establishment of Colonialism in Kenya
There is probably no better expression of the desire by pioneer Europeans to make
Africa or part of it their cherished sphere of influence than what was expressed by
26
H. H Johnson in 1884. He had just signed a treaty with the chiefs of Taveta area
(27th Sept. 1984) which gave him control of about 13 square Km of uninhabited
forest, which he cleared and planted wheat and coffee. He hoped the British
Government would ratify his treaty and his small 'colony' would be extended to
cover a much wider area (Were and Wilson, 1976). The aims of Johnston are
clearly expressed in a letter he wrote to Lord Edmond Fitz Maurice
. .. here is a land eminently suited for European
colonialization. . ..... Within a few years it must be
English, French or German ... I'm on the spot, the first
in the field, and able to make Kilimanjaro as
completely English as Ceylon should I receiver the
necessary authorization. More over this might be done
without exiting any notice or involving any
responsibility for a cost not exceeding $ 5000. I
have only to invite a certain number of chosen
colonists, already desirous of joining my
expedition to come and occupy the beautiful sites
which will be given to them freely and here cultivate
the vine, the coffee plant, the sugarcane, rice, wheat,
oranges and limes, the principal points of this healthy
district will soon be in the hands of Englishmen ...
Johnston's thinking reflected the majority of European colonialists thinking as they
set their foot in Kenya. particularly the settlers who arrived mainly after the
construction of the Uganda railway from Mombasa (1896) to Kisumu (1901). The
~.
two Anglo-German agreements of 1886 and 1890 defined the boundaries between
Britain and Germany (Were and Wilson 1976-1970). In 1895 Britain established
the British East Africa
Protectorate (Kenya) and this marked the effective administration of Kenya and
exploitation of its human and natural resources for the benefit of the colonial
master.
27
2.2.1 The Coming of Missionaries and their Impact in the Provision of
Education in Kenya
r s I.{'t
John Krapht is recorded as the first missionary to arrive in east Africa in 188-1-and
was joined two years later by John Rebman in 1846 and Jacob Erhat in 1849 (Were
& Wilson, 1976). Several CMS and Roman Catholic Missionaries followed shortly
thereafter. Few among them included David Livingston, Holy Ghost Fathers and
Mill Hill missionaries (Burgman 1990). Missionaries first arrived at the coast
(Mombassa) and its environs, then moved inland. One of the catholic bishops who
contributed greatly to the start of missions in Kisumu region was Bishop Hanlon,
who embarked on this mission in 1903 (Bugman 1990: 31). The mission started in
Kisumu and expanded to Ojolla in 1906 and Aluor branch had to be opened in 1913
.In the same year 1913, Asumbi Mission was also opened. It is worth noting that
during 1903-1915 there was a great rush to establish missions mainly between the
Catholic and the C M S missions.
The Anglicans established themselves in Maseno in 1906 and established the most
important education center in western Kenya (Baur 1990) Quite often the colonial
administrators would come in to settle the disputes about the right by a particular
~.
faith to establish a mission within the sphere of influence of the other. Missions of
different faiths were not expected to be as close as four miles to each other (Bug
man 1990). In these missions the teaching of catechism and basic academic skills
were initiated .As missions grew, elementary schools also grew. The expansion of
mission schools followed the realization that jobs were to be competed for in the
28
colonial government. Each denomination strived to put in as many people as
possible in government jobs to gain more influence in government.
The missions, Maseno, Ogada, Ojolla, Kibuye (Kisumu), Nyabondo. Asumbi,
Lwak, Nyakach, Aluor Rangala, played a vital role in the growth of education in
the great Kisumu region, in particular Kisumu and Nyando Districts. Some of these
institutions initiated education for children with Special needs. An example being
Nyabondo, Aluor and Ogolla missions in 1960 (Ondiek 0 I, 2003).
2.2.2 Colonial Government
It must be noted from the onset that even though the colonial government, to some
extent, allowed the setting up of formal schools, it was not in their agenda to
establish special schools. The colonial education system aimed at training Africans
to serve as semi-skilled workers of the colonial economy (Nabende, 2000). This
policy was the consequence of the Stokes and Beecher reports of 1924 and 1949
respectively. Eshiwani (1993) observed that a department of education was created
by the colonial administration in 1911 and the first government school for Africans
was began, though such schools were few in number during the whole of the~.
colonial period. He observed that up to 1967 the government schools for Africans
included Alliance, Maseno, Mangu, Kagumo, Kakamega, Nyeri and Kisii. The
vague reference of education for the handicapped was only realized after World
War II in 1945 when the returning war victims needed rehabilitation. It was at this
stage that voluntary organizations established service centers. These centers also
)
29
attracted non-war victims and the idea of education service for them was born.
Several centers sprung up in Kenya, spearheaded by church groups such as
Salvation Army and the Agakhan, Ndurumo (1993). In Kisumu and Nyando
Districts, though mission institutions such as Ojolla, Kibuye, Nyabondo, Ogada,
Maseno, Kabwana (Nyakach) existed, they did not think of education for the
handicapped just like the colonial government did not.
In analyzing education in Kenya since Independence, Eshiwani (1993) identified
four goals of education as utilitarian, social, cultural, and personal, while Nyerere
(1965) saw the purpose of education as transmission from one generation to the
next, the accumulated wisdom and knowledge of the society and preparation of the
young people for their future membership of the society and their active
participation in its maintenance or development. The Traditional African education
found in Africa prior to the colonial period is basically reflected in Nyereres
articulation. Its main goal was to train individuals to fit into the societies as useful
members (Eshiwani, 1993: 15). It provided skills, knowledge and values relevant to
the society. The education commission report of 1999, dubbed the Koech report
observed that since time immemorial, education had been intimately associated
with social and economic development. Pre-colonial education was, therefore,
provided within the context of social and economic organization. It was inclusive
and relevant along age group and gender lines. The report is critical of colonial
education of which it accuses of being exclusive and organized along racial lines
with the few Africans receiving an education conceived to be inferior. The colonial
government established few schools for the Africans and the purpose of the schools
30
was to generate educated labor force to help develop the colonies economy and to
provide chiefs and headmen capable of participating in indirect rule. The colonial
period therefore was characterised by racial conflict in which the British
government, the settlers. Africans, Christian missionaries and Asians seriously
competed for resources and survival within the nation. This competition is
summarised in figure 2.
Figure 2:
I 1. BRITISHGOVERNMENT
European and African Partnership, )
East African Federation, Firm Control
from Britain, Keep Settlers under
Control, Train Africans for
Government' Sometime'.
2. SETTLERS
Settler control of politics, White Racial
Superiority, Financial control for Settlers,
More European Agricultural Development,
More Independence from Britain, Separate
Development of European and Non-
European Communities
\
3. AFRICANS
Grater Share in Government, More
Land, Better Labour Conditions,
Better Educational Opportunities,
No Racial Discrimination.
~I 4. CHRISTIAN MISSIONARIES
Faster Advancement of Africans, More
Education for Africans, Opposition to
Settler Attitudes, Dislike of Some
African Customs, Desire to 'Civilise'
\ Africans, Keep British Control over
Settlers
5. ASIANS
More Land for Asians, Greater
Share in Government for Asians,
No Racial Discrimination.
Source: East Africa through a thousand years. P256
31
2.3 The Role of the Churches After 1945
The role of the churches greatly contributed to the realization and acceptance of the
existence of handicapped persons in the community (Odete 0.1 2003). Through
catechism faithfuls were taught the virtues to emulate to be good followers of
Christ. The presence of handicapped persons was brought to their attention and
their requirements made clear. It is reported that when children were taken to
yabondo hospital (Nyando) for surgical operation to release the tendons and other
crippling conditions, the need to house them nearby for follow up was felt and that
is how funds were sourced to establish a centre for the disabled in yabondo in the
1960s (Ondiek 0.1 2003). This rehabilitation center, which was initially funded by
John F. Kennedy Foundation (United States of America) in 1963, grew up to be a
model rehabilitation center catering for over 300 disabled children from all over
Western Kenya. The operations were done at the center and school age boys and
girls attended adjacent primary school and returned back to the hostel. What was
experienced in yando and Kisumu Districts during the colonial era followed the
education policy in the colony between 1860 and 1960. This had followed the
laying down of the first foundation stone of a church and school in 1846 in the tiny
town of Rabai at the Coast, (Osogo, 1971, Turn 1996). With this it is to.be noted
that the missionaries who evangelized the African continent in the 19th and zo"
centuries showed an anti-urban and pro-rural bias in their work and the reason for
this is that almost all missionaries sent to Africa were born and bred in the
European countryside and once in Africa, they expended their resources in the rural
32
areas where they were at home. They thus progressed in business of preaching.
converting, schooling and expanding their flock of African Christians.
As earlier stated, missionaries led the way in starting elementary schools.
However, with the entrenchment of colonial government, a form of education in
which the Europeans, Asians, Arabs and Africans received separate (racial)
education emerged as did separate schools set up. (Turn. 1996) Underlying the
curriculum segregation was a racist assumption about the Africans intellectual
potential. Sir Williams, back in 1819 asserted that the black man's brain is much
smaller than that of the European. And Robert Knox had asserted the same idea in
1840s and 1850s. There was no mention of education for the disabled at this stage.
Obviously one cannot expect such if even education for the black was to be
inferior. According to Turn (1996), throughout the 1920s the colonial government
contributed finances to support the missions in running African education. The
1925 Phelps Stokes" Commission Report and Education Policy emphasized
vocationalization of education for all Africans and educations for improving village
conditions. It was only world pressure for better improved education for colonial
subjects that saw the opening up of a few secondary schools iI].Kenya both by the
missionaries and British administration and by 1938, there were four missionary
secondary schools, namely Alliance, Mangu, Maseno and Yala (Anderson, 1970:
22). Conditions of joining these schools included intellectual agility, a
son/daughter of a convert or be a son of a chief.
33
Okong'o, (0.1, 2003), Turn (1996), Obiero (0.1, 2003) and Bodo, (0.1, 2003)
concur that agitation for independence and African majority rule from mid 1940's
saw the colonial government setting up the Beecher Commission in 1949 and Binns
Committee in 1952. The Beecher report noted the negative effect of the industrial
and agricultural aspects of the curriculum and further underscored the need for
effective control of expansion of education at all levels. This was in response to
mushrooming of independent schools put up by Africans. The Binns committee of
1952 recommended that agriculture be made the core subject in the curriculum so
that the future leaders of Africa would be aware of the paramount importance of
agriculture. It also recommended the reduction of examinations in the education
system. It is to be noted that with all the reference to education provision for
Natives, Asians or Europeans, at no point do we see the education for the
handicapped addressed by the colonial government in their education plans. One
would have expected that education for the handicapped would be addressed when
the colonial government was addressing technical education, especially during post
Second World War education plans. During this period the education department
acknowledged the need for more technical education and five technical trade
schools were established in the 1950's (Anderson 1970).
Education is crucial in any type of society for the preservation of the lives of its
members and the maintenance of the social structure. Under certain circumstances,
education also promotes social change (Rodney 1972). Because no mention is
made of the handicapped in education provision, it must be recognized that they did
not benefit from the colonial programs in education and hence they were a neglect
34
in their own society. An attempt by Kenyatta and other African leaders to create
higher institutions of learning in 1948 was later thwarted with the outbreak of Mau
Mau war in 1952 when the colonial authority put a break on all operations of
independent schools and any plans connected with school expansion. It was only
mission, government schools and training institutions which remained operational
during emergency era from 1952-1956.
All was however not lost for specific children with disabilities. Apart from church
organizations, some concerned parties had formed organizations for individual
disability groups. Kenya Society for the Deaf was formed in 1958 by Dr. Peter
Clifford with the assistance of Dorothy Hughes, a member of Kenya Legislative
Council together with E. Couldrey. This organization was the backbone of
education for deaf children in Kenya (Mwangiri, 1989). It was only second to the
Agakhan which had pioneered a unit for the deaf in 1946 and a special school for
the deaf in Mombasa (l946).The same year, 1958, Association for the Physically
Disabled of Kenya (APDK) was formed to promote the welfare of people with
physical disabilities. Kenya Society for the Blind (KSB) had been formed in 1956
to look into the welfare of blind children 'and Kenya Society for the M~n~ally
Handicapped (KSMH) was later formed in 1960. The above organizations worked
directly or through church organizations to start Special Education programs in
Kenya and support handicapped children with relevant materials for facilitation of
learning (Ndurumo, 1993).
35
During the entire period of colonial rule it is apparent that no mention of Special
Education was evidenced in the education structure except for church started
schools. Several arguments may be advanced to this neglect. The role of colonial
education from this early period became that of reproducing and legitimizing the
unequal relations of production and exchange. If the able persons were relegated to
this level then it means the thinking of the disabled was dismal. To the colonial
masters, education also sought to impress the Africans on the consciousness of
European racial superiority through high salaries, expensive lifestyles and
extravagant spending. Hence education set to create racial prejudices. Young men
who had acquired education also acquired prestige and sought wealth. They began
to defy tradition and imitate their European mentors and earn a similar niche in the
modem world. A gentry emerged that was wealthier than the ordinary peasants.
This rural elite was composed of two unequal elements defined in part by the
sources of their wealth and status and in part by their lifestyles. A good number of
them purchased bicycles and a few acquired motorcycles (Omwoyo and
Nyanchoga, 2000). For the disabled, the role of the churches still stood out
distinctly. The salvation Army, the Pioneer Church Organization in setting up
programmes for the blind and the physically handicapped, set this mission in 1945
after the Salvation Army major, Swanbury acquired a nursing facility for soldiers
of World war II at Thika and changed it into a school for the Blind (Mwayonga,
0.1, 2003). According to this oral informant whose father was a pioneer teacher at---
the Thika School for the Blind, most pioneer students were brought to school by
missionaries, Districts Officers, Provincial Commissioners, well-wishers, White
36
men and Salvation Army church officers. Most of these students were mature,
aged 17 years and above but had been considered social misfits, a curse and hence
rejected. To most parents, it was a relief to have them put away from home while to
the students it was a relief because they found fellows to identify with and felt
accepted. It was the age of the students that led to the introduction of courses like
leather work, metal work and carpentry for the physically handicapped when the
school was set up in 1961, and basket weaving, telephone operation for the blind.
According to this oral informant, when Thika School for the Blind was started in
1946, there was no syllabus provided and the Salvation Army Officers in-charge of
the institution designed the syllabus, teachers guide and decided on course content.
They administered exams and carried out all forms of evaluation. The schools had
very few teachers who were qualified and they normally worked under Salvation
Ariny Administrators (Mwayonga, O. J, 2003). This observation confirm the la~k
of care fo~ education of the handicapped children by the g~vernment. During this
period there was a curriculum in regular schools in place for regular children and
one would have expected schools or programmes for the handicapped to be staffed
~ with government teachers, or provided with heads who were government.'
appointed. But the situation at Thika was not different from the one at Kibos where
the administrator was in-charge of the school and had to make any decision
affecting the running of the school. Even as late as 1974 and thereafter when
Joyland Special School was put up by the support of the Salvation Army Church,
the administrator had more authority in the running of the school than the
37
headmaster. The fact being that they were the source of funds for maintaining the
children in the school. '[he churches did not want to delegate this responsibility to \
the heads of the schools. TEe churches did not want to delgate this reponsbility toJ
the heads of the schools.
Summary
The chapter looks at Special Education in colonial Kenya between 1945 and 1963.
This early experience of Special Education is only identified in services offered by
the churches and charitable organizations but not the colonial government. Notable
churches include the Salvation Army and the Catholic Church. The chapter also
notes, that the colonial government was reluctant to offer Africans meaningful
education and even the Beecher and Binns committees formed in 1949 and 1952
respectively were mainly due to pressure by Africans themselves and other well
wishers. Apart from the churches and charities specific organizations for the
handicapped also played a role in establishing their programs. Such organizations
included Kenya Society for the Deaf, Kenya Society forthe Blind, Association for
the Physically Disabled of Kenya among others.
38
CHAPTER THREE
Special Education Programmes in Kisumu and Nyando Districts 1963 -2003
3.1 Introduction
In this chapter, Special Education programmes in the two districts are highlighted.
The perception of the handicapped by the African is also elaborated on. The main
organizations which spearheaded the service provision to the handicapped in the
two districts are identified and the extent of their service provision discussed. Some
of the origins of these organizations are also discussed together with their growth,
impact and challenges they have faced in their quest to provide education to the
handicapped.
3.2 Traditional Concept of Handicapped People in Kisumu and Nyando
Districts
The Luo community of which Nyando and Kisumu fall, cherish social acceptance,
which is expressed in holistic form of nature. As such, as is experienced in Africa
and the world, they did not accord disabled persons high place in society. In fact
disability and other forms of anti-social characteristics, like witchcraftcy or
wizardry together with diseases like leprosy, made it mandatory for any young Luo
contemplating marriage to use a go-between person who would establish the clear
background of the man or the girl to be married, (Anang'a 0.1, 2003). Marrying
relatives or people associated with certain vices was never condoned and if
somebody attempted he/she was ejected out of the family. It therefore follow that
disability was considered a misfortune or a curse from god and therefore the
39
treatment of such people was different. Some would be allowed to live, especially
when the disability was detected later in life. (Ondiek OJ, 2003).
However some would be eliminated by birth attendants if they detected the
condition at birth, for example in instances of a limbless infant (munglu).
For those whose disability was detected later in life, they were either ignored but
could not be killed because the Luo feared blood letting (killing) as the spirit of the
killed person would haunt the killer. Persons with mild handicaps were assigned
certain manual jobs such as cleaning the homestead while some would look after
animals (Jakwath). But for the physically handicapped, there was not much
responsibility assigned to them. In all, the handicapped were seen as different and
either pitied or simply brushed aside. Parents of the handicapped were equally seen
to be having some defect and this made them shy away from the rest of the family
members (Odete 0.1, 2003).
Ndurumo (1993) observed that disabled persons were treated differently across the
continent of Africa. This different treatment as Mbiti (1992 ) would put it was
shrouded with beliefs. AfricaJs a ~nti~en! richin beliefs. Nothing happens to an
'African and to a Luo in particular without an explanation as to what the cause is.
For example in discussing belief system of several African communities, Mbiti
(1992), notes that, ....
in nearly all African societies, it is thought that the
spirits are the origin of evil, or agents of evil. We
have seen that after four or five generations, the
living dead lose personal links with human families
and become "its strangers." When they become
40
detached from human contact, people experience
or fear them as "evil" or harmful! Much of this is
simply the fear of what is strange, but some are
believed to possess individuals and to cause various
maladies like epilepsy and madness" Therefore
begetting a handicapped child means somebody
offended the gods or did something wrong to the
community and the punishment is through the
handicapped child. This belief to date has not
completely been discarded. It is one fact which is
responsible for the slow development of Special
Education in Kenya.
In Nyando and Kisumu Districts, Special Education provision was mainly through
church groups during the colonial period. Various church groups organized
elementary type of education for their followers to acquire skills in writing, reading
and arithmetic. The faithful were to know how to read the Bible and manage
simple arithmetic. In Kisumu and Nyando, prior to 1945 few schools existed, such
as Maseno, Ogada, Onjiko, Nyakach, and Nyabondo. It was from these schools
that other junior schools sprung while they later developed into high schools
shortly after independence, save for Maseno which was already a high school.
Instructions in these schools were so vigorous that even non-handicapped persons
found it extremely difficult to cope. The beating was excessive and it was only the
'- determined few pupils who managed even to reach Common Entrance Examination
(CEE), let alone Kenya Preliminary Education (KPE). With such harsh
environment, handicapped persons were automatically eliminated from the
education set up. According to (Ondiek 0.1, 2003) this period also witnessed the
keeping of large herds of cattle and sheep and old men (wazee) would prefer their
sons to look after the animals. Education, otherwise referred to as "Lemo" (prayer)
41
- because it was brought by church men would not give them cattle to pay for
dowry. In Nyando and Kisumu Districts where schools were scattered, even the
churches which started elementary schools prior to 1945 did not stress education
for the disabled.
3.3 Programmes in Kisumu and Nyando Districts
As indicated elsewhere, all special schools in the two districts were pioneered by
church organizations. Most of these institutions followed regular curriculum with
little or no adaptation to suit children who are handicapped. Randiki (2002:67) cite
culture and attitude, personnel, resources and poverty as some of the challenges
education for the handicapped face in Kenya. For example of the 6562 (see table 1)
assessed children in the two districts between 1984-2002 only about 500 were
enrolled in the existing special schools and units (Rae 0.1, 2003). Note should be
taken that not all handicapped children in the districts have been reached through
assessment. The following churchINGO organizations have taken leading role in
providing Special Education in the two districts: The Salvation Army, the Catholic,
the Lutheran, and the Anglican Church of Kenya, Lillian Foundation and Kenya
Integration Education Programme (KIEP).
3.3.1 A Brief History and Work of the Salvation Army
They established Kibos School for the Blind in 1963 and later established Joyland
School for Physically handicapped in 1974. The Salvation Army church's objective
in setting up Joyland Special School in 1974 was to promote social justice through
rehabilitation of handicapped children.( Abukuse, 1998). The church linked with
42
several organisations from Europe to realise its mISSIOn. The notable one was
Kindernotiffe from Germany. This body supported the school through the church
up to 1999, and it was involved in support of corrective surgeries of the
handicapped at Kijabe mission hospital, provision of walking aids and other
learning support materials (Dali, 0.1, 2003) A project known as One-Day work
(OD) was initiated by the orwegian students who used to work one day in a year
to raise funds for third world countries. Kenya was chosen as a beneficiary from
1999 and the project was expected to end in the year 2005. The project was aimed
at improving service provision in the existing special schools by building teachers'
capacities in inclusive aspect of Special Education. Teachers in regular schools
neighbouring special schools were identified and trained at certificate level (Special
Education) to handle children with all types of disabilities. Parents, through their
Parents Teachers Associations and Board of Governors of selected schools were
also trained on how to support their children with special needs (Ayoti, 0.1 2003).
Equally social activities that made disabled children interact with the non Odisabled
were promoted. These included provision of play equipments like football, musical
instruments and indoor games among others. Exchange visits for teachers, parents
- committees and Board of Governors were organized to compare actiyities in other
regions participating in the same project in other parts of Kenya. For example such
visits included a visit to Daresalam (2002), Orian'g inclusive programme and
Machakos (2003) ( Ayoti 0.1, 2003). For Salvation Army Joyland Special School,
the One Day project built ramps to create barrier free environment for the
physically handicapped learners and users. According to Dali (0.1, 2003) the
43
project carried out a very successful community based rehabilitation program
covering both Kenya and Tanzania. In Kisumu and Nyando Districts the One Day
project trained about fifty teachers both in the regular and special schools at
certificate level in Special Education. For the projects sustainability and continuity
continue meeting its obligations, the plan to build a workshop for the beneficiary
schools was considered as part of the undertaking. However the workshops were
not built.
Joyland was the only secondary school for the physically handicapped which was
established through parents' initiative in 1994. There has been a plan to start a
secondary school for the blind at Kibos but the culture of dependency has impeded
the start of the school. The society has not fully embraced the attitude of including
and accepting the persons with disabilities. Whatever is to benefit them is always
associated with the churches. According to Ogot, (2002) inclusive education that is
for both handicapped and non-handicapped, does not function in the absence of
community participation 111 school activities. Schools that were viewed as
government schools are to be regarded as community schools. Community
<, members are to be mobilized to help remove the environmental and social barriers
within schools and the communities. This is the current appeal world wide in so far
as education for handicapped is concerned.
However, looking at the position of Kenya, this study established that it is more of
a wishful thinking than a reality. It is one thing to organize big conferences to
discuss issues of the handicapped and another thing to implement. The government
44
commitment must be seen through legislation to entrench Special Education in the
constitution so that there is a point of reference. One notable thing about the neglect
of Special Education by the government is seen in their establishment. For
example this study found out that Joyland Special Secondary School for the
Physically Handicapped was started in 1994 and had not established its own
physical facilities such as classrooms, dormitories and other facilities, but had been
using the primary school facilities for teaching purpose. This is mainly because in
the absence of donors, people think less and less about Special Education. The
researcher also established that the government through its Ministry of Education
did not put into consideration the headship of the school. Specialization was not
considered in appointing school head.
3.3.2 A Brief History of the Lutheran Church
The Lutheran church first came to Kenya in 1948. First missionaries settled in
Itierio (Suneka) and the activities concentrated in Kisii. After independence (1963)
the church spread to Luo Nyanza starting at Mititi (Kodera Forest) then to Atemo
and Othoro in Kasipul Kabondo of South Nyanza. In 1973 missionaries from
<, Finland led by Tappio Laitinen founded Kisumu church and established a nursery
school. In 1980, with the help of a social worker, Salome Rintakoms, a school for
mentally handicapped children was started. The school has developed and has a
sheltered workshop for the mentally handicapped learners who can benefit from
practical skills. School enrolment ranged between 70 and 90 pupils by 2001 mainly
due to limited facilities. (Oner 0.1,2003)
45
The church has mainly concentrated in the evangelical mission and since the
establishment of the school; there has not been much expansion. There was an
attempt to establish a unit at Sondu (Ndagaria special unit in 1988) but this failed
due to lack of support from the community. Equally it must be realized that the
mentally handicapped persons are not normally phased out of learning institutions
like the other handicapped, who after standard 8 either join secondary schools or
other institutions. The mentally handicapped stay much longer in the institutions.
The Lutheran church runs a sheltered workshop in Kisumu, which was started in
late 1980's for those who have mastered some skills.
3.3.3 A Brief History of the Catholic Church
The history of the catholic church in western Kenya dates back to 1895 when the
first group of Mill Hill missionaries were led across the country by bishop Hanlon
(22nd May 1895-6th September 1895) from Mombassa through Kikuyuland to
Mengo Kampala. Between 1896 to 1900, Bishop Hanlon was determined to set up
a mission in the Kavirondo region, East of Busoga,. (Burgman 1990) This dream
was realised when he installed Father Van Den Bergh in Dec. 1903 in Kisumu.
Father Bergh was joined in January 1904 by Father Bouman. The missionaries set
~.
up their mission at Ojolla in 1906 from where many missions in Western Kenya
grew. The appointment of Father Brandma in 1907 together with Father icholas
Stam, saw the growth of the church tremendously. Aluor was started in 1913 and
Asumbi shortly thereafter. From Aluor, Yala was founded. Nyabondo mission was
established after building Asumbi Church, which was opened by Arch Bishop
Hinsley in 1929. Father Leo Bartels who served under Father Schafer in Asumbi
46
was moved to start Nyabondo mission in 1930. Father Rawlonds of Kibuye had
suggested Nyabondo while Asumbi people had suggested Kabondo (Burgman
1990). The need for Nyabondo arose from the fact that the distance between
Asumbi and Kibuye was so vast. So the new mission, Nyabondo, was to cater for
Homa Bay to Awasi, covering Karachuonyo, Nyakach and a big part of Kano plain
(Ahero).
Initially Father Schaffer of Asumbi was not ready to release Father Leo Bartels . his
assistant and friend but on realizing that Leo was to be made the superior, he agreed
and Father Leo took a short leave to Europe. Meanwhile Father Leally who had
originally been chosen as the founder of Nyabondo was asked to go there for the
time being with Brother Vincent. Father Leo returned and in 1934 and Father
Leally officially handed over Nyabondo mission to him. (Burgman, 1990: 113). It
is noted that Father Leo Bartels worked out a plan combining evangelisation and
schooling more closely. He gave more time, energy and money to simple
schooling. He gave the readers more schooling while they were in the mission,
they attended elementary school classes to learn to read and write, and in the
evening got additional tuition. He taught them in his own room.
The establishment of the mission in Nyabondo was not without resistance. One
Eannis of African Inland Mission (AIM) had established a mission in Nyakach ana
resisted the coming of the Catholic church. However he was overruled by
Montgomery, the then Provincial Commissioner. The Catholic Church along with
Protestant Churches founded schools almost from the very beginning ( Burgman
1990:140 ). This was motivated partly by the fact that there was lucrative
47
government or colonial jobs. A denomination that ran the best school would
eventually have the best government position taken by its adherents. This
accelerated the speedy zeal with which the different churches built and upgraded
their schools.
However, going through the government. commission, starting with Phelp Stokes
commission of 1924, it was only in the Ominde commission of 1964 which was
informed by the gala Mwendwa committee of the same year, that addressed the
needs of persons with disabilities. Father Mooy of Milimani Church Kisumu (0. I.,
2003) affirm that education of the handicapped was mainly initiated in the Catholic
Church by nuns who come from the background where Special Education practices
were in place. (Mooy, 0.1, 2003).
The Catholic Church was instrumental in establishing mostly the so called small
homes. These were mainly established with the help of CARIT AS of Germany in
1978. (Awange,2002). However, prior to this there was the Nyabondo Home for
the Disabled established in 1963 (Ondiek O. I, 2003). The home was originally
started to cater for the disabled who underwent operation at the Nyabondo mission
hospital. Then in 1963, John r. Kennedy Foundation provided funds, which
established the current rehabilitation center for the disabled. T~1edisabled stay in
the center where they get the services of physiotherapist, occupational therapist but
attend the adjacent Nyabondo Day Primary School and Nyabondo Girls Primary
School respectively. This is a very good example of a small home except that due
to the distance these children come from, they hardly have the opportunity to go
48
back home over the weekends to be with their parents. It therefore operates as a
boarding institution.
However, in other small homes, scattered all over the two districts and with
children numbering between 10 and 25 in each, children are allowed to be in school
between Monday to Friday and parents are at liberty to collect them for weekend to
stay with them at home but due to attitude, most of these children end up staying in
the homes for the whole term session. It is to be remembered that the homes are
attached to schools where they learn together with their non-handicapped
colleagues.
3.3.4 The Anglican Church of Kenya
The Anglican work in Kenya started around 1844 with the arrival of CMS
missionaries in Mombasa. By 1906, on his way to Uganda Vern. J.J Willis camped
under a fig tree at Maseno. This marked the establishment of Maseno mission and
Maseno (National) school and many other learning institutions in the region (
Okeyo 0.1, 2003). By 1920, Archdeacon Owen led the CMS work in Kavirondo
(Nyanza). During this period many schools were established and managed by the
missions and communities. In 1960 the church of the Province of East Africa under
Archbishop J Beacher was established. Under his leadership mission schools were
managed according to the Anglican Church doctrines. The church paid the staff,
inspected the curriculum taught while examinations were conducted by the state
(Okeyo 0.1, 2003). Later, following the practice by other churches and charitable
organizations the Anglican Church felt the need to start a school for the
49
handicapped. Maseno school for the deaf was started then in 1975. The school
gets much support from Kenya Society for Deaf Children. The Church mainly
plays the role of sponsorship. The average enrolment of the school is about 160
pupils with deaf and blind also catered for in a unit. Most children who finish
standard 8 are admitted at Kuja Special secondary school for secondary education.
3.3.5 Lilian Foundation
This is a charitable organization founded in 1980 in Holland with the aim of
rehabilitating the disabled young persons. The programme was started in Kenya by
the late 1980's and is run through mediators who are the contact persons to link the
disabled child and the headquarters in Holland. In its survey report of 2003, the
foundation had by 2002, assisted about 3,111 young disabled Kenyans through 192
mediators countrywide (Dollevoet, 2003).
In Kisumu and Nyando Districts the foundation has assisted about 700 children
with different handicaps. It gives support in school fee, medication and social care.
This organization has one unique characteristic in the sense that even though it is
slanted towards the Catholic Church, it does not attach the assistance to particular
faiths. Mediators are free to admit the disabled children in any special institution.
For this reason the foundation is fast gaining ground in the two districts,
particularly through its stress on parent's education. This enables the parents of the
handicapped children to realize what they are capable of contributing towards the
education of their children. This also equips them with knowledge on how to
handle their handicapped children at home.
50
3.3.6 Kenya Integrated Education Programme (KIEP)
Kenya Society for the Blind (KSB) started the Kenya Integrated Education
Programme in the late 90s to solve the problem of integration. About 19 such
programmes were started all over the country after KSB signed a tripartite
agreement with the Ministry of Education, Science and Technology and Sight
Savers International. These projects are funded by sight savers through Kenya
Society for the Blind. The main objective of KIEP is to see children with visual
impairment learn together with their non-visually impaired counterparts in regular
classrooms. In as much as this is a noble idea, it has been hampered by shortage of
personnel and limited funds (Salin, 0.1 2003). However the practice has been an
eye opener to many communities who have come to realize that blind persons can
learn together with the sighted and can equally do better. Equally teachers have also
changed their attitude towards their approach to children with visual impairment.
KIEP in essence has complimented the promotion of inclusive education.
3.3.7 Kisumu and Nyando KIEP Program
This program is located at Joel amino Primary School with the staff of about five
qualified teachers. By 2002 it had about 150 children supported in the two Districts
of Kisumu and Nyando. This program targets the visually impaired children and it
addresses the problem of inclusion (Salim, 0.1 2003). The identified visually
impaired child is placed in a regular school and follow up made to see to it that
instruction is given appropriately to benefit the child. Support learning materials
such as Braille machine, stylus, magnifying glasses are provided to the child
together with walking aid whenever it was required. This program has worked well
51
III the two districts, particularly in the schools nearer to the resource center.
Attitude of teachers in regular schools where these children are placed has greatly
improved (Salim, 0.1, 2003). The staff at the main center in Joel Omino Primary
School take at least three days in the schools where the visually impaired children
are placed. One main difficulty noted is that learning support materials are in short
supply. The Braille materials are quite expensive and given that they need Braille
papers to make them complete, together with maintenance resources, which are
hardly there, it becomes a problem. Transport cost is another impeding factor in
this program. Equally most teaches handling these children where they are placed
are not specially trained in Braille and therefore they are limited in their level of
delivery.
Table 3. 2: Assessed Handicapped Children in Kisumu-Nyando Districts 1984-
2002
BOYS GIRLS TOTAL
1984 90 61 151
1985 422 388 810
1986 325 275 600
1987 260 264 524
1988 171 164 335
1989 170 173 343
1990 146 135 281
1991 158 160 318
1992 I"" 146 279.).)
1993 128 128 256
1994 167 167 334
1995 142 134 276
1996 126 129 255
1997 120 107 227
1998 157 150 307
1999 108 112 220
2000 164 172 336
2001 253 248 501
2002 112 97 209
TOTAL 3352 3210 6562
Source: Kisumu Educational Assessment Resource Centre 2003 report
52
3.3 Summary
A discussion of Special Education programmes In Kisumu and yando districts
reveals that in as much as the missionaries established schools alongside the
churches, the thought for Special Education did not come up before 1945. This is
probably due to the belief held by the community that disabled children if any,
should not be exposed . However, shortly before independence and there after
scanty services for the handicapped started emerging. A program for the physically
handicapped started in Nyabondo, 1960, by the Catholic Church, the Salvation
Army started Kibos School for the Blind in Kisumu District in 1961 and Joyland
school for the Physically Handicapped in 1974. Several programs stated emerging
supported by the Catholic Church, Salvation Army Church, Anglican Church,
Organisations such as Lillian Foundation, Kenya Integrated Education program
among others.
53
CHAPTER FOUR
Government and Donor Involvement in Special Education, 1963-1984
4.1 Introduction
This chapter examines the Kenya government involvement in Special Education
between 1963-1984. It also looks at the role the donor community played in
developing this sector during the same period. It emerges that the government did
not initially consider persons with disability as part of the society when it came to
provision of education. The education system followed since independence so far
has not addressed the critical concern of the handicapped. This therefore resulted
into conflict when it came to service provision. This conflict somehow has been
resolved by the donor community which has for a long time spearheaded the
provision of Special Education, the fact which the government is realizing too late.
4.2 Effect of Ngala Mwendwa Report and Ominde Commission Report 1964
In preparation for independence the colonial government made desperate attempts
to educate and train personnel. The pioneer nationalists also urged for more
educational opportunities so that the necessary manpower would be trained and be
"- ready to take up decision making roles in the nation. (Turn, 1996:21). One of the
4'
goals of the independent government was to eradicate illiteracy. This resulted in
widespread expansion of educational facilities for both children as well as adult
learners. Unfortunately the concern for Special Education was lacking on the part
of the government. In the meantime, despite lack of government commitment to the
education for the handicapped a few church-sponsored schools could be located
54
scattered in different parts of the country. Examples included Thika school for the
Blind (1946), Agakhan schools for the Deaf in Mombasa and Nairobi (1946),
Nyangoma school for the Deaf, Nyanza, (1961), Mumias school for the Deaf
(1961), Joytown school for the Physically Handicapped (1961), St. Nicholas
Special school for the Mentally Handicapped (1948) and Egoji School for the
Blind (1958), (Mwangiri, 1989; Orinda, 1990; Ndurumo, 1993).
In May 1964, a committee under the chairmanship of the then Minister for Labour,
Hon. Ngala Mwendwa, was appointed under the following terms of reference:
(i)
(ii)
Assess the number of types of disabled persons in Kenya.
Investigate existing facilities for education
settlement/employment of the disabled.
(iii) Formulate programs for training and employment of the disabled.
(iv) Examine existing machinery for co-ordination of services to the
training,
disabled.
The recommendations of this committee were adopted by the Ominde Commission
which was formed later in the year, 1964. The Ominde Commission was the first
'--education commission after independence and it set the foundation upon which
later commissions were built. Among many other recommendations, it resulted
into unified school system, which allowed all children to go to any school
regardless of which denomination sponsored the school. On Special Education, it
adopted the Ngala Mwendwa report and recommended Special Education and
training of handicapped children in Special schools. The mild handicapped could
55
go to regular schools provided that special considerations were accorded them by
the teachers. The committee further recommended that teacher training colleges
were to equip their students with knowledge regarding effects of disability on
academic learning and intellectual development (Orinda, 1990; Randiki, 2002). The
recommendations of Ngala Committee resulted into sessional paper no 5 of 1968,
which formed the framework for government policy on persons with disabilities.
Out of this sessional paper, the first rehabilitation center was built in Nairobi in
1971 under the Ministry of Culture and Social Services. Later rehabilitation
centers were built in each Province to cater for the needs of the physically and
visually handicapped (Randiki, 2002:28). Most of these rehabilitation centers
however failed to meet their objectives because the handicapped persons who went
through them and who received a tool kit after training to make them self reliant,
immediately sold the tool kits then went back to the streets to beg. There is still a
general assumption that the handicapped can only do practical work like shoe
making, knitting and the like. Occupational interest and ability assessment has
been a problem with our policy makers (Mohamed 0.1, 2003).
For the Special Education programs in Nyando and Kisumu, this period witnessed
"-
the eslablishment of Kibos School for the Blind in 1963 by the Salvation Army;
Joyland Special School, 1974, by the Salvation Army; Maseno School for the Deaf,
1975, by the Anglican Church of Kenya and Lutheran School for the Mentally
Handicapped (1980) by the Lutheran Church. These were residential schools
where children with disabilities stayed. Nyabondo center for Crippled children was
also established in 1963 by the Catholic Church. In 1978 a new dimension of
56
supporting the physically handicapped children was realized. The Catholic
Church of Kisumu Diocese in conjunction with a German Voluntary Organization
- CARIT AS started a rehabilitation program for the physically handicapped
children (Awange, 2002).The goals of the program were three fold:(i) Easy access
to education (ii) Easy access to medical services (iii) To demystify the stigma of
outcast in society.
With the program, the physically handicapped were identified through a survey and
medical services offered for the needy ones and thereafter a facility. small home
constructed next to existing schools. It was in these facilities, referred to as small
homes, which could house about 10 and 25 students where the children would put
up while attending regular schools. The aim was to reduce the distance and
facilitate access to education. The services of medical personnel like
physiotherapist were available for the operated children not to develop
constructures. This program did so well in yando and Kisumu Districts and by
1998, over 100 physically handicapped children had accessed secondary education
and 14 small homes were in operation. Over 20 of these students had joined
- Training Institutions while some had set up}heir income generating projects and a
few had dropped out at either standard eight or before reaching Form Four
(Awange, 2000:3).
When one looks at the Ominde Commission Report (1964) regarding Special
Education, the following were clearly stated:
57
• Element of special education to be taught at teacher training
colleges.
• Integration for mildly handicapped in regular schools.
• Appointment of inspector in charge of Special Education at the head
quarters.
• Funding of Special schools through grants in aid.
• Training of teachers of the deaf at central teachers college.
In examining the government involvement in Special Education, during the period
after independence, the Ominde Report, basically an adoption of the Ngala
Mwenda Committee, recommendations, is crucial. Of what it recommended one
clear action taken by the government was to appoint a national inspector in-charge
of Special Education in 1968. Integration could not be effected because there were
no personnel to do so. The few teachers trained in a few selected colleges such as
Central Teachers College (present Kenya Institute of Education) and St. Nicholas
school - 1966-69 were only for the deaf and mentally handicapped. This left out
children with visual impairment and physical handicap. Even in regular teacher
"-
training colleges, no effort was made to incorporate education for the handicapped
in the curriculum so that the new teachers would come out of College equipped
with methods of identifying and giving service to children with disabilities. It is out
of this neglect by the government that one realizes the mushrooming of Special
schools by voluntary organizations between 1961 and 1980. For example there
were about 70 schools and units for the handicapped established during this period
58
in the country (Mwangiri. 1989; Orinda, 1990; Randiki, 2002). These schools and
units did not have curricula tailored to the specific needs of the disabilities. The
teachers who were equally not trained in Special Education would manage the
regular curriculum offered with little or no skill at all. The few specialized teachers
available were either overloaded or demoralized due to poor remuneration and their
interest was elsewhere, hence could not concentrate much in their work. With the
churches and voluntary organizations taking front seat in the running of Special
schools, they had to dictate terms on how they wanted the institutions managed.
They solicited for funds from their friends abroad for the purpose of running
Special schools. There were chaplains, administrators, and managers within the
compound of Special schools to look into spiritual and other welfare needs of the
children.
It is to be noted here that not much positive academic results were realized because,
despite the fact that the government was providing teachers to Special schools,
there was no follow up to ascertain the difficulties the teachers were meeting or
progress they were making with the children. The society took the schools to
belong to the churches hence private. Even teachers in these schools were treated
~.
as private so nobody knew what they were doing with the handicapped, (Odhiambo
0.1, 2003). To make matters worse, the churches and voluntary organizations
withdrew the handicapped children from the society to boarding Special schools
and provided them with virtually everything - uniform, food and boarding
facilities. The parents of the handicapped then developed dependency syndrome
59
and everyone with a handicapped child would quickly release the child to a
Special school where there was free education and care in the practical meaning of
the words. This phenomenon though with good intention, did not help the society
adequately. This is because the responsibility to take care of the handicapped
children was transferred to the churches and voluntary organization. To use the
words of (Waudo 0.1, 2003).
There is no society for the handicapped alone. They
must be accepted by the society that brought them forth
into the world.
Special schools created a special society and the children preferred to stay in such
institutions than their natural ones. The bottom line of these problems was lack of
awareness creation, which would result in attitudinal change on the part of parents
and society. It must be appreciated that it is in Special schools where specialized
facilities are found but note should also be taken that if these children go back
home, they just do with the available facilities.
So the best model which could have been spearheaded by the government could be
_to train parents and the communities from where the handicap come to embrace
~.
inclusion and adapt facilities within their limit so that these children would fit.
Experience has it that handicapped children who went through regular schools with
non-handicapped grow up to be much better socially integrated and responsible
persons, (Ogot 2002).
60
4.3 The Gachathi Report, 1976 (The National Committee on Educational
Objectives and Policies).
The Gachathi Commission, otherwise known as the National Committee on
Educational Objectives and Policies was a response to the shortcomings of the
Ominde report of 1964. The 1964-1975 Education structure was mainly based on
the educational goals and objectives outlined in the Ominde commission of 1964.
This report emphasized the expansion of education for manpower provision,
economic development and Kenyanisation of all sectors (Eshiwani 1993 :27). The
1974-78-development plan stressed the constraints imposed on development by the
underutilization of human resources and lack of appropriate skills at all levels. The
Gachathi report enhanced the education goals in an attempt to restructure the
education system to meet the demands of the country. The report noted:
The schools as they are today, do not have capability, time,
even motivation to teach the values of the society. This is
because they are geared entirely to the passing of formal
examinations. The question now, therefore is how the
education system is to build into an organization system of
teaching the values of society to the youth." (Eshiwani
1993:28).
The report recommended the restructuring of the content but the structure largely~.
remained except that the Kenya Junior Certificate of Examination done in form two
was removed. It stressed most on self reliant education. This report whose main
purpose was re-defining Kenya's educational objectives and recommend policies to
achieve the objectives singled out specific areas of Special Education which
required attention. They included:
61
• Early identification of the handicapped for assistance.
• Creation of awareness for causes and prevention of handicap.
• Establishment of the extent of the problem of disability through data
collection.
• Expansion and improvement of Special Education facilities.
• Giving equipment grant by the government to institutions of the
handicapped
• Integration of the handicapped in regular schools.
This committee observed that one of the tasks of advanced education system is the
care it takes over those children who are less fortunate because of physical or
mental maladies. The committee went on to state that parents tend to regard a
handicap as a reflection on themselves hence there is often unwillingness to report
handicapped children or to seek help for them. The above observation made in
1976 had noble and good intentions. But almost 30 years later, by 2002, the
neglected situation of the handicapped has not changed much. The Gachathi
committee felt strongly that Special Education arrangement in Kenya must take
into consideration social and environmental factors that are not normally part of the
usual types of handicap requiring Special Education. They observed that the most
urgent problems in Special Education lies more with the community than the
disabled and disadvantaged children. It is the parents in particular and the
community in general who must be able to detect the presence of the various forms
of handicap and then do something about it.
62
In as much as this committee saw the responsibility of the parent and the
community on the problem of the disabled, they did not mention what has been
done by the government to expand educational institutions for the handicapped.
They recommended education and training of handicapped in their home
environment and in natural conditions. However for severe cases of handicaps,
they would access more specialized services. In a sense, this committee was
articulating inclusive schools where relevant Special Education facilities and
services could be found to address the individual needs of handicapped children but
in their home environment. The committee also recommended sheltered vocational
training, which could lead to sheltered employment. They further felt that the
extent of the handicapping conditions should be assessed and they appreciated the
role played by voluntary organization in fund raising, staff training and the
secondment of trained staff.
The government was urged to give equipment grant to institutions of the
handicapped. Even though the committee also recommended the creation of
awareness on causes and prevention of handicaps, it did not specify which
particular body was to do the work. During the oral interview with several
stakeholders of Special Education in both Nyando and Kisumu Districts, this study
was informed that despite the fact that the general regular education greatly
improved in terms of growth, Special Education stagnated, (Obiero 0.1, 2003). For
example out of 613 primary schools in Kisumu and Nyando Districts, only 27
offered Special Education (District Development Plan 2002-2008). No interest was
shown by the government in starting new Special schools or in- servicing teachers
63
in regular schools on how to handle children with handicaps in their schools.
Education Assessment and Resource Services (EARS) indicate that close to
100,000 children have been identified as having disabilities in Kenya and out of
this only about 22,000 have been placed in special units or special school. (EFA -
2000:39). However going by the World Health Organisation information that 10%
of any given population is handicapped, then with Kenya's population of about 30
million (2002), 3 million Kenyans are handicapped and only about 100,000 have
been assessed and worse still only about 22.000 have been placed in schools. For
Nyando and Kisumu Districts, with a population of 880,000 (2001) then about
88,000 persons suffer a disability of one form or another. It is therefore very
unfortunate that this significant population is just assumed within a given area and
no specific service put in place to cater for them.
The few Special schools in the two districts have a capacity of less than one
thousand students. This means that the period in question 1963 - 1990 saw Special
Education in yando and Kisumu Districts lagging behind seriously. Matters were
even made worse for the handicapped children who needed to pursue their
education to secondary school and even beyond. There were no secondary schools
where these children could attend until 1994. For the physically handicapped, they
had to go to Joytown - Thika or Mombasa Secondary school for the physically
handicapped until 1994 when Joyland secondary school was started in Kisumu.
For children with visual impairment (blind) they had and still have no option but to
travel all the way to Thika High school for the Blind. Learners with hearing
impairment (deaf) had for along time no secondary school until Rev. Muhoro in
64
-KENYATTA UNIVERSITY LIBRARY'
Nyeri and Kuja secondary schools (Migori) were started In the mid and late
1980's respectively.
4.4 The Government Role in the Provision of Special Education in Nyando
and Kisumu Districts 1963 - 1984
Curriculum
Curriculum development is concerned with the improvement of the quality of
education. Education has been defined differently by different people at different
times and places. According to Oluoch (2002) education means acquisition of
knowledge, skills and attitudes.
According to subuga (1977), it is the reconstruction or re-organization of
experience which increases ability to direct the course of subsequent experience. It
is what happens to us from the day we are born to the day we die. Nsubuga goes
ahead to elaborate on his definition and argue that the aim of education must be to
develop the pupil as a thinking individual who is capable of sound judgment of any
situation in which he/she may find himself/herself. The approach or the method
used in the presentation of his/her studies must be such that it stimulates his/her
thinking process. Let the pupil find things he/she can find for himself/herself. It
~.
must be remembered that the pupils is alive and the purpose of education is to
stimulate and guide his/her self development (Nsubuga 1977:4).
In discussing the curriculum for the handicapped children, one gets rude revelation
how the handicapped children have suffered injustice for a very long time. Despite
the fact that voluntary organizations had put up special schools to cater for the
65
handicapped, they did not have the expert know how to monitor curriculum
implementation. As Ogutu (0.1, 2003) puts it, "Majority of teachers of the deaf do
not communicate with their learners due to language barrier." The Taskforce on
Special needs Education found out that only 20% of teachers in Special Needs
Education programs are trained in SNE. It was further noted that most of the SNE
teachers lack the necessary proficiency in Kenyan sign language and brail. This
was and still is a major impediment that cut across all areas of disabilities. For
example, in the Special schools in Kisumu and Nyando Districts, hardly will one
find more than 'h of the staff specially trained yet learning has to go on. The secret
is that teachers have to manage with meager resources. Matters become worse
when it comes to the teaching of the deaf, the blind and to the severe physically
handicapped for whom adaptation in communication require special skills. These
areas become more glaring after national examination results have been released
and Special schools struggle to lead from the bottom because they do the same
exams.
Since the mentally handicapped do not sit for national exams, one might think that
their situation is better. Curriculum matters for Special Education have been inter
linked with equipment to support learning. The period in question witnessed
situations whereby learning supporting aids like hearing aids for the deaf were
either inadequate or unavailable. And if there were breakages or batteries went
down then the learners would not be accessed at all (Okello 0.1, 2003). The failure
by the government to develop Kenyan sign language and harmonize the use by
training specialists also hampered curriculum implementation in the area of the
66
deaf. Another factor which must not be forgotten is constant migration of few
specially trained teachers either to higher offices in regular set up or to NGO's.(
Orinda 2003).The problem of curriculum has also been experienced in education of
the blind where adaptations were not provided even in subject areas, which
required practical activities such as experiments. Braillers had to be imported and
when they break then they had to be dumped because spare parts were not
available. Since special schools had to rely on donated education support materials
quality and relevance could not be assured. The text the children were reading in
form of Braille books from outside would not give them the general picture of what
their country look like, save for information based on the syllabus taught. Even
technology like computers, talking books have not been made available to the
blind.
Matters have been worse in the education of the physically handicapped. Teachers,
policy makers and the general public have the eye, which can only see the mild
physically handicapped learners. They do not see or refuse to see the severely
handicapped children who cannot manipulate learning environment to benefit from
the instruction given. Such learners need adaptation of the curriculum and the
methods of implementation and even the environment. These are the learners who
have been suffering silently for years because nobody is able to stand up and speak
for them. It should be noted that there are several people, though are not within the
policy level, are capable of designing relevant programs for the handicapped
(Kahuhia O. 1,2003).
67
Kenya National Examination Council have some concession to the handicapped in
terms of time allocation and provision of large print and tactile diagrams for the
blind and sign language for the deaf during examination. However this does not
answer mostly real needs of the handicapped during exams because setters, markers
and even moderators are not necessarily teachers trained in the area of Special
Education because there is no policy frame work in place to effectively address
Special Education issues. Kenya National Examination Council has not found it
prudent to have people with Special Education knowledge as part of their staff to
advice on how to moderate set, mark exams for the handicapped (Kahuhia 0.1,
2003).
In conclusion, it is interesting to note that more often than not, Special schools all
along have been rated together with regular schools without due consideration of
the difficulties they face in pursuing learning. Several municipalities and districts
have complained of lowered mean score because of Special schools in their districts
(Shikala 0.1, 2003). It should be remembered that curriculum for the disabled is
very much dependent upon the personnel to handle it. Therefore the nature and
extent of the disability is to be considered. For mentally handicapped learners, a
curriculum geared towards self care activities should be broadly considered while
for the visually impaired, the physically handicapped and the hearing impaired who
have no significant defects in their mental abilities there is still need for adaptation
or adjustment in the curriculum. For example in teaching communication skills
such as sign language and sign language as a subject the hearing impaired learners
will not grasp the same meaning of a situation with his hearing counterpart. The
68
signing and verbal expression may at times not give exact meaning of a thing.
The blind leaner for example may not be able to carry out an experiment as the
sighted person may do and the physically handicapped child who is severe may not
hold a pen properly and even carry out an experiment. It is thus evident that the
curriculum should be tailored to specific handicaps.
Funding of Special Schools
Like most Special schools in Kenya, the original funding for Special school in
Kisumu and Nyando for their setting up did not come from the government. It is
mainly the churches or rather the donors through the local churches that set up the
schools. Though the government has been sending grants to Special
schools/institutions to maintain support staff, this is very inadequate. The District
Development Committees did not recognize Special schools. Equally the
government did not bother with provision of teaching, /learning equipment. This
led to serious learning problems in Special schools where the only option was to
refer to donors and church sponsors of the schools to provide learning materials.
As had been stated elsewhere quality and uniformity of what was learnt in Special
schools was not assured. The cost of educating a handicapped child/learner to some
~.
extent may triple or quadruple that of the non handicapped (Kochun'g 2003)
Teacher Education
For along time, few teachers were sent abroad for training through the initiatives of
various societies or associations for children with Special Needs. This was found
to be expensive and the government had to consider training teachers locally. This
69
took place in vanous training institutions (Ndurumo, 1993) such as Siriba.
Kamwenje and Highridge. This study established that, apart from a few selected
colleges that were training teachers for the handicapped the number was very
minimal since they occupied only one class numbering between 20 and 40 which
was hardly 100 teachers for the whole nation trained in a year in Kenya. It was
therefore common to find teachers with no Special Education training managing
Special schools and this had a very interesting consequence. Since they were not
sure of how to handle severely handicapped learners, admitting mild handicapped
in Special schools became common. Two of the oral informers (Mwayonga and
Ochieng') who are currently teachers of high schools and former students of
Special schools for the handicapped (Joyland and Joytown) attest to the fact that
during the early days of the schools, most students were either having one
deformed limb or using one crutch. The so called moderately handicapped were
few while severe handicapped were not there. This information is also corrobated
by two NGO executives who went to Joyland and Thika Joy town respectively.
(Bodo 0.1, 2003; Mwanyonga 0.1, 2003; Ochieng 0.1, 2003; Christina 0.1, 2003).
For teacher motivation the government gave teachers of the handicapped a special
allowance in 1967. This amount, (40/=) represented 30% or 40% of P3 salary by~.
that time (Kodiango 1990). This allowance was not reviewed despite several salary
reviews until 1997 after Special Education teachers had petitioned the government
severally. It was however reviewed at 10% of a teacher's basic salary and not the
percentage it represented when it was originally introduced. Before the
establishment of KISE in 1986, there were only 408 trained teachers of Special
70
Education countrywide with 372 untrained bringing total to 780 only (Kodiango
1990).
In Nyando and Kisumu Districts, this study established that less than 30% of
specially trained teachers are manning Special schools currently alongside the
majority who are not specially trained. Matters are even worse in institutions for
the deaf and blind because teachers must communicate to the learners in a language
they understand and that is Braille and sign language. One can therefore conclude
with reasonable degree of confidence that during the period 1963 - 1990, teacher
education for the handicapped children was very low and therefore this led greatly~-i-
to the stagnation of Special Education in Kenya in general and Nyando and Kisumu
Districts in particular. A part from government neglect in training of teachers for
the handicapped within the period in question - 1963 - 1990, the donor factor also
contributed greatly. Most of the Special schools in Nyando and Kisumu Districts
run by donors had facilities like housing and electricity for teachers which were
either used free of charge or paid at minimal rates as compared to most schools
which did not have such facilities. Coupled with occasional benefits such as
relieves and outings, most teachers felt comfortable and relaxed and did not make."
attempt to improve their knowledge in Special Education. Once they had learnt
rudimentary communication skills they established themselves as the owners of
Special Education and became resistant to change. This phenomenon could be
realized even when KISE was set up in 1986. Most of the people who joined the
KISE were not from Special schools but rather from regular schools. Teachers were
71
also reluctant to take offers in training in the area of the handicapped during this
period because of poor motivation in as far as remuneration is concerned.
Considering the amount of work involved in Special Education, teachers felt that
forty shillings which was given as special allowance was not worth yearning for.
Teacher education is a national issue which is always addressed to cover a national
phenomenon. As such when looking at teacher education for teachers of the
handicapped in Nyando and Kisumu, it must be taken into account what goes on in
the entire republic in so far as teacher education for the handicapped is concerned.
So far given the teacher training as reflected in the scattered training in various
colleges during the period under study, it can be said that this exercise was very
inadequate (Ogutu 0.1, 2003).
According to Mwangiri (1989), the Ministry of Education requested a policy on
Special Education to be drawn to cover all areas of Special Education. By June
1981, the "Draft Policy" was ready. The Draft Policy paper covered in a block the
whole area of specific areas of handicaps being served such as hearing impairment,
visual impairment, mentally handicapped, physically handicapped and multi-
handicapped. Some recomI?endations in the draft were implemented such as
establishment of Kenya Institute of Special Education to train teachers centrally,
staff establishment at Kenya Institute of Education, establishment of Education
Assessment and Resource Centres. The draft paper also stressed the need for an
official policy on Special Education as regards the law. It stated:
72
Special Education is not mentioned in the Education Act
nor in subsidiary legislation emanating from this Act.
There are issues of policy, which do not have any direct
relevance to the education of normal children. These
special policy matters affecting Special Education should
also be included in the revised education Act, or
subsidiary legislation should be enacted to cover this
important areas of education (Mwangiri 1989: 100).
One factor, which has beer. observed as the main impediment in the growth of
Special Education thus far, is lack of proper policy guideline. For all the years,
Special Education has never been accorded legal status and there seemed to be
either a deliberate attempt to make it remain hanging or it was hoped that the
clamor for recognition will one day fade.
One important thing to remember is that Special Education in Kenya had survived
just because of good will by the churches, organizations supporting the
handicapped and occasionally the politicians who, interestingly, had been
pronouncing policy statement that later become law. Former President Moi can be
remembered as having made an impact in the field of service to the handicapped.
For one, in 1979 the world celebrated the year of the child and Moi declared 1980
the Year of'ihe Disabled in Kenya, which was followed in 1981 by the International
Year of the Disabled. (Orinda, 1990:4). During Kenya's year of the disabled,
President Moi presided over a historic harambee which raised money that was used
to purchase Rehema House- an investment for the disabled of Kenya. This
investment has been assisting the general handicapped persons annually with
mobility support materials and other device').
73
If this political initiative was directed at entrenching Special Education in the
Education Act or creating a legal framework for persons with disability generally, it
could have been more helpful. However this was a positive gesture and a challenge
to people at the policy making level to address the issue. Once a program or
project had been set, then it was easier to see its weakness and strengths and give it
the required direction. It can be observed that one fact which had made services to
the disabled persons world over undermined was the nature of the societies.
Societal development from the epochs of hunting birds, communialism, slavery,
feudalism and capitalism, had socialized people to think more in terms of economic
benefit of any member of the society. Since most policy makers, because of their
refusal to understand the abilities of the handicapped persons, looked at them as not
economically liable hence neglect for their program, which are seen as too
expensive for a few persons who in effect will not contribute much to the
development of the economy. As Waiter Rodney put it:
Imperialism was in effect the extended capitalist system,
which for many years embraced the whole world, one
part being the exploiters and the other the exploited, one
part being dominated and the other acting as overlords,
one part making policy and the other being dependant.
(Rodney 1972: 19).
Since our political leaders, including policy makers and by extension our society
are a product of imperialism hence capitalism, we are accustomed to looking at
man has the tendency to dominate, the disabled therefore find themselves in the
people from the economic point of view of how much they can deliver. Because
class of the dominated.
74
Inspection
Inspection of schools is basically carried out to monitor the implementation of the
curriculum and give advice to teachers on how to go about the areas of difficulties.
It is therefore a very crucial task in the education set up which calls for highly
qualified personnel to be able to give the direction as expected. Such personnel
must be well acquainted with the policies of education, as they are operational at
any given time. Based on the above observation, the inspectors of Special
Education must be persons with the know- how of what goes on in Special schools
and also the mode of delivery of instruction to the learners. It is to be noted that
this is one of the first areas to be recommended by the Ominde Commission of
1964. This section was started in 1969 at the Inspectorate with the aim of
supervising Special institutions and to ensure that standards are maintained and
improved. There were six ational Inspectors by 1990. (Randiki 2002). The
"Draft Policy" committee appointed by the Ministry of Education also
recommended the establishment of a team of inspectors at the Inspectorate
(Mwangiri 1989). This team of six people at the National office with Special
Educational know-how could not be able to inspect all Special programs in the
Republic. A lot of debate has raged on who should inspect special schools and
because people are not sure, and particularly due to the fact that even Special
Education at the headquarters has never been headed by a specialist, the issue of
inspection has often eluded attention. Koech (1999) recalls that the last time the
Inspectorate, Special Education section was headed by a specialist was when
75
Catherine Abila, who later became the first Director of KISE was its head between
1978 and 1986.
In response to the questionnaire on whether teachers in Nyando and Kisumu
Districts agrees with inspection of teachers by non-specialist inspectors, about 70%
of teachers disagreed. The reasons advanced included illiteracy of regular
inspectors on matters of Special Education. They neither understand Braille nor
sign language. Equally they could not understand why special classes were small in
size and why teachers have to go at the speed of each individual learner. These
inspectors also occasionally do not understand why special schools must be staffed
with more personnel. All in all it is a matter of common sense to argue for the
staffing of special inspectors in the districts and even Divisions and zones to be
able to assist teachers carry out their work diligently. The bossy behaviour of some
self-imposing inspectors that they are able to inspect special schools is self-
defeating and ego satisfying that cannot be accepted in professional and academic
realms of life. A teacher at Maseno School for the deaf narrated to this researcher
an expenence with the regular inspector who went to inspect the school. The
teacher resorted to discussing the inspector with the class USl11gSIgn language
~.
unknown to the inspector and as the laughter intensified, the inspectors' report
indicated how successful the lesson was because children thoroughly enjoyed the
lesson! Such is the futility of non-specialist inspectors. As Koech Commission
Report (1999) recommends, Special Education should be headed by a specialist at
the headquarters. The study suggests that this should be of the rank of a Deputy
76
Director or above since it is this person who can articulate the needs of the sector
as the person will be at policy decision level.
This study established that several trained diploma holders from KISE and BED
Special Education graduates from Kenyatta University are wrongly posted to
programmes not relevant to their areas of study, a fact which leads to apathy and
even decision to opt out of Special Education altogether. Such anomalies could be
addressed if there was a strong relevant inspection unit at the grass root. which
could recommend the right staffing to the relevant authorities.
4.5 Summary
The chapter looked at the involvement of the Kenya government and donor
community in Special Education provision. Effects of Ngala Mwendwa committee
report of 1964 and how it came out in the Ominde Commission report of the same
year is highlighted. The Gachathi committee report of 1976, which identified the
shortfalls in the Ominde report and stressed education for self reliant is discussed.
The role of the government in provision of Special Education in general and
Nyando and Kisumu Districts in particular is discussed in as far as curriculum,
funding, teacher education and inspection are };oncemed.
77
CHAPTER FIVE
Challenges and Prospects of Special Education 1984:2003
5: 1 Introduction
In the previous chapter, the focus was on the Government and Donor involvement
in Special Education in the period between 1963 - 1984. The period covers two
decades after independence. It looked at how Special Education programs faired in
Nyando and Kisumu Districts and decisions made at national level that influenced
whatever direction Special Education took. Churches and donor contribution to
Special Education is discussed. It.!. this chapter the focus is on the challenges and
prospects of Special Education since 1984. This period is crucial because with the
Mackay report of 1981, there was a major change in the education structure, this
11
was the 8-4-4 systems that had far reaching repucations, especially to the
handicapped, in the area of practical subjects. It also made Kiswahili a compulsory
subject, a fact that greatly disadvantaged deaf learners
5:2 The Mackay Report and the 8:4:4 System of Education
It is to be noted that prior to independence the type of education offered was
tailored towards eliminating advancement of the Africans. Examinations were.'
conducted after 5 years alter 5 years until 19S~ in Primary, that is the Common
Entrance Examination (C.E.E), then after another 2 years Kenya Preliminary
Examination (K.A.P.E), then after another 2 years Kenya African Secondary
Education (K.A.S.E) and finally after another 2 years School Certificate
Examination (S.C.E). (Turn, 1996: 11). The period 1963-1990 is discussed in the
78 " .
previous chapter. Drop out rate during this period was very high due to many
exams. On attainment of independence and the subsequent appointment of Ominde
Commission the regular Education system was restructured and enrolment
increased. The new structure 7-4-2-3 established seven years in primary, four years
in secondary and a further two years in advanced secondary CA level) and
completing the circle with three years in university. This structure stressed the
unified education fully under the central government as opposed to the earlier
structures which were mainly managed by churches.
In this chapter 8.4.4 system of education is examined viz a viz its relevance to the
handicapped persons. In a presentation to the 1ih World Congress of rehabilitation
International, Alien, (1992) observed that:
The findings of a UNESCO survey of 51 countries conducted in
1986 - 1987 indicated that 34 of those countries had fewer than
1% of pupils enrolled in Special Educational provision and 10 of
these provided Special Education for less than 0.1% of pupils.
These figures are, in away understandable, as in many developing
countries the struggle to provide educational opportunities for a
majority of the children takes precedence over meeting the needs
of those with disabilities. Therefore UNESCO is committed to
assist in improving educational provision for special needs
worldwide, with particular emphasis on action in developing
countries of Africa, Asia and Latin America.
The teachers who participated in the study revealed that the 8.4.4. system of
education did not offer any new methods of teaching to the handicapped despite the
new structure. About 80% of the respondents felt that it added more injury to the
insult, which was already there. The 8.4.4 education project involved changing to
an 8 year primary, 4 years secondary, and at least 4 years University education
79
from a 7 year primary, 4 year secondary, and 2 year higher secondary and 3 year
University education (7-4-2-3) system which had been running since 1967. It also
included broad-based school curriculum with a strong practical education
component. The need for a broad-based school curriculum was one of the major
conclusions reached by the National Committee on Educational objectives and
policies which was set up in 1975 by the Government to evaluate its system of
education, establish a new set of educational goals and formulate a specific
program of action for achieving the goals (Oluoch, 2002:87). This realization was
not effected until 1981 when a Presidential Working Party on the second University
headed by Prof. Mackay was appointed. The party recommended the 8-4-4 system
of education. The report was accepted and published in the wake of the twin
worrying problems of rapid population growth- one of the highest in the world and
the massive unemployment of both primary and secondary school leavers. The
8.4.4 system incorporated some of the 1976 recommendations such as the teaching
of vocational craft-oriented skills and small scale business techniques. It identified
the irrelevancies of the past curriculum in relation to the modem needs of Kenya-
the large percentage of youth unable to proceed for further education did not have
alternative occupations or vocational training to turn to. What was taught at school~.
was only good for the few who were academically able to proceed to higher
education (Oluoch, 2002; Turn, 1996).
According to Sifuna, (1986: 126) the essential difference between the old system of
education and the new were curriculum content and structure. The 8.4.4.
80
emphasized Technical education, a move away from education being examination
centered. The old system relied mainly on rote learning and memorization.
In the 8.4.4. the government hoped that the system would:
a) Bestow the kind of attitude more in tune with the development of the rural
areas where 80% of the population live.
b) Enhance the role of agricultural productivity in national development, as
agriculture is directly and indirectly the source of employment and income
to nearly 80% of the people of Kenya.
c) Impart a capability to the nation to undertake major industrial development-
a sense of employment to many of fostering heavy and small scale village
crafts and industries,
For the first time in the history of education in post independent Kenya there was
an emphatic statement about a student graduating out of school with some technical
skills.
The implications of 8.4.4 on education of the handicapped must be viewed from the
perspective of the general outcry it created from the professionals, the parents and.'
even the opposing views in the political arena, If it could not be accommodated by
the non-handicpaeded, it was even more difficult to be accommodated by the
handicapped whose views were not even represented in the Mackay Commission.
To quote Randiki
81
This education system and teaching methods disadvantaged
learners with special needs for they were expected to fit
into new system not withstanding their special
needs"(Randiki 2002:42).
The 8. 4. 4. stressed sciences for means of self-employment. The system did not
put in place adaptation or exemption for learners who were blind or severely
physically handicapped or even the deaf. Equally, the introduction of Kiswahili as
a compulsory subject created a third language for deaf learners and this seriously
affected their learning since the language had to be developed by experts who also
had not been trained in sign language to do so. As music also became examinable
subject, learners with hearing impairment got highly disadvantaged. One needs to
see the neglect of education for the handicapped from these government decisions.
Nobody remembered there are handicapped persons also following the curriculum
who, being stakeholders, needed consideration before or when major changes were
made in the curriculum. In critically analyzing the 8.4.4. system of education it is
not hard to see why it had to fail. Indeed the problem was and is not with the 8. 4.
4. but with the politicians and union leaders ( Oluoch 2002). It is not understood
why our leaders should not advocate for change of our learners attitude towards the
development of rural areas. First and foremost, most leaders are urban oriented and
do not even understand what goes on in rural areas. If they are politicians, they
only go home to campaign when elections are near hence, they do not have the real
touch with the rural life.
82
An industrial development can only take off if small scale village craft and
agriculture is developed. It is futile to talk of industrialization without food. It is
ironical that the Kenyan leaders talked of agricultural development yet they train
field officers whom they don't employ to advice farmers on methods of improving
the yield (Olouoch 2002). It is the politicians who allow the importation of what is
grown in Kenya to scuttle the efforts of local farmers. The intentions of 8. 4. 4.
were good and if stakeholders had to put their self interest aside then the system
could benefit the Kenyan children and the generation to come. As Oluoch puts it:
Assessing the 8. 4. 4. project in terms of curriculum
development, it can be concluded that the program was well
planned, but the implementation had been quite unrealistic.
Conception and planning were based on valid information
brought out by the National committee on educational
objectives and policies and the Working Party. But
implementation was grossly underprovided for in terms of
resources, including time for preparation and
implementation. Without addressing the problem of resources
adequately, implementation of 8. 4. 4. system of education
would continue to be hampered (Oluoch 2002:9)
There is one major factor, which the politicians overlooked when pronouncing
certain policies. The human factor in the implementation is crucial but our leaders
assume that once a few people have academically come up with an idea then they
will be there to transform the idea into practice. It takes the man on the ground to
do it and in this case it is the teacher. Teachers must be prepared and motivated in
terms of remuneration and professionally to help transform the society. A very
simple comparison can be taken with private schools. Why are teachers in private
sector performing better than teachers in the public sector? Or why are employees
in Parastatals or Companies performing better than governrnent employees?
'.
83
K NYA u ITV LIB"··-~'
In the medical field one finds that the main consultant doctors in outstanding
private hospitals are government doctors. It is high time the government streamline
the sectors, particularly the Ministry of Education to give the experts the
responsibilities of manning their relevant sectors. To the education of the
handicapped once the department is elevated and headed by an expert then matters
of curriculum and staffing will be addressed. It is this cadre of personnel that will
supervise the identification and placement of the handicapped in appropriate
educational set ups. Since independence many terminologies about education for
the handicapped have been used by people who sometimes cannot differentiate
their meanings. People in authority at times do not clarify to parents and teachers
the implications of mainstreaming, integration, and, now, inclusion.
durumo (1993:87) observes that:
Assuming that identification and assessment procedures are
well followed and the child appropriately classified, by
taking into account the nature and severity of his handicap,
the next question is where to place the child. Granted some
factors work in favour or against any educational placement
due to some irrelevant variables in the programs.
Ndurumo went ahead to diagrammatically summarize possible placement options
for children requiring Special Education services across the board.
84
Hierarchy of Services for Special Programmes
Less Severe
More severe Hospital
And
Treatment
Centers
Used only when
absolutely necessary
Hospital School
Full Time S ecial Class
Part time s ecial class
Regular classroom plus resource room service
Regular classroom with
Supplementary teaching or treatment
Regular classroom with consultation
Most problems handled in regular classroom
Number of cases----------- ••
Figure 5. 1: Source: Ndurumo 1993 (Adopted from ReynoJds 1962).
At a glance one would see from the diagram that to provide the relevant services to
the handicapped, manpower is crucial and it must be observed that 8. 4. 4.
curriculum has greatly done injustice to the development of Special Education
since the needs of the handicapped learners are assumed.
85
Kristensen (1992) observed that "It seems evident that the three most important
factors limiting the progress of Special Education in many countries, especially in
developing countries, are lack of:
(i) Professional training for teachers and other relief staff.
(ii) Training and teaching aids
(iii) Information about disabled people.
The above concerns expressed in 1992 were found to be operational in yando and
Kisumu Districts during the current study. For example, in rating the teacher
training for special schools between 1945-2002, out of the 20 teachers who
responded to the question, 14 (70%) said bad, 5 (25%) said fair, while 1 (5%) said
good Teaching and learning aids for the handicapped are relatively more expensive
and need more expert knowledge in making them and this is a fact which has made
the Kenya government shy away for a long time from fully involving itself with
Special Education matters. Deliberate programmes highlighting activities of
handicapped children have been lacking and when they are available then it is
mostly associated with unpopular practices in the society. For example, the
Salvation Army Church and schools have b~.en known to send children to raise
money during particular periods of the year. This is the time the society interact
with handicapped children. The giving of the cash is more of sympathy than a fair
donation like fundraising or church offering to promote a worthy cause ( Dali 0.1
2003).
86
If the handicapped could be initiated into community activities like cleaning
hospitals, sweeping the streets, promotional talks on popular topics like youth
agenda, then the society would come to realize the great potential In our
handicapped youth. But because we over-protect them the majority of the
handicapped have not learned to live independently.
So, for special programmes in Nyando and Kisumu Districts an old teacher of
Special Education observed:
When the program was introduced without the accompanying
facilities and manpower training, what we resorted to do was to
use our basic knowledge to try to go about the curriculum,
majority of the children who could not manage were advised to
do vocational courses where we also knew they were not going
to gain much. It was better to have some knowledge than none at
all. (Abuto, O. I. 2003).
5.3 Implication of Kamunge (1988) and Koech (1999) Reports In Special
Education.
In 1988, the Kamunge Report titled. "The Presidential Working Party on
Education and Manpower Training for the Next Decade and Beyond" was formed.
One clear highlight the report came up with as regards Special Education was that:
Special Education is for various types of exceptional persons
whose education needs deviate from norm due to their
disabilities. It noted that in Kenya Special Education caters
for persons who are visually impaired, hearing -irnpaired,
mentally handicapped, physically handicapped and multiply
handicapped.
In it's recommendations regarding Special Education, the Kamunge Report
identified the following:
87
(i) Need to appoint specially trained inspectors from districts level to
headquarters.
(ii) Awareness creation on disabilities through media and ational
programmes.
(iii) Strengthening and restructuring the national rehabilitation committee to
cater for programmes of the handicapped.
(iv) Parents to be more responsible through cost sharing.
(v) Creation of barrier free environment.
. (vi) KISE to research on and design various equipment and materials to
support learning in special institutions.
(vii) Learners need to be catered for in National Examinations.
(viii) Data on various types of handicapped to be taken.
(ix) Appropriate curriculum be developed for various categories of needs.
(x) Appropriate Kenyan sign language be developed.
(xi) Integration of persons with disabilities
(xii) Provide measures to prevent impairment in order to limit the incidences
of disabilities.
One needs to "observe that most of the recommendations in the report were a
development from the earlier reports especially the Gachathi and Ominde reports of
1976 and 1964 respectively. However, the report was more elaborate that the
earlier ones. Given the fact that this time several attempts had been made by the
Kenya government, assisted by her development partners to restructure Special
88
Education. Two major steps had been taken with the help of the Danish
government:
(i) Education Assessment and Resource Services, mainly for the
identification and placement recommendation, had been set up in 1984
in most districts of Kenya.
(ii) Kenya Institute of Special Education (KISE) had been opened in 1986
to harmonize training in the four areas of the handicapped in one
institution.
So, with the coming of Kamunge report in 1988, one would have expected that
Special Education would develop very fast. However, one notes that the
implementation of Kamunge Report resulted in many problems owing to the earlier
implementation of 8. 4. 4. system, which had many failures than gains. It proved
to be highly expensive, the cost sharing recommended by the report resulted to
dropouts. For example Joyland Special school enrolment dropped from about 380
in 1990 to about 150 by the year 2000 (Odhiambo 0.1, 2003). Since nobody
seemed to bother to streamline the Special Education sub-sector, those people
"manning the head office could not be expected to retrench themselves by
appointing specialized personnel to head those offices with the same qualified
personnel. The measure had been attempted haphazardly but there was no laid
down rule on who heads these offices. This has been one of the main factors
inhibiting the development of Special Education in Kenya. The outcome of this
report has to be credited with the opening up of several units for the handicapped.
89
'A
This move was however shrouded with power struggle since the units were
opened in regular schools with the school head, yet the units had to be headed by a
specially trained teacher who in most occasions was expected to be financially eo-
responsible for the funds of running the units. Most heads wanted the funds to
cater for all the school activities, which was the source of conflict (Ogombo, O. 1.
2003). To date the Ministry of Education has not come up with how best to run
the units. Several proposals had been given to that effect, one being that the head of
a school with a unit must be one who is specially trained so that shelhe does not
handle issues alien to himlher in as far as Special Needs of learners are concerned.
In a span of ten years, the government appointed another commission to look into
the education sector. This was the commission of inquiry into the education system
of Kenya (1999) known as the Koech Report. This committee extensively looked at
Special Education. Thanks to the fact that one of the key Special Educator and
himself hearing impaired, Dr. Michael Ndurumo, was among the committee
members. The report came up with 145 recommendations in its chapter on Special
Education. The report had an opening statement on Special Education thus: "There
is nothing more unequal than equal treatment of unequals". Apart from Special
Education objectives, the report emphasized the need to pass the Special Education
Bill, which would legally address the needs of persons with disabilities. Education
curriculum and public examination should take into account the needs and
circumstances of Special Needs of learners. For example, when developing
curriculum, adaptations should be made depending on the handicapping conditions
90
of the learners. The same should apply to all examinations intended for learners
with Special Needs. The establishment of Special Education Resource center in
every district is expected to facilitate the access to learning resources for the benefit
of Special Need learners.Formation of a national Special Education Advisory
Board proposed in the Special Education Act with a composition of stakeholders,
professionals, parents and leaders of disability organizations is aimed at bringing
different relevant interest groups together to promote Special Education
The report also identified the need of services of interpreters, note takers, Braille
readers and special equipments such as electronic talking computer, or voice to
printed computers for the visually impaired as well as making universities disability
friendly. This recommendation aims at reducing academic barriers as much as
possible for persons with Special Needs in Education. Designing of individual
system for learners with severe impairment following a functional curriculum
geared towards independent living is aimed at addressing many severely
handicapped learners who are in most cases just left un attended. The report
recognises the inadequacy in funding of Special schools and Special Education in
general and adaptation of exams to suit the individual needs as dictated by the
~.
severity of handicap and the ability of the child to manipulate examination
instruments .The abolition of cost sharing for handicapped persons and offering of
free and quality educatiori is based on the understanding that the handicapped
already spend a lot of resources in personal sustenance and if relieved of cost
sharing, it would be to their benefit. The recommendation that Kenya Institute of
91
\. '·0,
Education develop and standardise diagnostic assessment tools which have a local
bias in promoting proper identification leading to accurate intervention is based on
the premise that most assessment tools are developed in western world and
therefore carry with them culture bias which may see Kenyan children placed
wrongly. Equally the recommendation that Kenya Institute of Education develop
learning and instructional materials for learners with Special Needs including those
who are gifted and talented, emotionally and behaviourally disordered, those with
communication difficulties and specific learning difficulties is based on the fact
that these areas have not been addressed in education provision though it is known
that they exist and cause a lot of concern to the parents and even educators.
In so far as articulating the thinking and desires of Special Education, this report
came up with best recommendations, but when it was released, the government
raised the excuse that the recommendations were too expensive to implement, that
is, for the full report. The sad thing to note is that the government to date has never
declared rejection or acceptance of the report. Apparently the government was
aware of the problem facing Special Education in Kenya. The appointment of a
commission was a gimmick of absolving itself on the pretext of unavailability of
~.
funds to effect the commission' recommendations. One crucial factor which any
keen observer of our education system must have realized is the fact that before
donors give a nod then, however good the recommendations our people come up
with, they will not be regarded as useful. For example, during the 8. 4. 4.
implementation, donors felt that it was inappropriate and too expensive for the
country. It is reported that the British through their department of International
92
Development even threatened to withhold over Ksh. 1 billion which they had
promised the government for school text books if a new and trimmed curriculum
was not introduced to replace the existing broad based one. Since we were a
British colony. WaIter Rodney's thinking of colonial administration as economic
exploiter may give more light (Rodney 1972: 129) .
... The equivalent of the colonial office in each colonizing country worked
hand in hand with their government in Africa to carry out a number of
functions; the principal ones being as follows:
(a) To protect national interests against competition from
other capitalists.
(b) To arbitrate the conflicts between their own capitalists.
(c) To guarantee optimum conditions under which private
companies could exploit Africans.
Whenever education policies are discussed, one will always hear donor factor. It is
very sad that education which is supposed to address our needs as Kenyans is
directed by the so called donors. This is a big challenge to our political leaders to
steer our nation towards self sustainability so that we are capable of deciding our
destiny especially over 40 years of independence.
The Koech Report otherwise referred to as TIQET, (Totally Integrated Quality
Education and Training), had several sections for Special Education whose
implementation may not have required a lot of finance as feared by certain quarters.
In terms of human resource management, if the current personnel in the field were
absorbed in relevant key Special Education areas, then the beginning point would
have been reached and it would not take long before these gurus turn the
nightmares in Special Education to a reality. Identification, placement, curriculum
93
design, adaptation and implementation can easily be done with the current
professionals trained at KISE, Kenyatta and Maseno Universities. During the
opening ceremony of the first International Conference on inclusive education in
Kenya at Sunset Hotel Kisumu on 26th September 2002 (Koech 2002), the then
Minister for Education, Science and Technology, Hon Henry Kosgey affirmed the
governments' commitment to the education of the handicapped. He cited the
Ominde Report (1964), Gachathi Report (1976), Kamunge Report (1988) and the
Koech Report (1999). He reiterated the government's commitment to the sector by
setting up Ministry of Education Science and Technology, Inspectorate Special
Education Section (1970), Education Assessment and Resource Centers (EARCS)
in all the districts in 1985, Teachers Training at KISE in 1986 and Curriculum
Development at Kenya Institute of Education It must be observed that despite the
fact that Assessment Centres have done so well in identification of handicapped
children, it is reported that since DANIDA, the main partner in their establishment,
pulled out, most of them are near collapse (Rae, 0.1 2003). Curriculum section at
KIE has suffered shortage of funds and not much activity has been taking place.
The Minister's admission that inspite of development in the education of the
handicapped, the data available indicate that, ~only 5% of children with Special
Needs in education access education services currently confirms the findings of this
study in Nyando and Kisumu Districts that lack of government funding for Special
Education has contributed to poor service delivery in this sub-sector.
94
5.4 International Concern for Special Education and Effect on Kenya's
Model
At Jomtein, Thailand (1990), Salamanca. Spain (1994) and the Dakar, Senegal
(2000) conferences, Education for the handicapped received international concern.
In 1948 the universal Declaration of Human Rights in its article 26, says that
everyone has the right to education without any discrimination. In 1989 the
convention on the rights of children stressed that education should make the child
achieve fullest possible social integration and individual development. In 1990, the
World Conference on Education For All held in Jomtein, Thailand, further
recommended among other things that all children should have the right to
education regardless of individual differences and the government should provide
each child with quality education. This was followed by the World Conference on
Special Education held in Salamanca Spain in 1994. It was here that the concept of
inclusive education was born and nurtured in the Salamanca Declaration.
1. The World Conference On Education For All (EFA) 1990.
The conference held in Jomtein, Thailand gave the following operational
Definitions:
"Education For All (EFA) is a goal and a strategy - a global
commitment, with a national outlook that addresses the provision of
quality basic education for all children, youth and adult in a country.
EFA is thus an inclusive concept that must encompass not only
primary education but also early childhood education, literacy and
life skills programmes. Using both formal and non-formal
95
approaches, it must take account of the needs of the poor and the
most disadvantaged, including working children. remote rural
dwellers and nomads, and ethnic and linguistic minorities. children,
young people and adults affected by conflicts, HIV/AIDS. hunger,
and poor health, and those with Special eeds (Education For All
(EFA) in Kenya (2000:1).
According to Randiki (2002:55) Education For All, in Africa were addressed
through the Kisumu Conference (Kenya) 1992 and Dakar Conference 2000. The
Kenya Country National Conference on Education For All, Kisumu (1992) was
held to review the Jomtein Conference of 1990 and to prepare for implementation
of the Education For All framework. Kenya has expanded the concept of basic
learning needs of learners through systematic instruction on which learning is
based. Basic Education For All (BEF A) expanded educational provision to other
levels not within Universal Primary Education. BEF A deals with:
Early childhood Education and Development
Primary Education
Disadvantaged and Special Groups also called Children Living
under difficult circumstances
Life skills for youth and Adults
General Knowledge.
From the above information, there is not much reference to Special Education in
Kenya except that it is categorized as disadvantaged and special groups.
96
2. World Conference on Special Needs Education (1994)
The conference reaffirmed its commitments to education for all children. youths
and adults with Special Educational needs within the educational system. It also
endorsed the framework of action on Special Needs Education, that governments
and organizations may be guided by the spirit of its provision and
recommendations. It was in the light of emerging issues after EFA conference
that another conference, the Salamanca was organized. It addressed many
pertinent issues pertaining to Special Education. It stated that many groups of
children with Special Education Needs are excluded from mainstream education.
They include; children in conflict situation, working children, street children,
disabled children, children from ethnic minorities, children discriminated against
as HIV/AIDS or leprosy plus dropouts and repeaters. This conference focused
mainly on;
[1] Access
[2] Quality education
[3] Equity
The participants resolved that every child has a right to education that takes into
~.
account one's unique abilities and learning needs. Schools should accommodate all
children regardless of their physical, intellectual, social, emotional, linguistic or
other difficulties. The child with Special Need must have access to education in a
welcoming school in his/her neighbourhood.
97
(3) The Dakar Framework of Action
The World Conference on Education For All held in Dakar, Senegal in April 2000
provided an opportunity to access the progress made since Jomtein and the
prospects for developing quality education for all in 21 st century. The Dakar
declaration noted that despite notable effort by government to ensure the right to
education for all, the targets set at Jomtein in 1990 had not been met. Progress has
been much slower than anticipated in relation to virtually all the major targets for
achieving EFA.
Effects on Kenya Model of Special Education
It must be noted that international awareness and concern, together with the
growing change of attitude, albeit slowly, some little positive changes have been
observed. Special Education as a study is becoming popular, especially since the
program was started at KISE 1986, Kenyatta University in 1996 and Maseno
University 1998. In his address to an International Inclusive Conference on Special
Education in Kisumu, September 2002, the Minister for Education observed that
" ... in other words, inclusive education will provide enrichment for all involved.
Emphasis should be on equality, access and opportunity for all (Kosgei 2002). This
practice demands that all practicing teachers in all our learning institutions acquire
knowledge, skills and attitudes necessary for supporting children with Special
Needs Education. It is towards this end that the government in April 200 I launched
distance learning program in Special Needs Education at the Kenya Institute of
Education (Kosgey 2002)
98
To this end KISE is likely to play a major role in the development of Special
Education only if the government live to its expectation and put in place structures
that will make current teachers being trained to be productive. We cannot give the
government a clean bill of health on this because for a long time very obvious
things have not been addressed in the area of Special Education. Thus the KlSE
program on distant learning has attracted teachers and it is they who are sustaining
the program because they are paying fee out of their own pocket. If at all they see
no benefit for their training and future recruitment staggers, I doubt whether the
program can survive. Having noted that it must be the responsibility of the
government to support this worthy program in whatever way possible.
5.5 Management of Special Education in Nyando and Kisumu Districts
Management is the art of getting things done through other people for the purpose
of achieving the required goal (Mwangi, 2003). It involves the process of planning,
organizing, controlling and evaluating the performance of the members of an
organization. The question as to whether management of special schools are
dominated by Board of Governors, Sponsors, Ministry of education or the Parents
Teachers committee was responded to as follows: 85% of the teachers.identified the
sponsor as the main contributor in the management of special schools, 10%
mentioned the Ministry of education while 5% mentioned the Board of Governors.
They did not mention the Parents Teachers Association committee. The question as
to whether the government is fully supporting teachers in special schools in
Nyando and Kisumu districts 66% of teachers said no while 34% said yes. Those
99
who said no argue that if it is salary then even teachers in regular schools are paid
yet they do not do heavy work like teachers in special schools. They identified lack
of work incentives like seminars, lack of qualified inspectors and education officers
to guide teachers in their work and ensure quality. Management therefore should be
addressed under the following in regard to Special Education:
Personnel
This has been found out to be dominated by various sponsors namely The Salvation
Army, The Catholic Church, the Lutheran Church and the Anglican Church of
Kenya. Despite the fact that head teachers represent the government in these
schools, when matters of appointment of such heads and utilization of schools'
physical facilities are concerned, their decisions will always carry the day.
Physical Facilities
Most boarding facilities ill boarding schools in the two Districts together with
accompanying equipment and movable machines like motor vehicles belong to the
sponsor and by extension the church. The sponsors thus determine when and to
what extent the facilities are may be used.
Table 5.1: Physical facilities owned by sponsors in three special schools
Class Vehicles Hostels Eark workshop Dispensary Teachers
rooms houses
Joyland Sponsor Sponsor Sponsor Ministry of Sponsor Sponsor
Sp. School Education
Kibos Sp. Sponsor Sponsor Sponsor - Sponsor Sponsor
School
Lutheran Sponsor Sponsor Sponsor - Sponsor Sponsor
Sp, School
100
Contradictions
The two aspects above result into a third one - the contradictions in Special
Education system. This arises mainly due to the government relinquishing its
responsibility to the sponsors who are represented by the churches. It must be
appreciated that little input in any venture controls ones authority. Nyerere (1974)
notes "Yet it is obvious that these things depend on economic and social
development. To the extent that, our country remains poor and its people illiterate,
our national freedom can be endangered by any foreign power which is better
equipped". The sponsors are better equipped financially, even though not
professionally, so they end up swaying the government decisions even on serious
matters of professionalism.
There is a lot of contradictions here because if the government can plan then fail to
implement its own policies just because sponsors who have more fund have to be
listened to, then there is no need of having these policies in the first place.
5.6 Parental Attitude
When it comes to education in general, the attitude of the parent is paramount. This
attitude is closely tied to expectations, level of understanding (not necessary
education) and economic ability. McKelvey and Peters (1993) observe that even in
Britain, despite the fact that the Education Act of 1981 endorsed the principle that
disabled children be educated alongside the non-disabled, it is only the parents who
are prepared to put up a fight who get their children admitted in mainstream
101
~'. -
schools. This study established that parents of the handicapped children attending
schools in Nyando and Kisumu Districts have for a long time had no opportunity to
be consulted on matters pertaining to the education of their children. One main
reason is that majority of them come claiming they are poor hence after leaving
their children in the school, they walk away until the closing day when they come
to pick them again. So they do not have the opportunity to make any suggestions
on the quality of education their children should receive (Odete O. 1. 2003).
This fact, coupled with the general belief that the handicapped do not do much,
made many parents to view special schools as relief centers where their burdens are
taken care of. The societal belief that handicapping conditions are associated with
curses and that they can be contagious is still held by some parents, hence they do
not want to stand out firmly on the provision of quality education to their children.
As stated by yerere (1974) when you have no economic power, you stand the
chance of being directed to take whatever is on the table.
The parents' attitude has been a major inhibiting factor in the development of
Special Education. In special schools over 80% of children are presented as
children coming from poor farr:ilies. This researcher encountered very interesting
revelations about the parents and their handicapped children while carrying out a
small survey for a church based organization. One student who had been registered
in the school as an orphan and was therefore getting sponsorship, when his home
was visited for the first time, the researcher was shown the grandmothers home.
For a subsequent visit the researcher found a young girl who informed him that the
102
student in question does not stay there and the home was now shown - the father
of the student was a senior head teacher and even had the brother of this
handicapped student studying in India. A second student would always be brought
by the mother just like the first student and the mother said she was a single mother
and had several children, most of whom were not attending school. On subsequent
visit to the home the researcher established that the father of this student was a
manager with a very prosperous agricultural firm. The third student would be
brought to school by a grand father whose age would easily convince one that fee
payment is a problem. Later the researcher established that the student's actual
father was alive and was in fact a Bishop in one of the prospering independent
churches. (Orinda 1997)
The three examples above, plus many more, should make education planners to
seriously think of poverty as a major impediment bedeviIing special schools. The
attitude of most parents is the determining factor. Often after the child has been
supported up to form four level, the actual parents could now surface to claim the
child. Evidently their intention is to evade responsibility of paying their children's,
school fees.
Handicapped Themselves
A handicapped who went to a special primary and secondary school then proceeded
to University and is now a high school teacher, told the researcher that it is the
wearer of the shoe who knows where it pinches most. He sees the society as a
great hindrance to integration of the handicapped. (Mwayonga, 0.1, 2003) The
103
labeling. right from school and all over the sectors. make the handicapped persons
feel that there is more happiness in staying with people of their kind if this will not
stop them from performing their tasks. Other handicapped persons disagree with
him. For example, Ochieng (0.1, 2003) who also went through special primary and
secondary school and is now at the University, after initially getting primary
teacher training. He finds a lot of comfort in integration and accepts that his
mentors are the non-handicapped people who really positively molded him to what
he is now. He works in an integrated set up and is actively involved in a lot of
creative and consultancy activities which give him pride when he find himself
performing even better than the non-handicapped in his areas of interest. This
proves right the saying "disability is not inability" The handicapped have what they
can and cannot do just like the non-handicapped do.
Society
One of the theories employed in this study, the conflict perspective is evident in the
area of study. Nyando and Kisumu Districts are part of Luo society. Like many
other African societies, Luo community had a way of treating the handicapped as
earlier discussed. Since they were relegated tc low position, it shows that the
society was already in conflict with itself because the handicapped are part and
parcel of the society. These people have not beer. given adequate attention; they
are being sent to special schools where free schooling is available and also to
relieve the society from their burden. This societal attitude can only be addressed if
concerned effort is put so that the right information reaches all people and the
handicapped integrated into sectors of production and decision making. Right from
104
schools communication medium should be taught to all children. Sign language
should not be a preserve of the deaf alone because everybody wants to talk to them
and they also want to talk to the society through their medium. (Rae, 0.1 2003)
The Government
The government plays a vital role in people's attitude. A lot has been said about
this but two things stand out clearly funding and policy framework. The study
established that funding is inadequate and it should be increased by the
government. Shikala and Waudo (0. I 2003) confirm the inadequacy of funding
for special schools, being the officers who occasionally go to the field to inspect the
special schools.
In Education For All (EFA) in Kenya, 2000 and beyond it is recognized that "the
cost of providing Special Education is high and although government and the
public consider Special Education an important component of the education sector,
public funding is still very low. In the last decade or so the Ministry of Education
Science and Technology allocation for Special Education has been below 1% of the
total recurrent budget. Donors and organizations associated with the education of
children with disabilities have been very supportive both in financing and staffing
the sub-sector. (Kenya EFA 2000: 39)
On policy framework, Kenya EFA, observe that "the policy framework for Special
Education has not been updated in the recent years. Most of the policies governing
implementation and practice of Special Education were those stipulated in the
sessional paper No. 6 of 1988.
105
The study noted that teacher's attitude is mainly affected by the government's
response in the management of Special Education. Professionally qualified
teachers feel that all appointment to leadership up to Ministry headquarters,
through district and provincial offices, should be based on qualified personnel but
is not.
Access and Participation
Kenya (EFA) (2000: 38) confirms that only a small portion of children with
disabilities is attending school. While EFA give the estimated population of school
age disabled at 1 million and that only 22,000 (OAl %) is attending primary
schools, the task force headed by Kochung (2003) put the figure at 1.8 million and
26,000 attending school. In Nyando and Kisumu Districts of all the 5 special
schools and the 5 units studied, only 940 children were attending school. In terms
of environmental access, the special schools in Nyando and Kisumu are about 70%
barrier free while units are not. There is need for social access to allow interaction
between the handicapped and the non-handicapped. Economic access is achieved
when the handicapped receive the right education and are capable of competing on
the job market when offered the opportunity.
Information access is important because it expose the handicapped to be aware of
opportunities available in the world of work and even how to adjust to societal
demands. One must recognise the contribution of Kenyatta University in leading
the way by availing education and information access to handicapped persons. The
University admits handicapped students to its programmes as long as they meet the
106
University entry point of grade C+ and above. (Latimore, 2002). The difficult
circumstances under which the handicapped go to school should be appreciated.
For example the deaf must use sign language which may not exactly give same
meaning as the non-handicapped get it from the teachers and text. Equally the
blind must use several other modes of learning such as Braille and this applies to
the severely physically handicapped. While the regular students access the syllabus
directly the handicapped will need specialist to take them through the syllabus. So
for a handicapped person to attain even grade C at O'level, it means a lot of effort
must have been put.
5.7 Emerging Issues
Terminologies
This is another very interesting but crucial area in the field of Special Education.
Ndurumo (1993 :3) states that the term waliolemaa to date is used to refer to the
disabled population in general instead ofwasiojiweza to date. He goes on to state:
It should be noted that two parameters have led to the change of terms.
First and foremost is societal sensitivity due to the dissemination of
information. Parallel to this is the interaction between the disabled and the
non-disabled. Second, there has been a better understanding of the human
worth of the disabled. The old terms followed for the most part, the root
terms derived from the first two letters in Kiswahili word. In Kiswahili, the
ki and vi classes refer to objects rather than human beings. For instance kitu
means thing; vitu - things. By contrast, for a person, the first letters start
with m or wa e.g. mtu (person) watu (persons), mtoto (child), watoto
(children) and so on. Therefore ascribing to the disabled terms that are used
to refer to things rather than persons was inconsistent and out of context.
This explains the reason why the visually handicapped were previously
called vipofu, but are now called wasioona, while the hearing impaired
rejected the term viziwi in preference for wasiosikia.
107
In as much as we accept that Special Education has and is undergoing changes
based on what is taking place globally, there are some facts that are not very easy to
do away with. Currently the following terms, among others have raised
controversy, whereas they were not seen so a couple of years ago (Ndurumu,
1993). Handicap. Disable. Blind, Deaf, Cripple.
According to the convectional dictionary definition:
Handicap means - a thing that makes progress difficult; a disadvantage, a serious
usually permanent, physical or mental condition that affects ones ability to walk,
see, and speak.
Blind: - Unable to see; a blind person.
Cripple: - (sometimes offensive) a person who is unable to walk or move properly
because of disease or injury to the back or legs.
Disable: - To injure or affect somebody so that they are unable to use their body
properly.
Deaf: - Unable to hear at all or to hear well.
Disability: - the state of being disabled: a thing that disables, a lack of something
necessary, disabilities of sight, hearing and speech.
108
Professional definition of disability: -The disadvantage or restriction of activity
caused by contemporary social organization which takes little or no account of
people who have physical impairments and thus excludes them from participation
in the mainstream of social activities. The disability has thus been depersonalized.
Handicap: - Physical disadvantage limiting individual fulfillment.
Currently several terminologies have emerged. We have inclusive concept of
education as opposed to mainstreaming and integration.
Inclusive: - Including something much or all. So inclusive education aims at
including all in the education provision.
Integrate: - to combine two things in such a way that one becomes fully a part of
the other.
In as much as to the general educator, there may appear not much difference
between inclusive and integration, to the Specialist Educator there is the difference
particularly as much as the set up of the programmes are 5oncemed. The special
educator believes that inclusive schools will set up facilities that will accommodate
all the needs of the handicapped in terms of barrier free zones, information access,
attitude, etc. Whereas, integration simply bring the handicapped to the already
existing situation with not much modification. This inclusive belief is subject to
debate and already underway in various sectors of society (Kristensen 2002).
109
The mentally and physically handicapped learners are currently challenging the
term "handicapped" and want to replace it with "challenged" (a difficult task that
tests somebody's ability) meaning academic or physical tasks are challenging to the
groups in question. It becomes interesting because the argument boils to the same
fundamental outcome i.e. difficultly in performing a task. The terminologies have
caused a lot of confusion in the field of Special Education because each group
wants to invent a term which is more friendly to listen to. We also realize that in
the historical development of Special Education in Kenya, terminologies such as
mainstreaming, integration. and inclusion have been used (Ogot 2002).
The current thinking is inclusion of handicapped learners in the regular set up and
such schools and their environment should be adapted to suit the needs of learners
who are handicapped. However not much progress has been made. In a module on
Special Needs Education. Randiki asserts "Inclusive education will make it
possible to enlist all children in the neighbourhood schools irrespective of their
disability. Parents will have to put up the required support system in place for the
learners within their own community. They must be made to understand this."
(Randiki 2002:72).
The statement sounds plausible but given the reality and experience on the ground,
one wonders how parents of the disabled would change overnight and even the
community in general. If for over 40 years since independence parents have had
serious difficulties putting up schools for the so called non-handicapped children
110
but non-at all for the handicapped, what mechanism have we put in place to make
them, for example ensure that a physically handicapped child on a wheel chair
access a neigbourhood school located in a muddy place without the wheelchair
sinking in the mud, or how a hearing impaired child will participate in regular class
activities without interpreters and Special Education teachers. Currently special
schools are seriously understaffed with specialists and to talk of including
handicapped in regular schools, then the Ministry must be extra prepared (which
they are not as at now) to implement policies that can make such implementation
possible. For example only 20% of teachers in Special Needs Educational programs
are trained in Special Needs Education (Taskforce of Special Needs Education
2003: 36)
The argument here is simple, In as much as inclusion is a good idea, we must be
able to define which category of the handicapped should be included and with what
facilities in place. It must be appreciated that Special Education had reached where
it is mainly because of the donor community through churches and organizations
related to the disabled. Now it is high time the government realizes its role and
take full charge of Special Education as an integral part of the education sector
~.
which, of course is more technical and requires more investment.
Handicapped and Sexuality
Several questions have been asked even by professionals. One such question hinge
on the handicapped peoples sexuality and their ability to marry or be married. This
question can be interpreted in several ways. The assumptions of many people is
111
that the handicapped persons do not enjoy or need sex. This researcher was
informed by a physically handicapped person who on admission to the hospital to
deliver, nurses on call wondered aloud "How did it happen? Who did it? and
retorted that people are really unkind in this world."(Orinda 1997).
It must be realized that handicapped people's body functions are the same with
non-handicapped unless the area of involvement (mainly for the physically
handicapped) controls sexual organs. Otherwise what non-handicapped persons
need, the handicapped also need. It therefore answers the question "Must the
handicapped people marry?". They are free to marry or not to marry. The other
question is on who they should marry. This has been a major concern even to the
handicapped themselves. Because the society look at them differently, they have
also chosen to form their own sub-societies and this education has not succeeded in
eradicating. There is a high tendency for the handicapped to marry among
themselves arguing that since the society does not accept them then they should
accept themselves. In the Ominde recommendation report, part 1, (1964:25),
objective number V and VI states:
"Education·must promote social equality and remove divisions
on race, tribe and religion. It must pay special attention to
training in social obligation and responsibility; an out come of
our educational provision at all levels must be adaptability to
change."
The above objectives are subject to several interpretations. One notable
interpretation is that social obligation and responsibility and adaptability to change
112
conveniently fit people with disabilities. The society, guided by the political
leaders who wield the power to put in place guiding educational policies have
neglected the education of the handicapped but only given it lip service with a hope
that some other people - donors would come to take over their responsibility. It is
therefore important to understand that there is no society designed for people called
handicapped and people called non-handicapped. Experience has shown that people
get disabled at any point in life even when they expect it least. Talk of motor
accidents, strokes, severe illness such as cerebral malaria, meningitis, domestic
fracas, to name but a few. These conditions graduate us into the club of the so
called disabled society. Therefore, it is incumbent upon any positively thinking
member of our society to help create the situation in which we can all carry the
burden of our disabled members of society. This can only be done by including
them in all that we enjoy, including marriage.
Adult literacy for Handicapped People
In as much as there are programs for adults who are non-handicapped to acquire
education the same does not apply to the handicapped adults. This is a major
neglect by the government and other stake holders as far as elimination of ignorance."
is concerned.
5.8 Summary
This chapter discussed challenges and prospects of Special Education in Kenya
between 1990 and 2003. This period witnessed the international concern about
children with disabilities and hence their educational needs. It is also the period
113
during which Kenya had just established a central training institute for teachers of
the handicapped: Kenya Institute of Special Education. The Kamunge and Koech
commission reports, being in place when Special Education was just gaining
acceptance and having within the committee (Koech) a person with a handicap (Dr.
Ndurumo Michael) came up with very positive recommendations for the provision
of relevant services to the handicapped. The challenge therefore remains on the
shoulders of the government to act positively towards service provision. Already
after signs towards service provision for the handicapped could be seen in the.
establishment of disability Act 2003 and setting up of Kochun'g task force on
Special Needs Education in 2003.
114
CHAPTER SIX
Conclusions
The study employed two theoretical perspectives, functional and conflict
perspective to examine the history of Special Education in Kenya with a special
emphasis on Kisumu and Nyando districts, between 1945-2003. It examined the
attitude of parents towards their handicapped children and the handicapped
themselves and analyzed the society's response to the needs of the handicapped
persons. Equally the study examined the government's involvement in the
development of Special Education in so far as funding, enrolment in Kenya,
curriculum and staff is concerned. The relationship between the government and
stakeholders in Special Education is also analyzed. The study looks at the present
situation of Special Education in Kenya in general and Nyando and Kisumu
districts in particular.
The study has established that there existed poor perception of the handicapped
persons in the society before the coming of the colonial rule. This poor perception
persisted and the colonial government did nothing about it. Even the early
Missionaries did not address the issue of the handicapped persons both in Kisumu
and Nyando districts, when they established mission schools such as Ogada,
Nyabondo, Nyakach, and Onjiko in the two districts. No trace or reference to the
disabled could be found during the study of the two districts. It is to be noted that it
was only after 1940's when services for the war victims in terms of rehabilitation
115
emerged and together with such services came Special Education in its crude form
in Kenya.
A candid testimony by Mwayonga (0. I, 2003) clearly represents the societal
attitude towards the disabled prior to, during and even after independence. He
observed that, '"To be frank and precise, the wearer of the shoe knows best where it
pinches. Special Education is one good thing that has ever happened to the
handicapped persons. Based on our African cultural beliefs, a disabled person was
rated as a non-performer. It was a curse or abomination to deliver, touch, relate to,
socialize with, and even marry such type of a person. To many, the disabled were
to depend on others for the rest of their lives. Many were cultured not to accept
themselves and lived in permanent hate for God, their parents and society. They
would be seen hiding when guests arrive. sleeping on sack while others sleep on
beds, crawling and limping while others walk ... "
The study has shown that the programmes catering for the educational needs of the
handicapped in Kisumu and Nyando were initiated by the churches between 1960-
1980. These programmes included special schools and small homes. Integrated
A·
units were started in the 1980's and 1990's with support of the NGO's such as
Lilian Foundation and Sight Savers International. The role of parents is found to be
minimal in the support of education for their handicapped children. This is partly
explained by the fact that when the churches came, they took away the handicapped
children and placed them in special schools where everything was provided. The
Asian communities also informally supplemented the work of the churches by
116
Equally staffing of special schools has been so poor for a very long time.
Education For All (EFA) report put it at about 50% of teachers not being trained in
Special Education, while this study established that in Kisumu and Nyando
Districts, out of the 102 teachers in 5 special schools and two integrated
programmes, only 29 are trained in Special Education with either diploma or B. Ed.
(Special Education). This put the trained staff at only about 30% while 70%
remain untrained. The small homes are mainly co-ordinated either by 3 month in-
serviced teachers or un-specialized teachers. This study has also established that
there is poor enrolment of handicapped in schools. If the total number of children
assessed since the establishment of assessment centers in 1984 is about 100,000
and the total enrolment in Kenya was just about 13,000 by the year 2002, it means
therefore that of the would be school going disabled children, only 0.013% are
attending school. Equally the study has established that handicapped children go
through regular curriculum with little or no adaptation at all. This put them at odds
with reality because if they cannot perform given tasks then their handicapping
conditions become more exposed. The study found out that only minor adaptations
have been done on education of the visually impaired. There still remain serious
difficulties in the education of the physic~lly handicapped, mentally handicapped
and even instruction medium for the hearing impaired. An informant (Ogutu, O. I,
2003) observed that over 50% of teachers of the deaf cannot communicate with
their learners. If that is the case then how can one expect the deaf to benefit from
the curriculum? At the same time it was established that 8.4.4. system of education
does not recognize the learners individual differences. It has therefore created an
118
exam system which is too rigid. It does not care what happens to learners after
examination for example standard 8 or form 4. There is a strong feeling that both
norm-referenced and criterion referenced testing should be used to determine what
the learners know or don't know at each level For example if a child is physically
in standard 8 but performance level is standard 4, such a child should not be
subjected to sit for standard 8 exams but be given more instruction to make it to the
level expected of him. Ogutu, (0. I, 2003).
During the study, it came out quite clearly that there is no clear government policy
on Special Education. Most of the policies governing implementation and practice
on Special Education were those stipulated in the sessional paper No. 6 of 1988
(Education For All 2000:40). However their implementation have been a problem.
Because these policies have not been implemented or if so then half haphazardly,
the management of Special Education has mainly been in the hands of the
sponsoring churches and organizations. This fact was confirmed by the number of
respondents to the questionnaires sent to special schools. On who dominate the
management of special schools, 85% of the respondents identified sponsors as the
dominating agents in the manning of special school, 10% mentioned Ministry of
Education while 5% mentioned BoG., PTA. committee was not recognized as
having a say in the management of special schools. This leads to the conclusion
that churches and NGO's have been the main Special Education providers in
Nyando and Kisumu districts.
119
Special Education programmes, like the regular education programmes are aimed
at making the learners acquire knowledge and skills to positively function in the
society and contribute to its development. As Nyerere puts it •.... a man is
developing himself when he grows, or earns enough to provide descent conditions
for himself and his family; he is not being developed if someone gives him these
things. A man is developing himself when he improves his education whatever he
learns about; he is not being developed if he simply carries out orders from
someone better educated than himself without understanding why these orders have
been given. yerere (1974:27-28).
With the biased curriculum and examination system, most handicapped children are
denied the opportunity to develop themselves through education. They have met
stiff competition for the few available resources. Many have dropped out in
standard 8 and opted for either shoe making or begging on the streets. Others have
remained at home while a few have been placed in colleges and Universities.
Majority however, have taken up training in skills such as dressmaking. leather
work or hawking. The study has thus established that even though Special
Education has been a neglected component of the overall education sector in
Kenya. there are indications that if there is political and societal will, then a lot can.------~---------
be achieved for the sector. There is need for political good will on the part of the
politicians, civil society and professionals. Most changes in education in Kenya
have taken political dimensions. Politicians in Parliament have had an upper hand
in deciding the direction the education system take, but more so the executive. All
120
.KENYAlTA UrJlVERSITY lIBRARY
the appointments of the education commission and committees which have had
major impact in the education sector have been made by the president.
Several recommendations made on Special Education have not been implemented
even though they do not cost much to implement. If policies on Special Education
can be strengthened with legal backing then the sector can register positive
development. Because Special Education has not been enshrined in the Education
Act, it is not seen as an important area that need recognition and attention. It will
only make sense if the sector is incorporated in the Education Act to give it legal
basis and a point of reference. When looking at staff development in Special
Education, the current rate at which Kenya Institute of Special Education (KISE),
Kenyatta and Maseno Universities train teachers will take a very long time to make
any meaningful impact on Special Education. In Kisumu and Nyando, the study
established that out of about 29% specially trained teachers in the special schools
about 6 (six) may retire in the next two years, yet KISE and Kenyatta University
generally produce about the same number of teachers for the two districts in the
same period.
Equally the trained Special Education teachers quickly leave the profession for
~.
NGO's because of better remuneration. If the government, therefore, is keen in
retaining Special Education staff then it should remunerate them well. Because
Special Education teachers handle learners with more complex learning needs, their
scheme of service should be
121
established to compensate for their more involving work. The most interesting
thing with most governments is that they tend to wish away the professionals'
concerns, especially when finances are involved. They fail to borrow a leaf from
parastatals, which reap the maximum profit because they remunerate their workers
well. Whatever happens. a poorly remunerated worker will definitely deliver less
because of less motivation. They tend to work only to retain the job but not to give
the best.
When one reads the recommendations on Special Education contained in the Koech
report of 1999. one wonders what serious financial implications are involved say,
on recommendation 8.17 and 8.21 management and scheme of service for Special
Education teachers. Most of the recommendations here are a matter of adjusting
job groups and assigning people the right jobs for them. It is not understood why
the head of Special Education in this republic must be somebody who is non-...--
specialized. How much money does it cost the government to assign a specially
trained person with either masters degree or PhD to head special education in
Kenya and be part of the policy making body? How much does it cost the
government to appoint a specially trained person with B. Ed Special Education or
M. Education (Special Education) to head Special Education programs at the
Provincial Directcr of Education office or District Education Officer's office or a
special school?
Human resource development in Special Education is at least being done by the
government together with development partners but the management of Special
122
Education is still mainly in the hands of non specialized personnel. This fact
seriously negatively impact on any gains to be made by specialized personnel.
Further research should be done to find out why specialized personnel are not
de210yed in their areas of specialization. Probably something is the matter with
officials responsible for manpower allocation at the Ministry of Education. This
human error or slanted view can only be rectified if Special Education is to be
given proper guidelines within which the concerned personnel would operate. This
study makes a strong case for the inclusion and involvement of specialized
personnel in the running and management of Special Education that is their major
domain.
Table 6. 1: Estimated Population of Persons with Special needs in Kenya.
PERSONS WITH SPECIAL NEEDS NUMBER
Persons with disabilities (children and adults) 3 million
Persons with disabilities aged 0-15 years 1.3 million.
Persons with disabilities aged 0-19 years 1.8 million
Learners with disabilities in special schools 26,885
Learners with special needs in regular schools 88,000-l.9 million. ~
Orphans in primary schools 800,000
Child labourers 1.9 million
Refugees 2000
Source :Task force on Special Needs Education(2003)
123
The study established that the main factor responsible for the establishment of
Special schools was philanthropy. The organizations and charities were mainly
responding to the plight of children with disabilities. They thus wanted to give
them equal opportunities with their non-disabled peers.
The study, through the evidence in the commission reports, Gichathi 1976, Kamuge
1988, Koech 1999 and the task force on Special Needs Education. 2003,
established that one major impeding factor the growth of Special Education is lack
of policy guidelines. The education Act does not address Special Education and
personnel (mainly teachers and administration officers) are not utilized to the
maximum .The growth of Special Education viz a viz regular education is quite
negligible. For example out of over seven million children attending both primary
and secondary schools, only about twenty seven thousand are children with Special
Needs, representing only about 0.4%. Given the number of Special institutions and
their history of establishment, the study established that development partners have
played a crucial role in their establishment in Kenya. The government is
commended for providing conducive atmosphere and goodwill for the growth of
Special Education. This is so in the whole republic and Kisumu and Nyando in
particular.
Finally adequacy of the education services provided to the disabled in relation to
social needs is questionable. For example since most schools do not have enough
qualified personnel the delivery of services are lacking. The curriculum that
learners with Special eeds have been subjected to has in most cases made it
124
difficult for them to gain. The introduction of 8-4-4 together with new subjects
like Kiswahili greatly disadvantaged the deaf learners who have problem in
communication. Both the physically handicapped and the visually impaired were
equally not spared when it came to practical subjects.
125
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133
APPENDICES
APPENDIX I: SAMPLE QUESTIONS
Date.......... anle: Sex: Age: .
Place of interview District .
Occupation/Position held .
Background information.
1. State how long you have been in the teaching profession.
2. Do you teach in a special school, unit or small home?
3. State your level of education
4. What level of Special Education have you attained?
5. How many students do you have in your institution?
6. When was the institution started and through whose initiative?
7. How many teachers do you have on staff?
KENYA GOVERNMENT POLICIES AND PRACTICES
1. Equity
a) Special Education has been in existence for the last sixty years. Is
the government participating in its development satisfactorily?
b) Comment on the growth of special education as compared to
regular education.
c) The setting up of Special Education programs at Kenyatta and
Maseno universities and Kenya Institute of Special Education is
134
more of a response to donor community's request for equal
education opportunities for the disabled. Do you agree?
d) Do the above three institutions have adequate and relevant training
equipment for Special Education.
e) Special Education has been gaining more acceptance 111 the
institutions of higher learning since the last decade. Do you agree?
11. Funding
a) Comment on the level of government support to teachers of
Special eeds Education. /
b) In the development of education sector, has Special Education
been given the attention it deserves by the government?
c) Comment on the state of funding of Special Education by the
government in your district.
d) Compared to Non-governmental organizations. has the
government done enough to develop Special Education in Kenya?
e) Do you think there is need for the government to increase funding
to Special Education programs?
Ill. Curriculum and evaluation
a) Do children with special needs in education fully benefit from the
mode of instruction in special schools?
b) Comment on the examination time allocation for children with
Special Education needs.
135
c) In 1985 the Kenya government introduced a new system of
education (8-4-4). Comment on its impact on children with Special
Education needs.
d) For over 40 years now, the curriculum and materials that support
Kenya's examination does not cater for the needs of learners with
Special Education needs. Do you agree?
e) When 8-4-4. system of education was introduced in 1985, did
Kenya Institute of Special Education (KISE) develop a career for
Special Education?
f) Does Kenya National Examination Council lay down procedures
of examining various categories of handicapped children?
g) Do all children with Special Education needs require 8-4-4.
curriculum?
h) Suggest possible adaptations needed for children with Special
Education needs.
i) Most special schools do not perform well in public examinations-
suggest possible ways to arrest this situation.
IV. Administration andmanagement
a) State factors that motivated Non-Governmental Organization to
start special school and programs. J
b) Comment on the effectiveness of administration of special schools
by non-specially trained personnel.
136
c) Comment on the role played by Board of Governors, Parents
Teachers Association, Ministry of education and sponsors in
management of Special Education.
d) For professional and administrative purposes any quality
assurance officer can inspect special institutions. Comment.
e) In the appointment of heads of special institutions or officers in
charge of Special needs Education, should there be consideration
of one's special training?
f) Special Needs Education has for a long time been eo-owned by the
government and Non-Governmental Organizations. Comment on
the relationship between the two . ./
g) Identify conflicts, if any, that education Act (1968) created in the
management of Special needs Education among stakeholders.
h) Is Kenya ready for inclusion of handicapped children in regular
schools?
i) Comment on government policy, if any, on Special Needs
Education.
j) Comment on factors responsible for the slow development of
Special Needs Education ../
k) Some disabled persons, even after attaining high level of
education, find themselves on the streets either begging or doing
odd jobs. Suggest how to alleviate this practice.
137
I) How would you prefer parents of disabled children to handle
them in relation to educational opportunities?
m) The government feels that all children, despite their disabilities,
should learn in the same school setting and near their homes. Do
you support this view?
n) Should the disabled, like female students, be admitted at the
universities through joint admissions board with lower grades?
138
KENYATTA AR
APPENDIX II: QUESTIONNAIRE FOR HEADTEACHERS
Instructions
This questionnaire has four sections. Kindly respond to all the questions to the best
of your knowledge. Note that only one response is required for every question and
tick the answer that best describes your view or opinion.
SECTIO I
1. How long have you been a headteacher in this school?
0-3 Years 0 3-5 Years 0 6-8 Years 0 9-12
Years 0
13 Years and Above 0
2. I am a headteacher of a
Special School 0
with a small home =
3. My Gender is Male 0
4. My age is
Below 30 year 0
Between 41 to 45 years 0
5. My level of education is
PlO SlO
Teacher Ill-ID
School with special unit 0 School
Female 0
Between 31 to 40 years 0
Approved teacher IV 0 Approved
Masters andGraduate 0 PGDE 0
above 0
139
6. My special Education Training is:
In-service Orientation D In-service certificateD Diploma
in Special Education D B.Ed. (Special Education D
Masters in Special Education D
7. Students population in the school is
Other (Specify) D
Below 50 D 50 to 100 D 101-150 students D
Above 200 students D151-200 students D
8. The size of teaching staff is
Less than 5 teachers D
teachers [J
16 to 20 teachers C
6 to 10 teachers D 11 to 15
21 and above D
9. My school 1S located
1n _
10. This school was started the
yea r _
11. This school was started through the initiative of
Church D The government D Local community D
Other Specify D
12. Do you agree with the current inspection of special schools by inspectors of
regular schools? Yes D
Explain your answer
NoD
140
13. In the administration of special schools right from headship to inspection,
do you see the need of specialization? Yes D
Explain your answer
NoD
14. In your experience with special education, do you see any conflict in
running these schools as far as BoG, PTA, Ministry of Education and
donors concerned?
Yes D No D
15. Given the nature of the handicapped children in your school, is the
government funding adequate to cater for them? Yes D
Explain your answer
00
141
APPENDIX Ill: QUESTIONNAIRE FOR THE TEACHERS
1. Only one response is required for every statement.
2. Put a tick 0 in the space that best represents your response to each
statement.
Give an explanation if required.
3. From 1945 to date, Special Education has existed in Kenya. Do you think
the government is fully supporting teachers in this field?
Yes 0 No D
Briefly explain
4. Several attempts have been made by the government to develop education
in Kenya since independence. In your view, has special education been
adequately considered in such developments?
Yes D NoD I have no idea D
If Yes or No briefly explain
5. 8.4.4. was introduced in 1984 in Kenya. Did this system introduce new
methods of teaching children who are handicapped?
Yes D NoD
142
6. Education Act (1968) gave authority to Board of Governor committees and
sponsors, together with the Ministry of Education to run schools. Which one
of the above groups do you see as dominating the management of special
schools BoG 0 Sponsors 0 Ministry of Education 0
Committee 0
7. How do you rate teacher training for teachers of special education between
1945-2002? Very Good 0
Explain
Good 0 Fair 0 Poor 0
8. What is your assessment about the attitude of parents of the disabled
towards their children? Very Good 0
Poor 0
9. Special Education has been in existence in Kenya for the last 58 years.
From this information, do you feel the handicapped children have been
Good 0 FairC
accorded a fair treatment by the government as far as education provision is
concerned?
Yes 0 No 0
143
NYA ~' ITV
APPENDIX IV: QUESTIONNAIRE FOR DONORS, ORGA IZATIONS
FOR/OF THE DISABLED A D CHURCH ORGA IZATIO S
Your organization has been chosen to participate in this research due to its positive
contribution towards the development of education for the handicapped children.
Kindly answer the questions as precisely as possible.
1. In provision of Special Education in Kenya. which specific disability IS
your organization involved with?
o Physical Handicapped 0
o Mentally Handicapped 0
o Visually Impaired 0
o Hearing Impaired 0
o All of the above 0
2. State the period for which your organization has been supporting the
handicapped in Kenya.
o 5-10 years [
o 10-20 years 0
o 20-30 years 0
o 30-40 years c=
o Over 40 years 0
3. From the time your organization started working in Kenya in the period
stated in question 1, can you tell or estimate the number of disabled persons
helped?
Yes 0 No 0
144
4. Your motivation to rehabilitate the handicapped through education was/is
due to:
o Less of involvement by parents and government 0
o Ignorance of parents 0
5. Are you convinced that the parents/guardians of the handicapped children
are totally unable and that if their handicapped children were to be non-
handicapped, they would still not take them to school? Yes 0
NoD
Explain _
6. Is the relationship between your organization and the government cordial as
far as management of schools is concerned?
Yes 0 No 0
Briefly explain
145
7. Most special schools do not perform well in public examinations. Suggest
possible ways to arrest this situation.
8. Is Kenya ready for inclusion of handicapped children in regular schools?
Yes 0 No 0
Explain briefly
9. For the period your organization has been in Kenya, several children have
benefited from its assistance. What do you see as the way forward for
Special Education in Kenya?
146
APPE DIX V: QUESTIONNAIRE FOR, KISE KU (SPECIAL
EDUCATION) AND MASENO UNIVERSITY (SPECIAL EDUCATION)
1. Information available shows that formal special education programmes started
around 1945, do you see a corresponding growth in Special Education since
that time as compared to growth in regular education? Yes 0 00
2. The setting up of Special Education programmes at the University (KU and
Maseno) and KISE is more of a response to donor community's quest for equal
education opportunities for the disabled. Do you agree? Yes 0 No 0
Briefly explain
3. Does Kenyatta University (Sp. Ed). Maseno University (SP. Ed) and KISE
have adequate and relevant training equipment for the Special Education?
Yes 0 No [
If No, suggest alternatives
4. Special Education has been gaining more acceptance in the institutions of
higher learning since the last decade. Do you agree? Yes 0 00
5. Like female students, disabled persons should be admitted at the universities
through Joint Admissions Board with lower grades Yes 0 NoD
147
APPE DIX VI: QUESTION AIRE FOR MI ISTRY OF EDUCATIO
HEADQUARTER
1. Special Education in Kenya was propagated by the churches in the 1940s.
Do you agree? Yes 0 NoD
2. In terms of development as compared to regular education, Special
Education has been lagging behind since the colonial days. Yes 0 No 0
3. a) The involvement of Ministry of Education in identification and
placement of handicapped children before mid-1980s was minimal. Yes
o NoD
b) The contribution of donors in the development of Special Education in
Kenya has been quite significant. They have therefore dominated decision-
making in Special Institutions. Do you agree?
Yes 0 NoD
4. Handicapped children mainly go through normal education curriculum with
minor or no adaptations. Yes 0 00
5. Several people suggest that handicapped children should learn in regular
schools with the non-handicapped. Is there government policy on this
issue?
Yes 0 NoD
Briefly explain
148
6. Has there been a government policy on this issue (in 5 above) since 1963?
Yes 0
Briefly Explain
NoD
7. In management and inspection of special schools, it is believed that any
trained inspector or teacher can be deployed. Do these positions required
specialized training? Yes o NoD
8. Special schools are mainly managed by BoG's. Are parents of the disabled
given enough opportunity to be involved in making decisions affecting their
children? Yes 0 NoD
9. The government funding of special education should be highly increased
after a careful study on the need of specific groups of disability. Do you
agree? Yes 0 NoD
10. Inclusive education is the talk of the 21 SI century. Is it relevant to Kenya?
Yes 0
Explain briefly
NoD
149
APPENDIX VII: QUESTIONNAIRE FOR KENYA INSTITUTE OF
EDUCATION AND KENYA NATIONAL EXAMINATIONS COUNCIL
1. Kenya's examinations take little recognition of the fact that there are many
handicapped candidates who sit for them.
Yes D NoD
2. The bulk of the curriculum and materials that support does not cater for the
needs of special learners almost 40 years after independence. Do you
agree?
Yes D NoD
3. Does Kenya National Examination Councils have a laid down procedure of
examining various categories of handicapped children?
Yes D NoD
4. When 8.4.4 system of education was introduced in 1984, did Kenya
Institute of Education develop a curriculum for Special Education?
Yes D No 0
5. Suggest curriculum adaptations needed for children with disabilities.
6. Do you think handicapped children need more time for National
Examinations? Yes D NoD
Explain. _
150
APPE DIX VIII: QUESTIO NAIRE FOR DISTRICT EDUCATIO
OFFICERS
1. Have you registered schools in Special Education programmes in the
district during the last 10 years? Yes 0 NoD
Briefly explain the reason for your answer
2. Apart from parents, who are the main stakeholders of Special Education in
your district?
Churches 0 GO'sO Government 0 Community 0
3. People handling the handicapped have received training in specific areas of
special need. Do you consider special training before appointing relevant
heads of special schools of inspectors in charge of special education?
Yes 0 No 0
4. Is the funding of special education programmes by the government in the
district appropriate? Briefly
explain _
5. Briefly comment on what should be done to enhance the development of
special education in Kenya.-
151
APPENDIX IX: QUESTIONNAIRE FOR DISABLED IN SCHOOL AND
DffiABLEDSCHOOLLEAVERS
1. Do you prefer to learn in special school or regular school with non-
handicapped children? Yes D NoD
2. How do you find life in a special school?
Very Good D GoodD BadO Very
BadD
3. Has what you learnt in special school helped you enjoy life out of
school?
Yes D NoD
4. Did/do you benefit from the way instructions were/are given in special
school? Yes D No D
Briefly explain
5. Several disabled people go to street to ask for assistance even when they
go up to secondaryschool. Is this habit good? Yes D 0 0
6. Who waslis responsible for your education?
Parent D Government D Donor D Local church D
7. Should disabled people learn in special school or regular school?
Special D Regular D Other D
152
APPENDIX X: QUESTIONNAIRE FOR PARENTS OF THE DISABLED
LEARNERS
Name of parent Name of school _
1. You have been a parent in this school where your disabled child is learning,
for how long?
3 years and below D More than 3 years D
2. You prefer ycur disabled child to learn in a special school?
Yes D NoD
Explain briefly
3. Do you feel satisfied with education services offered in this school?
Yes D NoD
4. Do you think there is need for the government to increase funding to special
programmes? Yes D NoD
Explain _
5. The government feels that all children, despite their disabilities, shoud learn
in the same school setting and near their homes. Do you support this view?
Yes D NoD
Explain _
153
APPENDIX XI: LIST OF KEY INFORMANTS
NAME AGE AREA/DISTRICT INTERVIEW OCCUPA TIONIPOSITION
Abuto John 83 Nyando 1-8-2003 Elder
Akongo leconia 84 Nyando 1-8-2003 Former teacher
Alela Okore 55 Kisumu 5-8-2003 Social worker
Aloo Pamella 64 Nyando 2-8-2003 Parent
Ananga Charles 72 Nyando 2-8-2003 Expert in Luo history
Ano lames 50 Kisumu 3-8-2003 Sponsor Representative
Arogo Omondi 70 Nyando 8-8-2003 Clan elder
Ayoti Arthur 49 Kisumu 10-8-2003 Teacher (Physically
Handicapped)
Bodo loseph 80 Nyando . 16-8-2003 Former civil servant
Dali Reuben 58 Kisumu 5-8-2003 Former Headteacher Special
School
Guda Kitere 90 Nyando 13-8-2003 Participated in 2nd world war
Kahuhia Beth 48 Nyando 15-8-2003 KNEC official
Kochn'g Edward 52 Kisumu 17-8-2003 Senior Lecturer Maseno
University
Mutula Christine 38 Kisumu 17-8-2003 Former student
Mwayonga 39 Kisumu 21-8-2003 APDK member/SNE teacher
Joseph
MooyG 80 Kisumu 28-8-2003 Priest
Obiero Samuel 81 Nyando 16-8-2003 Former Teacher
Ochieng' David 32 Nyando 4-8-2003 Student Teacher (Physical
Handicapped
Odete Valentine 83 Nyando 5-8-2003 Church Catechist
John Odhiambo 52 Kisumu 6-8-2003 Headteacher Special School
Odhiambo 66 Kisumu 8-8-2003 Parent of a Disabled child
Maurice
Odipo John 69 Nyando 9-8-2003 Parent of a Disabled child
154
Odongo John 71 Kisumu 8-8-2003 Businessman
Ogutu Tobias 49 Nyando 29-8-2003 Director Kenya Society for the
Deaf
Ogutu Peter 69 Nyando 13-8-2003 Parent
Okello Damian 52 Kisumu 26-8-2003 SNE teacher
Okuom Misiani 63 Nyando 27-8-2003 Chairman Nyakach Professionals
Omondi William 62 Kisumu 7-8-2003 Community Development
Worker
Olilo Rose 50 Kisumu 7-8-2003 Special Education consultant
Ondiek Athanase 70 Nyando 4-8-2003 Former Children's Officer
Oner Joseph 62 Kisumu 9-8-2003 Lutheran Church Pastor
Otieno Hesbon 57 Nyando 3-8-2003 Community Development
Worker
Otieno Pamella 52 Nyando 29-8-2003 Parent
Osano Peter 51 Kisumu 14-8-2003 Coordinator- Deaf Persons
Owiti Peer 74 Nyando 13-8-2003 Retired Teacher
Saoke Caleb 56 Kisumu 11-8-2003 Children's Home manager
Salim 49 Nyando 7-8-2003 Education Manager Sight Savers
Mohammed
Shikala Herman 52 MOEST 30-8-2003 Inspector Special Education
Waudo Eunice 44 MOEST 30-8-2004 Inspector Special Education
155
•