FACTORS AFFECTING TRANSFER OF TRAINING WITHIN MILITARY OFFICERS'
TRAINING IN THE MINISTRY OF STATE FOR DEFENCE, KENYA
BY
MISIANI O. GEOFFREY
D53/CTY IPT/23391/2011
A Research Project submitted to the School of Business in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirement
for the award of the degree in Master of Business Administration (Strategic Management) of
Kenyatta University
MAY 2013
Misiani O. Geoffrey
Factors affecting
transfer of training
1IIIIIUlllillmlillDIIIII
2011/4294l1
, .
fiNYATTA U
DECLARATION
I declare that this is my original work and has not been presented for a degree in any other
university for academic purpose or for any other award.
Sign: ~~ . Date: ~+l.?.\.\.~ .
Misiani O. Geoffrey
D53/CTY/PT/23391/2011
This project has been submitted for examination with my approval as university supervisor for
and on behalf of Kenyatta University.
Sip: ••.•• ~:;ru
Muathe SMA (PhD)
Chairman
Business Administration Department
I'School of Business
Kenyatta University
ii
DEDICATION
To my mum Margaret, wife Irene, Sons Davian and Bramon, Sister Esther and Brother Vincent
for being pillars of all my efforts and especially understanding that I needed some peace of mind
while undertaking the course.
iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I am grateful to the Almighty God for granting me energy to undertake this course. I would like
to pass my sincere gratitude to my friends and family for their moral support and encouragement.
My deep felt gratitude also goes to my supervisor Muathe SMA (PhD) for his invaluable
guidance, suggestions, patience, and prompt feedback that contributed to the success of this
study.
To all staff and management of the Ministry of State for Defence for their support and agreement
to participate in the study.
God bless you all.
iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
DECLARATION ii
DEDICATION iii
Acknowledgement iv
Table of contents v
List of tables ............................................................................................................•.................. viii
List of figures .............................................................•......................•......•.................................... ix
Abstract x
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION ...................•.•........•.......................................................... 1
1.1 Background of the Study : 1
1.1.1 Military officers training in the Ministry of State for Defence 3
1.2 Statement of the Problem 4
1.3 Objectives of the Study 5
1.3.1 General Objective 5
1.3.2 Specific Objectives 5
1.4 Research Questions 5
I'
1.5 Significance of the Study 6
1.6 Delimitations/Scope of the Study 7
1.7 Limitations of the study 7
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW ............................•..................•.........•.................. 8
2.1 Introduction 8
2.2 Theoretical Review 8
2.2.1 Theory of Planned Behaviour ,- 8
2.2.2 Adult Learning Theory ; ; ~ 9
v
2.2.3 Human Capital Theory : 10
2.2.4 Reinforcement Theory 11
2.2.5 General Training Overview ......•................................................................................... 12
2.2.6 Concept of Transfer of Training 13
2.3 Empirical Review 14
2.3.1 Individual Characteristics 14
2.3.2 The Environment 17
2.3.3 Training Design 22
2.3.4 Trainer Characteristics 27
2.3 Summary and Research Gaps 29
2.4 Conceptual Framework 29
CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 31
3.1 Introduction 31
3.2 Research Design : 31
3.3 Target Population 31
3.4 Sample and Sampling Technique 32
3.5 Data collection Instruments 34
3.5.1 Data collection procedure 34
"
3.5.2 Validity 34
3.5.3 Reliability and Reliability Analysis 35
3.6 Data Analysis and Presentation 36
CHAPTER FOUR: RESEARCH FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION 40
4.1 Introduction 40
4.1.1 Response Rate : 40
4.2 Demographic information 40
vi
4.3 Military Training for Officers 44
4.4 Factors affecting Transfer of Training 46
4.4.1 Trainee Characteristics 46
4.4.2 The Environment 47
4.4.3 Training Design 50
4.4.4 Trainer Characteristics 51
4.5 Factor Analysis 53
4.6 Regression Analysis 61
CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMENDATIONS 65
5.1 Introduction 65
5.2 Summary 65
5.3 Conclusion 67
5.4 Recommendations 68
5.5 Suggestions for Further Research 69
REFERENCES 70
APPENDICES 76
Appendix I: Introduction letter 76
Appendix II: Questionnaire 77
vii
LIST OF TABLES
Table 3.1: Distribution of Target Population 32
Table 3.2: Sample size 33
Table 3.3: Reliability Analysis 36
Table 4. 1: Highest academic qualification of the respondents 42
Table 4.2: Period the respondents had served in the Defence forces 43
Table 4. 3: Extent that trainee characteristics affect transfer of training 46
Table 4.4: Extent that work environment affects transfer of training 48
Table 4. 5: Extent that training environment affects transfer of training 49
Table 4. 6: Extent that training design affects transfer of training 50
Table 4.7: Extent that trainer characteristics affect transfer of training 52
Table 4. 8: Extent the factors affect transfer of training 53
Table 4. 9: Communalities 55
Table 4. 10: Total Variance Explained 57
Table 4. 11: Component Matrix 59
Table 4. 12: Multiple regression results of dependent variable and the independent variables 61
Table 4. 13: ANOV A regression analysis results between ownership and predictor variables 62
Table 4. 14: Regression coefficients relationship of dependent variable and the independent
variables 62
viii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1: Conceptual framework 30
Figure 4. 1: Age of the respondents 41
Figure 4. 2: Gender of the respondents 41
Figure 4.3: Designation of the respondents 43
Figure 4.4: If the respondents were directly involved in training 44
Figure 4.5: If the respondents were currently undertaking any form of training 45
Figure 4. 6: Extent that respondents applied the acquired skills in the actual work situation 45
ix
ABSTRACT
A common experience is that learning from a formal training program is not carried back for
application on the job. After that kind of training it's important to assess whether transfer of
training has taken place during the use of actual aspects and accessories and equipment. The
purpose of the study was to find out the factors affecting transfer of training within military
officers' in the Ministry of State for Defence, Kenya. A descriptive research design was used this
study. The target population of this study composed of 286 military officers trained staff at the
Army headquarters and trainers. This research study used a stratified random sampling method to
select 30% of the respondents. The researcher therefore selected 86 respondents from the
military institutions. The researcher used primary data for this study and was collected using
questionnaires. The questionnaire was administered using a drop and pick later method to the
sampled respondents. The questionnaire designed by the researcher based on the research
questions. The quantitative data in this research was analyzed by descriptive statistics using
statistical package for social sciences (SPSS) version 21. Content analysis was used in
processing the qualitative data and results presented in prose form. In addition, a multivariate
regression model was applied to determine the relative importance of each of the four variables
with respect to transfer of training. Data was presented in tables and figures. The study found
that trainer characteristics had the greatest effect on transfer of training followed by training
design, then trainee characteristics while the environment had the least effect. The study found
that self-efficacy and career and job attitudes affected transfer of training to a very great extent.
In addition, the continuous learning culture, social support! workgroup support, opportunity to
perform and situational cues and consequences affected transfer of training to a great extent.
Moreover, ambient conditions (sound, light, temperature, air) and student involvement affected
transfer of training to a great extent. The study found that provision of additional or supportive
guidance on using the skills back on the job, training content and guidelines for effective training
affected transfer of training to a very great extent. The study found that knowledge of the subject
matter and professional experience affected transfer of training to a very great extent. The study
concludes that trainee characteristics such as personality, trainee ability, and motivation effects
were originally identified by training practitioners as factors affecting transfer of training. How
much the trainee was liked and the perceived potential for the trainee and workgroup support are
important in establishing how much of an opportunity the trainee had to perform trained tasks on
the job. High levels of training fulfillment were associated with increased training motivation,
self-efficacy and organizational commitment, their training fulfillment measure incorporating
expectations of content, perceptions of actual content and desired content. With over learning,
practice training in a skill continues beyond the point of skill mastery. Trainers stick closely to
the instructional material through careful focus on instructional objectives and few used
interesting material to spice up. The study recommends the trainees the trainees need to have
high level of confidence so as to attain anticipated performance. The organization need to
encourage trainees to update the technical knowledge and skills and personal growth.
Supervisors and peers should provide trainees with opportunities for practicing new skills and
knowledge in the job setting. Unlimited practice opportunities need to be provided to trainees.
Cultural commitment to learning should be encouraged in the organization. Trainers need to use
interesting material to spice up their teaching.
x
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the Study
Training involves acquisition of skills through the process of teaching or learning a skill or job. It
also involves improving of fitness that is the process of improving physical fitness by exercise
and diet. Training is any learning activity which is directed towards the acquisition of specific
knowledge and skills for the purpose of an occupation or task. This implies that the focus of
training is the job or task that is to be performed by the individual who is being trained (Cole,
2002). For example, new equipment may require workers to learn new ways of doing the job or a
worker may have a deficient understanding of a work process. In both sides, training can be used
to correct the skill deficit. Training is focus on the current job, the scope of training is on
individual employees (Robert, 2010). It is also job specific and addresses particular performance
deficits or problems. Training tends to focus on immediate organizational needs and fairly quick
improvement in workers' performance. It strongly influences present performance levels. A
fundamental objective of training is the elimination or improvement of performance problems.
To be successful, a training program must have clear stated and realistic goals (David,
2010).These goals will guide the program's content and determine the criteria by which its
effectiveness will be judged. For example, management cannot easily realistically expect that
one training session will make everyone an accounting expert. Such an expectation guarantees
failure because the goal is unattainable. If the goal is to improve specific skills, the training needs
to be targeted to those skill areas. In contrast, the company's training goal may be to provide
employees with a broader understanding of the organization (Luis, 2010).
1
Organizations can no longer afford to provide training that has not been evaluated for its
contribution to the organization's strategic goals and mission and its effectiveness and use on the
job to achieve those goals (Brinkerhoff, 2005). Effectiveness goes to the heart of what training
and development are all about in an organization: giving employees the knowledge and skills
they need to perform their jobs effectively (Noe & Schmitt, 1986).
In order to initiate more effective training, organizations need to look at how the training and
development system is aligned with the strategy of the organization and at what is being done to
make sure that all training and development activities are effective. Moreover, the government
spends enormous amount of money on employees in the public sector and more expenses will be
incurred by the government in training its public sector employees in order to achieve a
knowledge-based workforce and knowledge-economy. Training Effectiveness is defined as a
measurement of observable changes in knowledge, skills, and attitude after training has been
conducted (Bramley, 1996). Alvarez, Salas, and Garafano (2004) defined training effectiveness
as the variables that are likely to influence the outcomes of the training at different stages of the
training process. For the purpose of this research, the definition provided by Bramley (1996) will
be adopted since the measurement of changes in knowledge, skills and attitude upon completion
of the training is important aspect in transfer of training.
Public sector/service may be defined as the part of the economy concerned with providing basic
government services. The composition of the public sector varies by country, but in most
countries the public sector includes such services as the police, military, public roads, public
transit, primary education and healthcare for the poor. The public sector might provide services
that non-payer cannot be excluded from (such as street lighting), services which benefit all of
society rather than just the individual- who uses the service (such as public education), and
services that encourage equal opportunity. From the definition, it is worth noting that this sector
2
plays a very important role since it is tasked with the duty of providing public services to all
citizens of a particular country.
1.1.1 Military officers training in the Ministry of State for Defence
The purpose of training in the Kenya Defence Forces (KDF) is to equip officers, men and
women with necessary professional knowledge and develop skills to enable them undertake their
core mission effectively. Training is based on set standards and objectives with an integral
evaluation system founded on a well-designed doctrine. Training creates desired loyalty,
inculcates team spirit, nurtures discipline, and builds physical and mental fitness. The dynamism
in warfare brought about by the ever-changing technology has necessitated constant change in
training doctrine to conform to the present times. The KDF adopted the maneuver approach to
warfare as the doctrine in 200 1. This doctrine seeks to enhance the KDF capacity to shatter the
enemy cohesion and fight using minimum resources.
Training is executed in three distinct phases namely individual, collective and institutional by
deliberate exploitation of opportunities offered by Kenya schools and colleges for professional
development and proficiency. Occasional overseas and allied training provides specialized
knowledge in certain areas while promoting bilateral co-operation. Training in the KDF is based
on a 3-year training cycle as enshrined in the Ministry of State for Defence (MOSD) training
directive that outlines the guidance on priorities and emphasis on training. The continuum flows
through five levels; individual, teams, sub-units, units and formations. In every third year of
training cycle, the ministry may schedule joint/combined exercises with friendly nations to
review the position of the troops. Some of the exercises may include peace support operations
(PSOs) involving the East African states.
3
1.2 Statement of the Problem.
It is impossible to ignore issues that relate to effectiveness of any training program and transfer
of training for any organisation since a huge fraction of the budgets is provided for staff training.
On the same breadth ministries also use a substantial amount of their allocated funds on training
which calls for a deeper understanding whether the funds utilized towards that end are
commensurate with the output of the trained personnel or provide the desired end state. A
common experience is that learning from a formal training program is not carried back for
application on the job. The estimates are that only about ten percent of training is effectively
transferred to the workplace (Detterman, 2003) while Fuller et al. (2004) estimate that somewhat
less than twenty percent of training investments lead to some organizational benefit. Other
literature indicates that in the short term only 50% of training transfers to the job, and in the
longer term, only 10% will ultimately transfer (Kim & Lee, 2001).
Training being a strategic component for any military, everything possible should be undertaken
to ensure that the desired level of whatever that has been learnt by the officers is applied in the
field. At times the kind of training that is provided involves processes or actions that are
irreversible which calls for certainty in decisions that are to be made based on the skills that have
been learnt. The training component in the set up requires a lot of funds occasioned by the kind
of equipment, time and other accessories that are expensive. Despite the utilization of the said
funds for training some lack of transfer has been observed in the field while applying what has
already been learnt. After any kind of training it's important to assess whether transfer of
training has taken place during the use of actual aspects and accessories and equipment. The
factors reviewed in the past studies as the ones affecting transfer of training may not be
universally applicable. At the same timethey appear to apply in western countries which may not
4
be the case in Kenya. This calls for a study to establish factors that affect transfer of training
within military officers' training in the Ministry of State for Defence, Kenya.
1.3 Objectives of the Study
1.3.1 General Objective
The general objective of the study was to find out the factors affecting transfer of training
within military officers' training in the Ministry of State for Defence (MOSD).
1.3.2 Specific Objectives
The study however sought specifically to:-
(i) Determine whether trainee characteristics affect transfer of training for military officers'
in the Ministry of State for Defence.
(ii) Find out the effect of environment on staff s transfer of training in the Ministry of State
for Defence.
(iii) Establish the extent that training design affect transfer of training in the Ministry of State
I' for Defence.
(iv) Establish the effect of trainer characteristics on transfer of training in the Ministry of
State for Defence.
1.4 Research Questions
The study sought to answer the following research questions:
(i) To what extent do individual trainee characteristics affect the extent of training
transfer in the Ministry of State for Defence?
5
(ii) How does the environment affect transfer of training in the Ministry of State for
Defence?
(iii) To what extent does training design affect transfer of training in the Ministry of State
for Defence?
(iv) What is the effect of trainer characteristics on transfer of training in the Ministry of
State for Defence?
1.5 Significance of the Study
Evaluation of training programs plays a key role in determining their effectiveness for the
organization. While research continues to develop alternative ways to measure training
effectiveness, some have proposed that measuring training effectiveness alone does not capture
all the important information in the training process since typically only 10% of organizational
expenditures result in actual transfer of trained skills back to the job (Georgenson, 2002).
Training effectiveness and training transfer are linked in literature and both play vital roles in
organizational training success. More specifically, there are factors that affect the abilities of
employees to transfer trained skills from the classroom to their work environment. The findings
of the study would be of significance to the following:-
I'
The study would provide information to the public sector's training institution about employees'
perception on training which would allow management to capitalize organization strategy in
order to deal with elements of the job that contribute to transfer of training. The investigation of
the factors affecting transfer of training would enhance managements understanding so that they
can provide conducive environment to both the trainers and trainees.
Researchers would gain theoretical and practical experience on the factors affecting transfer of
training hence enable the researcher to make recommendations on enhanced performance of staff
6
and also to indicate various areas. 'in training that needs to be addressed and studied further by
future researchers.
1.6 Delimitations/Scope of the Study
The study is investigating the factors affecting transfer of training within military officers'
training. The study focused more on factors affecting transfer of training within military officers'
training in the Ministry of State for Defence, Kenya. The researcher believed that this provided
an adequate population and sample for the study and therefore give reliable results and findings.
The research study was undertaken at the military institutions between the months of
November/December 2012 and January-April 2013.
1. 7 Limitations of the study
Ministry of State for Defence being a ministry with training institutions and establishments
scattered around the country and even including remote locations, substantial amount of finance
may be required to conduct the study. However the researcher trained and employed assistant
researchers as well as drew a representative sample that is acceptable and manageable within the
time given and finances available.
Although some information about training may be classified and access to it being limited thus
making it a limitation for the research, the researcher endeavoured to use formal channels that
are in existence to get the kind of information that is useful for the research.
7
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
The chapter deals with the review of the existing literature on factors affecting transfer of
training. The literature reviewed was intensively done to appreciate the related works done by
others and also identify knowledge gaps that need to be filled by this study. It was organized
thematically based on the research objectives and was also meant to shape the research and help
conceptualizing the concept.
2.2 Theoretical Review
2.2.1 Theory of Planned Behaviour
The scientific bases of transfer of training studies originated in planned behaviour theory whose
origins were in the field of social psychology as a predictor for behaviour. This theory predicts
that the most important determinant of a person's behavior is behavioral intent. The individual's
intention to perform a behavior is a combination of his or her attitude toward performing the
behavior, the prevailing subjective norms and the perceived behavioral controls on the individual
• I'(Brainmarket, 2002).
The theory provided a model for viewing forces arrayed for and against an initiative that would
cause significant change. Brainrnarket (2002) implied that it is almost mathematical, in that the
sum of the vectors (for and against) will determine the outcome. This complexity of causation in
terms of the number of variables-both inhibitors and facilitators-makes transfer a difficult
problem to conceptualize and, therefore, address. In other words, if one could solve the transfer
8
problem, a majority of organizational problems would be minimized or cease to exist. Several
models have been developed to try to understand the transfer phenomena.
2.2.2 Adult Learning Theory
At the centre of adult learning theory is an andragogical (adult learning) model of education,
originating from comparisons with the more traditional pedagogical (child learning) model. The
andragogical model looks at the core principles underlying why and how adults learn.
The most well known and referenced is by Knowles (2005), who presents six main assumptions
or principles of adult learning: adults need to know why they need to learn something, before
undertaking to learn it. They will invest energy into exploring the potential benefits of learning,
and consequences of not learning. Adults have a self concept of being responsible for their own
decisions, for their own lives. They like to direct their own learning (to different levels) and
resent having the will of others imposed upon them. Adults come to an educational activity with
a depth and variety of experiences, and it is important to acknowledge and build on these
experiences. Adults become ready to learn those things they need to know to cope effectively
with real life situations. This is important when considering such things as timing and promotion
of learning opportunities. The most potent motivators for adults to learn are internal factors,
I'
rather than external.
The cycle then continues into a new and improved action or experience, based on the improved
planning. This cycle or similar was also briefly referred to in the psychological literature, in the
context of sequencing training design for greatest effectiveness. Personal experience, and
evidence from trainee evaluations over many years, has convinced the author that incorporating
adult learning principles and the learning cycle (with associated learning styles) into training
9
design, results in training outcomes being achieved well hence making the theory important for
the study.
2.2.3 Human Capital Theory
Human capital theory as formalized by Becker and Gerhart (2006) is the dominant perspective
on on-the-job training. This theory views training as an investment; it raises expected future
productivity but at a cost. The key distinguishing feature of a human capital investment as
opposed to an investment in capital concerns property rights. A machine can be sold, but in
modem society, men cannot. As individuals have the discretion over the deployment of their own
human capital, workers and firms will need to agree on an exchange in the labour market. This
implies that how the costs and returns to training are shared between workers and firms is a
central concern in the on-the-job training literature. Human capital theory has been further
developed in the 1970s to explain the life-cycle pattern of earnings. This literature analyses the
human capital investment decision of individuals in a competitive environment. One may argue
that, in this model, the distinction between education and training is an artificial one. Workers
choose the investment as a function of prices (and ability). Through these prices, the demand
side enters. There is no strategic interaction between workers and firms. Weiss (1995) surveys
this literature.
The first major attempt to apply learning theory to educational technology was Skinner's
development of teaching machines, (Skinner, 1968). His idea was to develop curricula at such a
level of detail that a learner could learn without error. The leamer, his theory held, never fully
recovers from making errors; once made, there remains a possibility that they will recur to
disrupt future learning and performance.
10
Consequently, effective instruction should invoke only correct responses. He was critical of
traditional teaching methods because they often engender errors in learning, and because they
fail to reinforce behaviour effectively. On his theory, negative reinforcement (e.g. criticism,
punishment) was to be avoided. Only positive reinforcement is theoretically sound, and this must
be administrated according to specific schedules to ensure effective learning. For instance, as
new responses are shaped up, reinforcement should be withdrawn. Mechanical presentation of
the curriculum seemed an ideal way for teaching since a perfect schedule of shaping and
reinforcement could be built into the teaching programme.
The nature of production systems is conceptually simple. A production is a rule which specifies
that if certain conditions are encountered in a situation then specific actions are performed. For
example, if it is not a working day and all the household chores have been done and the weather
forecast is good then decide to go walking. These actions modify the state of the situation,
creating new conditions which may fire another production.
2.2.4 Reinforcement Theory
This theory was developed by the behaviorist school of psychology, notably by Skinner (1968).
Skinner believed that behaviour is a function of its consequences. The learner will repeat the
desired behaviour if positive reinforcement (a pleasant consequence) follows the behaviour.
Positive reinforcement, or 'rewards' can include verbal reinforcement such as 'That's great' or
'You're certainly on the right track' through to more tangible rewards such as a certificate at the
end of the course or promotion to a higher level in an organisation. Negative reinforcement also
strengthens a behavior and refers to a situation when a negative condition is stopped or avoided
as a consequence of the behaviour. Punishment, on the other hand, weakens a behaviour because
a negative condition is introduced or experienced as a consequence of the behaviour and teaches
11
the individual not to repeat the behavior which was negatively reinforced. Punishment creates a
set of conditions which are designed to eliminate behaviour (Maund, 2010). Katou (2009)
considers this aspect of behaviorism has little or no relevance to education. However, Burns says
that punishment is widely used in everyday life although it only works for a short time and often
only when the punishing agency is present. Bums notes that much Competency Based Training
is based on this theory, and although it is useful in learning repetitive tasks like multiplication
tables and those work skills that require a great deal of practice, higher order learning is not
involved. The criticism ofthis approach is that it is rigid and mechanical.
2.2.5 General Training Overview
Training programs in organizations provide a variety of benefits. For example, organizations
gain through the improved performance and increased productivity that accompany employee
development, while employees enjoy extrinsic and intrinsic rewards associated with skill
development and performance improvement. Cole (2002) defines training as any learning
activity which is directed towards the acquisition of specific knowledge and skills for the
purpose of an occupation or task. This implies that the focus of training is the job or task that is
to be performed by the individual who is being trained. It is also defined as a process of
teaching, new employees the basic skills they need to perform their jobs (Dessler, 2009).
Training is a powerful agent for facilitating an organization's expansion, development of
capabilities and improvement of profitability. A well educated and well trained workforce is
essential in maintaining an organization's competitive advantage. This was affirmed by Noe
(2002) that training is increasingly being called upon to serve as the catalysts to drive change and
to assist an organization achieve its stated strategic objectives. Thus training is critical to
organization's performance and success.
12
Amstrong (2001) emphasizes that training should be systematic in that it is specifically designed,
planned and implemented to meet defined needs. It is provided by people who know how to train
and the impact of training is carefully evaluated. The systematic training involves identification
of learning needs, planning training programmes, implementing the training and lastly evaluating
the training.
2.2.6 Concept of Transfer of Training
Transfer of training has been defined as the generalization of the skills acquired during the
training phase to the work environment and the maintenance of these acquired skills over time
(Baldwin and Ford, 1988). Positive transfer of training represents the extent to which trainees
apply the knowledge, skills, and attitudes gained in the training context to the job (Wexley and
Latham, 1981). If employees do not effectively transfer the trained skills to the job-site, then
clearly, neither the employee nor the organization profits from the training. Therefore, the
effectiveness of transfer of training plays a major role in determining the utility of training and
development programs in organizations. The proper application of skills leant by military
officers is crucial since a number of issues that they handle need careful judgment and execution
because once it's done then it cannot be reversed. Organizations can no longer afford to provide
training that has not been evaluated for its contribution to the organization's strategic goals and
mission and its effectiveness and use on the job to achieve those goals (Brinkerhoff, 2005).
Training transfer generally refers to the use of trained knowledge and skills back on the job.
Baldwin & Magjuka (1988) mentioned that for transfer to occur, "learned behavior must be
generalized to the job context and maintained over a period of time on the job". Meanwhile, Saks
& Haccoun (2007) views training transfer is the generalization of knowledge and skills learned
in training on the job and the maintenance of acquired knowledge and skills over time.
13
A framework useful for understanding the measurement issues relating to the transfer of training
is Kirkpatrick's (1994) four-level model of training evaluation. He identified four distinct
criteria for training program evaluation: immediate post-program participant reactions to the
event; the amount of learning that resulted; the extent to which behaviors learned in the training
transfer to the job; and organizational results achieved. He posited that the four levels were
causally linked.
2.3 Empirical Review
2.3.1 Individual Characteristics
Numerous studies have found individual trainee differences can determine the amount of
information learned during training, and transferred to the job. These effects have been shown to
be independent from training design factors (Fleishman and Mumford 2009). Trainee
characteristics such as personality, trainee ability, and motivation effects were originally
identified by training practitioners as factors affecting transfer of training (Baldwin and Ford,
1988). Notwistanding, further empirical testing of these characteristics was very rare in earlier
transfer studies.
Among various personality variables, locus of control was hypothesized in many earlier studies
to affect the transfer process (example by Noe and Schmitt, 1986). Locus of control is defined by
Rotter (1966) as a generalized expectancy that organizational outcomes in terms of rewards and
reinforcements in life are controlled either by an individual's own actions (internality) or by
other forces (externality). In a training situation, trainees with strong belief that they can control,
the provision of organizational outcomes are more likely to facilitate application of training
content on their jobs. Such outcomes can be recognition, promotions, salary increase and job
enlargement. Studies of Tziner et al (1991) indicate that those with an internal locus of control
14
whobenefited from a relapse prevention module exhibited higher levels of mastering the training
contents. They were more likely to use trained skills and transfer strategies and were shown to
transfer those trained skills to the workplace.
Self-efficacy plays a role in the transfer of training. Bandura (1986) defines self-efficacy as
"peoples judgments of their capabilities to organize and execute courses of action required to
attain designated types of performances". It is clear that trainees with a high level of confidence
in attaining anticipated performance and behavior change will be more likely to apply what they
have learned from training on the jobs.. It is well established that self-efficacy enhances
learning outcomes and performance, whether an individual has it already, or acquires it during
training. The implications for transfer outcomes are summarized by Bramley(2006). He explains
that individuals who are low in self-efficacy have difficulty coping with environmental demands.
They imagine potential difficulties are more formidable than is actually the case, and dwell on
personal deficiencies. People who are strong in self-efficacy focus on the demands of a
situation, and treat obstacles as challenges.
Bramley goes on to offer strategies to help increase self-efficacy. As much of the issue is about
being able to predict and manage perceived threats, learning skills to master the situation that
feels threatening, and practicing these in a safe environment helps to improve self-efficacy. It is
I'
also useful during training to provide a wide range of experiences on what is being learned, so
learning can be applied to situations that don't quite fit. Self-efficacy increases when experience
fails to support fears, so interspersing training with job experience, and setting up systems to
ensure support and reward for application are both beneficial interventions. Part of the support
system should be supervisor's involvement and understanding, with goals and specific measures
ofprogress set. Feedback systems are also important.
15
Motivation plays an important role in training since individuals with inadequate motivation are
likely to be poor in mastering the training content and subsequent training performance.
Motivational variables can be grouped into: career and job attitudes, organizational commitment,
decision and reaction to training and post training interventions. Mumford et al (2009) revealed
trainee characteristics such as aptitude and motivational levels were among the most consistent
predictors of trainee performance, stronger even than course content variables. Recently, several
studies have confirmed that trainee's motivation to attend training and to learn, affects their level
of skill acquisition, retention, and willingness to transfer learning to the workplace (Martocchio
and Webster 2008, Mathieu et aI2010).
Career and job attitudes generally refer to the cognitive state of psychological identification with
one's career and job. Trainees who frequently engage in cognitive or environmental search
activities are expected to have better understanding of their strengths, weaknesses and interests
(Noe, 1986; Noe and Schmitt,1986). In fact, they recognize the importance of learning new skills
and refining current skills (Facteau et al, 1995).
According to Porter et al.(1974) defines organizational commitment as "the relative strength of
an individual's identification with and involvement in a particular organization". These
represe,!lts the extent of an individual's belief in and acceptance of organizational goals and
value, willingness to exert considerable work effort and desire to maintain organizational
membership (Mowday et al.,1982). Thus trainees with a high level of organizational
commitment were optimistic to perceive the likelihood of positive organizational change.
Cognitive ability relates directly to general intelligence. Generally, the higher an individual's
cognitive ability.. the more successful they will be in learning and training. They have higher
self-efficacy and higher performance and skill acquisition. Salas and Cannon-Bowers (2001)
16
false the caution that high training performance does not necessarily transfer to better
performance on the job. Other factors such as motivation to apply, and actual job requirements
will also affect transfer outcomes.
Employees who are provided with opportunities to provide input into the training decision are
more likely to perceive the training as useful for their jobs which, in turn, resulted in higher
levels of pre training motivation (Baldwin et al.,1991). Trainees who perceived training as having
high job and career utility were more likely to be motivated to learn (Clark et al., 1993) and those
who perceived training to be relevant had higher level of immediate skill transfer(Axtell et
al.,1997).
Post training interventions such as feedback and relapse prevention might influence trainee's
motivation to transfer new acquired skills and knowledge back to their jobs. A study by
Martocchio and Webster (1992) indicated that trainees receiving negative feedback resulted in
less learning over time than those receiving positive feedback.
Dweck and Leggett (2008) discuss two classes of goal orientation: Mastery (or learning) goal
orientation', where individuals seek to develop competence by acquiring new skills and
mastering novel situations and 'Performance goal orientation', where individuals pursue
assurances of their own competence by seeking good performance evaluations and avoiding
negative ones. Mastery goal orientation is positively related to self-efficacy (Phillips and Gully,
2007), and to metacognitive activity in training.
2.3.2 The Environment
Even if the durability and flexibility of original learning were strong, there may be conditions
back at the worksite that mitigate against transfer. Trainees will also have some understanding
17
about the general extent to which factors in the workplace support employee training. These
general perceptions of workplace support are referred to as the transfer climate. Although
practitioners stress the importance of the work environment in creating positive transfer,
empirical research focusing on this dimension is limited (Baldwin and Ford, 1988). Recent
studies have been based on such work environment variables as support-in-organization,
continuous learning culture and task constraints (Tracey et al., 1995).
Ford et al. (2008) studied how the "opportunity to perform" trained tasks back on the job
affected training transfer. In effect, Ford postulated a training application structure on the job.
That structure can be characterized in three ways: first, in terms of its breadth (how many tasks
on the job are covered by the training); second, its activity level (the number of times trained
tasks are actually done on the job); and third, task complexity (from simple to complex). This
application structure is in turn dependent upon the department in which the task occurs and by
the work context (how much the supervisor likes the trainee, the amount of workgroup support
and the pace of the workflow). Ford studied Air Force maintenance airmen in an 18-week
technical training program, finding that airmen returned to a training application structure that
varied in terms of breadth, activity level and type of task. For example, only half of the 34 tasks
covered in training were done once during the first four months back on the job. The
supervisor's attitudes about the trainee (how much the trainee was liked and the perceived
potential for the trainee) and workgroup support were particularly important in establishing how
much of an opportunity the trainee had to perform trained tasks on the job. (Note that this
finding suggests the operation of a self-fulfilling prophecy in the context of a leader-member
exchange relationship; that is, a subordinate who is a favored member of a supervisor's in-group
will likely receive more encouragement and support for learning and applying skills on the job.)
18
Organisational climate refers to a range of characteristics of an organisation, such as policies,
reward systems and managerial behaviour, to which employees attach meaning on the basis of
their own values, beliefs, needs and other individual characteristics. Tannenbaum and Yukl
(2002) define climate as perceptions of the environment that evolve out of interaction among
organisational members. An organisational climate is said to exist when a group of individuals
share a cornmon perception of the work context. An example of this is the positive correlation
shown between social support and motivation to learn and between social support and trainee
self-efficacy (Wagner and Gooding, 2007). Other studies proved a positive relationship between
an 'updating' climate (one that encourages updating of technical knowledge and skills and
personal growth) and attendance and interest in training, seminars and professional meetings.
The supports-in-organization variables corne from the concept of social support that is said to be
influential when employees believe that other client systems in the organization such as the
supervisors and peers provide them with opportunities for practicing new skills and knowledge
in the job setting (Noe,1986). Opportunities to practice ensures that when trainees have plenty of
chances to apply what they have learned to their jobs, a larger amount of training content can be
transferred (Ford et al., 1992). Basically, there are four major sources of social support-
subordinate, peer, supervisor and top management (Facteau et al., 1995).
Continuous- learning culture is defined as "a pattern of shared meaning of perceptions and
expectations by all organizational members that constitute an organizational value or belief'
Tracey et al,1995). A culture is established by a system of shared beliefs among a group of
people, such as shared belief that the organization encourages instructional innovation. A key
determinant of education and training success may be the degree to which the organizational
learning culture. A strong learning culture provides cognitive as well as motivational orientation
to learning. It often expects that its trainees will acquire higher order skills instead of verbal
19
information outcomes. This cultural commitment to learning often takes more specific forms -as
an incentive to apply new skills ,time or resource allowance to apply them, the cultivation of a
supervisor or peer support network, and clear policies on the importance of continuous learning.
Roullier and Goldstein (2008) suggest the transfer climate consists of two components,
situational cues and consequences. Both cues and consequences act as reminders for trainees to
use their training on their return to the job. Situational cues refer to the extent to which aspects
of a situation encourage an employee to use what has been learned in training. Specific cues
proposed by Roullier and Goldstein are goal cues, social cues, task and structural cues, and self
control cues. Consequences refer to the degree to which employees are rewarded for applying
what has been learned in training, and includes positive feedback, negative feedback, punishment
and no feedback.
The opportunity is the extent to which a trainee is provided with, or actively obtains work
experiences relevant to the tasks for which they were trained. Ford and Weissbein (2007), in
which three measures of opportunity to perform were identified. The most direct measure is
breadth, or the number of different trained tasks used on the job. The second measure is activity
level, or the number of times each trained task is used on the job. This is useful as the more
times a task is performed, the more likely it is that performance will improve. The third is task
type, or the difficulty of the trained tasks performed on the job. Goldstein (2007) suggests these
three measures provide a multi-dimensional perspective to the opportunity to perform.
Another major component of work environment is task constraints. Mathieu et al (1992) found
that task constraints were shown to be negatively, but only marginally, related to training
motivation. A study by Facteau et al. (1995) revealed that manager's perceptions of task
constraints in the environment were not significantly related to their pretraining motivation and
20
perceived training transfer. In summary, transfer can be facilitated when the trainee has the
opportunity to practice new learned skills back on the job. This can depend on supervisory
support and assistance. One suggestion, as yet untested, is to form support groups among
trainees following a training experience.
Training environment that includes: training facilities, site layout, sound lighting, hardware
environment, classroom climate, student involvement of the soft environment. Therefore, only
the training managers and trainers work together to create a better learning atmosphere and
environment. According to (Martin, 2010; Ford, and Weissvein, 1997).Training environment
have an effect on training effectiveness on human resource practices among employees.
Workplace design includes the design of buildings, their interiors, and the surrounding outdoor
areas. It encompasses the "layout and appearance of buildings, the arrangement and properties of
rooms, characteristics of equipment and furniture, and the associated ambient conditions (sound,
light, temperature, air)" (Sundstrom, 1985, p. 174). The design of work and living environments
can support or constrain behavior and it acts as a catalyst (that is, mediating effect) for releasing
latent behavior (Gans, 1968). Becker (1981) proposes that workplace design contributes to
organizational effectiveness in two important ways: it directly supports work tasks (that is, work
I'
quantity, and quality and style of work) and it acts as a catalyst for organizational outcomes (for
example, absenteeism and turnover).
Quinones (2007) integrates a number of studies examining the role of contextual influences, such
as participation, framing of training, and organizational climate, on training effectiveness.
Participation refers to the level of involvement trainees have in training decisions. A review by
Wagner and Gooding (1987) states the benefits of participation as being increased decision
acceptance, commitment, motivation and productivity. In particular, a number of studies have
21
been carried out around the issue of choice (Baldwin et al 2001, Hicks and Klimoski 2007). In
general, positive links have been found between a trainee choosing to attend and motivation,
self-efficacy, and learning.
Framing is the context created by the information an organisation provides about a training
program. This could be information about content and outcomes, leading to particular
expectations. It could also be something about the wording or framing of the message that
conveys a subtle (or not so subtle) threat to some people, for example a perceived threat to job
security. Tannenbaum et al (2001) found that high levels of training fulfilment were associated
with increased training motivation, self-efficacy and organisational commitment, their training
fulfilment measure incorporating expectations of content, perceptions of actual content and
desired content. This finding suggests organisations should be active in ensuring training content
matches expectations. It also highlights the need for organisations to think hard about the
information they communicate to trainees. Quinone (2007) suggests the most important aspect
offraming is for organisations to be aware of how information can be perceived and interpreted.
2.3.3 Training Design
Learning from a training program is a necessary but not sufficient cause for transfer of training to
occur (Robinson and Robinson, 2009). That is, the potential for transfer depends on the quality
and depth of the original learning that occurs in the training; Rouiller and Goldstein (2003) found
that better learners did better at transferring what they learned. The quality and depth of learning
depend on the characteristics of the design and delivery of the training. Baldwin and Ford
(2008) proposed a model of factors in the training process that can affect transfer. According to
this model, transfer will be enhanced when the training design includes identical elements, the
22
general principles of a skill are taught, a variety of stimulus conditions are presented in the
training to increase generalizability, and, generally, distributed training practices are used.
Poor instructional design skills are also in evidence in the use of instructional strategy for all
types of learning outcomes (e.g., lecturing), failure to ensure that the conditions for learning for a
particular type of learning outcome are present, teaching at a rule or procedural level instead of
giving general and deeper principles, failure to give multiple examples and non-examples of
concepts in a variety of contexts, providing inadequate practice time and poor feedback, or
employing inadequate test designs (Smith-Jentsch, Salas and Brannick, 2001). Many times
during instruction, the trainer does not take the opportunity to provide additional or supportive
guidance on using the skills back on the job. It is often up to the students to translate theoretical
concepts and models into procedures and practice at the workplace. While bright students may
be able to do this, it places too great of a cognitive load on mediocre and slower students, who
will have great difficulty if they can do it all.
The training design factors which affect transfer of training, can be grouped into three areas of
literature: Learning principles, Developments in cognitive psychology and Guidelines for
increasing training effect. A National Research Council Report (NRC, 1991), looking at
methods of enhancing human performance, noted two aspects of learning that relate to
,-
post-training performance: the retention or durability of newly learned procedural knowledge,
and the flexibility with which these newly learned skills can be generalized into new conditions.
Superficial and abbreviated training processes can compromise both the retention and flexibility
oflearning. Retention and transfer increase to the extent that "original learning" in the training is
strong, an outcome that can be produced, in part, by overlearning training designs. With
overlearning, practice training in a skill continues beyond the point of skill mastery. That is,
overlearning involves repeated practice to a point of automaticity; overlearning can also build
23
trainee confidence or self-efficacy in using the skills back on the job (Binder, 2010). Other
conditions noted by the National Research Council that facilitate transfer include: explanations
that build the learner's understanding of the task, active learner participation in the training,
refresher training, and a high degree of perceived identity between training and real-world
conditions.
In a field experiment with 38 frontline supervisors in an active listening training program, May
andKahnweiler (2000) compared the effects of mastery or overlearning training to that of a more
traditional (limited practice) design on learning, behavior demonstration and transfer back to the
job. There was a moderately strong and significant relationship (r= .34, p<.05) between
knowledge retention as tested after the program (learning) and behavior reproductions of the
skills (transfer) as observed in rated video-taped examples. Transfer was rated by coworkers in
surveys four weeks after the programs; there was very little evidence that mastery training led to
transfer, though. The authors speculated that the reason for the low transfer impact may have
been due to limited practice opportunities and deflated transfer rates on the trained skills.
Cannon-Bowers, Rhodenizer, Salas and Bowers (1998) summarized the literature on the effects
of "pre-practice conditions" on learning and transfer. Pre-practice conditions are those training
procednres that impact the trainee's receptivity and acquisition of knowledge prior to skill
practice exercises in the training program. They noted that the following factors should
contribute to transfer: attentional advice that teach general strategies for doing the task;
metacognitive strategies that teach self-regulation; and team pre-briefs that define performance
expectations and clarify team member roles and responsibilities. Other pre-practice conditions -
advance organizers, promotion of learning mastery goals, and providing preparatory information
about practice exercises and likely consequences - should lead to better skills acquisition, which
24
should in turn lead to better original learning. Based on this review, they recommend the use of
these various procedures as part of the design of training programs.
A goal-setting activity may be included as part of a training program as a way to affect transfer
of training. In this procedure, trainees write their own goals for when and how to apply what
they have learned to their work. Two studies have found that benefits when trainees set transfer
goals. Werner et al (2004) looked at the transfer practices of 150 undergraduate students taking
an assertiveness training program. All students received the same one hour training program, but
a randomly formed experimental group was also put through a pre-training program pointing out
situations when assertiveness skills were needed, and post-training efforts at setting goals and
keeping a checklist of assertiveness activities for 4 weeks following the program. The pre-
training intervention showed no effect. However, the post-training goal-setting and diary
keeping work did yield significant improvements m retention of what was learned and
reproduction of the skills in a simulated situation where assertiveness skills could be applied.
The second study (Brown and McCracken, 2009) experimented with the effects of two kinds of
goal-setting activities against a "do your best" (DYB) activity. Seventy-two managers from
Canadian government organizations, participating in the same university-based management
development program, were randomly assigned to one of three groups. A "distal goals" group
was told to set a goal for how many times they would use the training'S skills over the next six
week period; they then shared these goals with about 5 peers. A second, "proximal goals" group
did the same thing, except they were told to make goals for two, four and six week periods. The
third group was simply told to do their best in applying what they learned; they also talked about
this in small groups. After six weeks, self-reports of skill usage were collected. The distal goal
group was less effective in transfer than the other two groups. Prior research (Latham and Seijts,
25
1999) found that DYB goals are better than distal goals when learning new tasks. Specific, near-
term goal-setting seems recommended.
Salas and Canon-Bowers (2001) simplified the key elements even further, suggesting that the
most effective instructional strategies are created around four basic principles: present relevant
information or concepts to be learned; demonstrate the knowledge, skills or attitudes to be
learned; create opportunities to practice and provide feedback during and after practice. Some
elements of these key principles and guidelines, such as relevant information and adapting to
prior knowledge of the trainee, overlap into another more 'humanist' body of literature, that of
adult leaning theory.
In summary, there are a number of lessons for how training programs can be designed and
organized to promote transfer. For example, such principles as overlearning, explanation, active
participation, and identical elements all are argued to contribute to transfer. Another design
principle that has received empirical support is that of relapse prevention. Here, trainees
anticipate problems they may experience back on the job, plan ways to deal with those problems,
and manage their behaviors accordingly. In general, research on relapse prevention strategies
supports its effect on producing transfer, although the evidence is not uniformly favorable.
Another practice that can be included as part of a training program is the setting of goals for
performance back on the job. When combined with feedback, goal setting also produces results.
Goal-setting appears to work better in supportive conditions at the worksite, while such
moderating factors for relapse prevention have not been noted. Comparing goal-setting or
relapse prevention, it is not yet known whether one method is better than the other, or whether it
makes any difference if they are combined. It appears that the relative effectiveness of either
doesdepend on both the self-efficacy levels as well as the transfer climate at the workplace. The
lower the scores on either, the more an intensive preparation (RP) module is indicated. Exactly
26
what specific factors may be most important in the transfer climate is not known, though,
although other research would suggest that supervisory factors would be important.
2.3.4 Trainer Characteristics
A study conducted by Brown and McCracken (2009) found that within the transfer influences
category, 14% of the responses described specific attributes of trainers that are important to
supporting training transfer. They labeled them trainer characteristics and defined this
subcategory as a trainer's knowledge of the subject matter, professional experience, and
knowledge of teaching principles (such as adult learning strategies) as important in supporting
training transfer.
Following several interviews and a survey of 300 professional trainers in the United Kingdom,
Bennett and Leduchowicz (2003) suggested that effective trainers were sensitive, showed a
genuine interest in training and developing others and themselves, and were professional in the
workplace. The International Board of Standards for Training, Performance and Instruction
(IBSTPI) compiled a series of competencies for effective instructors that included good
communication and delivery skills, the ability to motivate and engage learners, and feedback
about performance (Klein, Spector, Grabowski, & de la Teja, 2004). The literature on trainer
effectiveness has been useful in advocating best practices. However, only a handful of studies
have linked these competencies to trainee effectiveness, particularly in terms of problem solving
where trainees are required to apply what they have learned in their work place.
,
One quality of trainer delivery considered particularly influential in learning transfer is trainer
expressiveness. An expressive trainer is one who shows appropriate vocal intonations and is
generally fluent through sounding natural and normal in rate of speaking. In human resource
development, trainer. expressiveness is part of a subset of trainer behaviours named
27
"immediacy," whereby trainers motivate trainees through their nonverbal and verbal behaviour
(Brown, Rietz, & Sugre, 2005).
A trainer can be inexpressive through speaking in a monotone voice with lots of "urns" and
"ahs," or expressive through use of an animated vocal tone and maintenance of vocal fluency.
Research examining the effects of trainer expressiveness on recall suggests that the more
expressive the instructor, the more trainees remember (Brown et al., 2005). In the context of the
seductive details research, it seems that a nonseductive, expressive trainer will be most effective
for trainee recall. Seductive details might be beneficial for problem solving because the
distractive nature of seductive details allows trainees to form their own framework of events and
gain a more comprehensible model.
Human Resource Development professionals also vary in the type of instructional material they
include during training. When lecturing, trainers can stick closely to the instructional material
through careful focus on instructional objectives; or they can use interesting material to spice up
otherwise unexciting instruction in order to enhance adult learners' motivation to learn (e.g., Noe
& Colquitt, 2002). Obviously, if the information itself is interesting (such as a discussion about
organizational politics), trainers probably see little need to spice up their material; however, there
will be .occasions when the material is dry (discussion of statistical analyses) and the trainer will
be tempted to add a little zest to the material. For effective problem solving to occur, training
design needs to include learning aids that enable trainees to learn, organize, and recall training
content. According to Holton (1996), one reason transfer frequently fails is that training design
rarely provides for transfer of training. One way in which trainers can maximize trainees'
motivation to transfer the instructional material is to include strategies that increase their interest.
Intuitively, trainers who adopt the strategy of adding interest to otherwise dull material should be
28
most effective in motivating trainees to learn more. However, the seductive details effect
suggests trainers who use interesting, tangential material can distract trainees and hinder recall.
2.3 Summary and Research Gaps
The purpose of training is to achieve successful transfer of skills with the resources available.
The research study predicts that training programmes would result in high of training transfer if
the factors are carefully considered.
The study sought to answers to the question on how well training should be conducted while
putting into consideration some issues in the environment that may affect its transfer. Most of the
studies cited in the literature are conducted in the developed countries whose strategic approach
and financial footing is different from that of Kenya. Thus there exists a literature gap on the
factors affecting training transfer in Kenya. This study therefore seeks to fill this gap by
establishing the factors affecting transfer of training in MOSD.
2.4 Conceptual Framework
The research relates trainee characteristics, the environment (work environment and training
environment), training design and trainer characteristics (Independent variables) with transfer of
training of military officers at MOSD (dependent variable).
29
Trainee Characteristics
Cognitive ability
Self-efficacy
Goal orientation
Motivation
Active career management
Agreeableness and extraversion
The Environment
Organisational context and
climate
Situational cues and
consequences
Social support Transfer of Training
Organisational learning Maintenance of new
environment knowledge and skills
Opportunity to perform in time
Skill decay over time Generalization of new
Training facilities knowledge and skills
Site layout Enhanced competence
Classroom climate
Student involvement
Training design
Learning principles
Developments in cognitive
research
Guidelines for effective training
Sequencing
Training Content
Trainer Characteristics
Knowledge of the subject matter
Professional experience
Knowledge of teaching principles
Good communication and
delivery skills
Ability to motivate and engage
learners
Feedback about performance
Independent Variables Dependent Variable
Figure 2.1: Conceptual framework
Source: Author, (2012)
30
CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHODOLGY
3.1Introduction
This chapter highlights the research design, the study variables, the study area, the study
population, sampling techniques and sample size determination, construction of research
instruments, pilot study, validity and reliability of the instruments, methods of data collection
anddata analysis.
3.2 Research Design
The research study adopted a descriptive research design. The design was chosen since it is more
precise and accurate since it involves description of events in a carefully planned way (Babbie,
2002). This research design also portrays the characteristics of a population fully (Chandran,
2004) and also aaccording to Mugenda & Mugenda (2003), descriptive research determines and
reports the way things are. The research design was both quantitative and qualitative with the
aim of determining the relationship between the factors (independent variables) and transfer of
training in-term of output (dependent variables).
3.3 Target Population
The target population in this study composed of military officers who have already done various
courses working as staff at the Army headquarters offices and trainers (those who teach courses)
invarious training institutions. Mugenda and Mugenda (2003) described population as, the entire
group of individuals or items under consideration in any field of inquiry and have a common
31
attribute. The population was expected to provide reliable information regarding transfer of
training in the Ministry of State for Defence.
Table 3.1: Distribution of Target Population
Population Percentage
Trained staff at Army 124 43.4
Headquarters
Defence Staff College trainers 41 14.3
Kenya Military Academy 67 23.4
trainers
Defence Forces School of 12 4.2
Higher Education trainers
Defence Forces Technical 42 14.7
College trainers
Total 286 100.0
I'
(Source: Ministry of State for Defence, 2012)
3.4 Sample and Sampling Technique
Sampling frame is the listing of all elements of the population from which a sample was drawn.
It is a complete and correct listing of population members only (Cooper & Schindler, 2006). A
sample is a set of entities drawn from a population with the aim of estimating characteristic of
the population (Siegel, 2003). It is a fraction or portion of a population selected such that the
32
selected portion represents the population adequately. Cooper and Schindler (2003) explained
that the basic idea of sampling is, selecting some of the elements in a population, so that the
same conclusions can be drawn about the entire population. This resulted to reduced cost and
greater accuracy of results. This research study used a stratified random sampling method to
select 30% of the respondents. According to Mugenda and Mugenda (2003) a sample size of
between 10 and 30% is a good representation of the target population. The researcher therefore
selected 86 respondents from the military institutions.
Table 3.2: Sample size
Population Ratio Sample percent
size
Trained staff at Army
124 0.3 37
Headquarters 43
Defence Staff College
41 0.3 12
trainers 14
Kenya Military
67 0.3 20
Academy trainers 23
Defence Forces School
of Higher Education 12 0.3 4 5
trainers,
Defence Forces
Technical College 42 0.3 13 15
trainers
Total 286 0.3 86 100
(Source: Researcher, 201'2)
33
3.5 Data collection Instruments
Primary data according to Kothari (2004) is the data collected a fresh for the first time while
secondary data is that data that has already been collected and passed through statistical process.
Andre (2004) explains that primary data is data that is used for a scientific purpose for which it
was collected. The researcher used primary data for this study and was collected using
questionnaires; the questionnaires included closed and open ended questions. Closed ended
questions were used in an effort to conserve time and money as well as to facilitate an easier
analysis as they were in immediate usable form; while the open ended questions were used as
they encouraged the respondent to give an in-depth and felt response without feeling held back in
revealing of any information. With open ended questions, a respondent's response gives an
insight to his or her feelings, background, hidden motivation, interests and decisions.
3.5.1 Data collection procedure
The study used primary data. On the primary data, questionnaires were used to collect data. The
researcher administered the questionnaire individually to all respondents. Care and control by the
researcher was exercised to ensure all questionnaires issued to the respondents are received. To
achieve this, the researcher maintained a register of questionnaires, which were sent, and which
I'
were received. The questionnaire was administered using a drop and pick later method to the
sampled respondents.
3.5.2 Validity
The questionnaire designed by the researcher based on the research questions was pilot tested to
refine the questions before it can be ~dministered to the selected sample. A pilot test was
conducted to detect weakness in design and instrumentation and to provide proxy data for
selection of a probability sample. Mugenda and Mugenda (2003) asserted that, the accuracy of
34
data to be collected largely depended on the data collection instruments in terms of validity and
reliability
According to Somekh, and Cathy (2005) validity is the degree by which the sample of test items
represents the content the test is designed to measure. Content validity which is employed by this
study is a measure of the degree to which data collected using a particular instrument represents
a specific domain or content of a particular concept. Expert opinion was requested to comment
on the representativeness and suitability of questions and give suggestions of corrections to be
made to the structure of the research tools. To establish the validity of the research instrument
the researcher sought opinions of experts in the field of study especially the lecturers in the
department of business administration. This helped to improve the content validity of the data
that was collected. It facilitated the necessary revision and modification of the research
instrument thereby enhancing validity.
3.5.3 Reliability and Reliability Analysis
Reliability is increased by including many similar items on a measure, by testing a diverse
sample of individuals and by using uniform testing procedures. The researcher intends to select a
pilot group of 15 individuals from the target population to test the reliability of the research
instruments. In order to test the reliability of the instruments, internal consistency techniques was
applied using Cronbach's Alpha. The alpha value ranges between 0 and 1 with reliability
increasing with the increase in value. Coefficient of 0.6-0.7 is a commonly accepted rule of
thumb that indicates acceptable reliability and 0.8 or higher indicated good reliability (Mugenda,
2008). The pilot data was not included in the actual study.
A pilot study was carried out to determine reliability of the questionnaires. The pilot study
involved the sample respondents from the institution. Reliability analysis was subsequently done
35
using Cronbach's Alpha which measures the internal consistency by establishing if certain item
within a scale measures the same construct.
Table 3.3: Reliability Analysis
Scale Cronbach's Alpha Number of Items
Trainee Characteristics 0.831
0.732
0.931
0.647
9
16
11
6
Environment
Training design
Trainer Characteristics
(Source: Survey data 2013)
Gliem and Gliem (2011) established the Alpha value threshold at 0.6, thus forming the study's
benchmarked. Cronbach Alpha was established for every objective which formed a scale. The
table shows that all the four variables were reliable as their reliability values exceeded the
prescribed threshold of 0.6.
3.6 Data Analysis and Presentation
After data collection data analysis was done. This is a process is important as it makes data
sensible. Data analysis tool used is dependent on the type of data to be analyzed depending on
whether the data qualitative or quantitative. The quantitative data in this research was analyzed
by descriptive statistics using statistical package for social sciences (SPSS) version 21. This
version was used since it is the most recent version of SPSS and hence it has got advanced
features. Descriptive statistics includes mean, frequency, standard deviation and percentages to
profile sample characteristics and major patterns emerging from the data. In addition to measures
of central tendencies, measures of dispersion and graphical representations was used to tabulate
the information. To facilitate this Likert Scale was used which enables easier presentation and
36
interpretation of data. Data was presented in tables, charts and graphs. Completeness of
qualitative data collected was checked for and cleaned ready for data analysis. Content analysis
was used in processing of this data and results presented in prose form. According Kothari
(2004), Content analysis is a summarizing, quantitative analysis of messages that relies on the
scientific method (including attention to objectivity, intersubjectivity, a priori design, reliability,
validity, generalisability, replicability, and hypothesis testing) and is not limited as to the types
of variables that may be measured or the context in which the messages are created or presented.
The next technique involved factor analysis as the main component of quantitative data analysis.
Factor analysis is a systematic, statistical procedure used to uncover relationships amongst
several variables. This procedure enables numerous correlated variables to be condensed into
fewer dimensions known as factors. According to Brown (2006 p. 12-13) the fundamental intent
of factor analysis 'is to determine the number and nature of latent variables or factors that
account for the variation and covariation among a set of observed measures, commonly referred
to as indicators'. A factor in this case is defined as 'an unobservable variable that influences
more than one observed measure and that accounts for the correlations among these observed
measures' (Brown 2006 p. 13). The study undertook an exploratory factor analysis-a level of
analysis that involves examining the variable relationships without a predetermination of a model
I'
in which to fit the results (Bryman and Cramer 1997). Four basic steps were followed in
undertaking factor analysis as listed below: KMO and Bartlett's test; factor extraction; factor
retention and factor rotation. Finally interpretation of factor analysis was done from the results of
rotation. In its procedure, rotation is applied to identify meaningful factor names or descriptions.
A rotation, which requires that the factors remain uncorrelated, is an orthogonal rotation, while a
rotation, which requires the factors to be correlated, is called Oblique rotation.
37
Inthis study, oblique rotation using Promax was' carried out because some of the underlying
constructsand variables may be inter-correlated. Factor rotation was used to re-orient the factor
loadings so that the factors are more interpretable. Use of Oblique rotation allows for
correlationsbetween factors since many attitudinal dimensions are in fact likely to be correlated.
Foreasier interpretation of the factors, only the pattern matrix is examined (Rummel, 1970). The
factor extraction method adopted for this study is principal axis factoring. Principal Axis
Factoring, unlike principal component analysis, relaxes the assumption that the communality is
equalto one. As a result, using this method enables the factor loadings to be higher, which leads
togreater interpretability.
Tocheck for multicollinearity, SPSS was used to examine the correlations between variables in
the questionnaire data to establish sets of underlying variables or factors that explain the
variation in the original (questionnaire/measured) variables. When correlations between the
variablesare high, it is possible to confuse some of the factors and/or that some variables may be
redundant measures. Factor analysis allows the large number of the questionnaires variables to
bereduced to more limited sets of important and useful factors
Inaddition, a multivariate regression model was applied to determine the relative importance of
each of the four variables with respect to training transfer. Multiple regressions is a flexible
methodof data analysis that may be appropriate whenever quantitative variables (the dependent)
is to be examined in relationship to any other factors (expressed as independent or predictor
variable). Relationships may be non-linear, independent variables may be quantitative or
qualitative and one can examine the effects of a single variable or multiple variables with or
withoutthe effects of other variables taken into account, (Cohen, West and Aiken, 2003). The
regressionmodel was as follows:
38
Where:
Y = Transfer of Training
~o= Constant Term
~I, ~2, ~3 and ~4 = Beta coefficients
X1= Trainee Characteristics
X2= Environment
X3= Training design
Xa= Trainer Characteristics
E = Error term
39
CHAPTER FOUR
RESEARCH FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
4.1Introduction
Themain objective of the study was to find out the factors affecting transfer of training within
military officers' training in the Ministry of State for Defence. Quantitative data was analyzed
through quantitative analysis. Graphs, pie charts and tables were used to present the data. The
questionnaires were dropped and later picked at a later date to allow the respondents to fill the
questionnaires at their own time. Once the respondents answered the questionnaire, data was
thencoded and analyzed using SPSS.
4.1.1Response Rate
The study targeted 86 respondents in collecting data with regard to factors affecting transfer of
trainingwithin military officers' training in the Ministry of State for Defence. From the study, 68
respondents out of the 86 sample respondents filled-in and returned the questionnaires making a
response rate of 79.1 %. This reasonable response rate was achieved after the researcher made
personal.calls and physical visits to remind the respondent to fill-in and return the questionnaires.
This response rate was good and representative and conforms to Babbie (2002) stipulation that a
response rate of 50% is adequate for analysis and reporting and so 79.1% was even better.
4.2Demographic information
This is the information describing the characteristic of the respondents.
40
26-35 36-45 46-55
Figure 4. 1: Age of the respondents
(Source: Survey data 2013)
The study sought to find out the age of the respondents. According to the findings, 60.38% of the
respondents were aged 36-45 years, 32.08% were aged 26-35 years and 7.55% were aged 46-55
years.
Figure 4. 2: Gender of the respondents
(Source: Survey data 2013)
The respondents were requested to state their gender. Majority (62%) of the respondents were
male while 38% were female.
41
Table 4. 1: Highest academic qualification of the respondents
Frequency Percentage
Certificate
Diploma
Bachelors degree
Post graduate
4
30
28
6
5.66
43.4
41.51
9.43
Total 68 100
(Source: Survey data 2013)
Highest academic qualification of the respondents was important in this study. From the
findings, 43.40% of the respondents had attained a diploma, 41.51% of the respondents had
attained a bachelor's degree, 9.43% of the respondents had attained a post graduate and 5.66% of
the respondents had attained a certificate.
The respondents were requested to state other professional training they had. The respondents
had information technology, disaster management, computer and teaching professional training.
In addition the trainers had automotive engineering, aviation and Post Graduate Diploma in
Education professional training. Moreover they had logististic management, human resource
management, anti-corruption, engineering, law and medicine professional training.
42
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Major Warrant officers ColonelCaptains LT-COL
Figure 4. 3: Designation of the respondents
(Source: Survey data 2013)
The study sought to find out the designation of the respondents. According to the findings,
68.76% of the respondents were majors, 15.09% were captains, 9.43% were LT-COL(Lieutenant
Colonel), 3.77% were warrant officers and 2.94% were colonels.
Table 4. 2: Period the respondents had served in the Defence forces
Frequency Percentage
·1-5 years
6-10 years
11-15 years
More than 15 years
9
41
12
6
13.21
60.38
16.98
9.43
Total 10068
(Source: Survey data 2013)
The respondents were requested to indicate the period the respondents had served in the Defence
forces. Majority (60.38%) of the respondents had served in the Defence forces for 6-10 years,
16.98% of the respondents had served in the Defence forces for 11-15 years, 13.21% of the
43
respondents had served in the Defence forces for 1-5 years and 9.43% of the respondents had
servedin the Defence forces for more than 15 years.
4.3Military Training for Officers
Figure 4. 4: If the respondents were directly involved in training
(Source: Survey data 2013)
The study sought to find out if the respondents were directly involved in training. According to
the findings, 94% of the respondents were directly involved in training while 6% were not
directly involved in training.
44
Figure 4. 5: If the respondents were currently undertaking any form of training
(Source: Survey data 2013)
The respondents were requested to indicate if the respondents were currently undertaking any
form of training. From the findings, 92% of the respondents were currently undertaking training
while 8% were not currently undertaking training.
Figure"4.6: Extent that respondents applied the acquired skills in the actual work situation
(Source: Survey data 2013)
45
Therespondents were requested to indicate the extent that respondents applied the acquired skills
in the actual work situation. According to the findings, 85% of the respondents applied the
acquired skills in the actual work situation while 15% did not apply the acquired skills in the
actualwork situation.
4.4Factors affecting Transfer of Training
4.4.1Trainee Characteristics
Trainee characteristics such as personality, trainee ability, and motivation effects were originally
identified by training practitioners as factors affecting transfer of training (Baldwin and Ford,
1988).
Table 4. 3: Extent that trainee characteristics affect transfer of training
Trainee characteristics Mean Standard deviation
Trainee personality
Trainee ability
Trainee motivation
Cognitive ability
Self-efficacy
Active career management
Agreeableness and extraversion
Career and job attitudes
Goal orientation
4.351
4.291
4.071
3.872
4.632
3.927
4.294
4.501
4.351
0.147
0.705
0.262
0.304
0.514
0.402
0.342
0.202
0.511
(Source: Survey data 2013)
The study sought to find out the extent that trainee characteristics affect transfer of training.
From the findings, self-efficacy and career and job attitudes affected transfer of training to a very
great extent as shown by a mean of 4.632 and 4.501 respectively. Rotter (1966) generalized
expectancy that organizational outcomes in terms of rewards and reinforcements in life are
controlled either by an individual's own actions (internality) or by other forces (externality).In
46
addition,trainee personality, goal orientation, agreeableness and extraversion and trainee ability
affected transfer of training to a great extent as shown by a mean of 4.351, 4.351, 4.294 and
4.291 respectively. Trainee characteristics such as personality, trainee ability, and motivation
effectswere originally identified by training practitioners as factors affecting transfer of training
(Baldwin and Ford, 1988). Moreover, trainee motivation, active career management and
cognitive ability affected transfer of training to a great extent as shown by a mean of 4.071,
3.927 and 3.872 respectively. Bramley (2006) explains that individuals who are low in self-
efficacy have difficulty coping with environmental demands. Mumford et al (2009) revealed
trainee characteristics such as aptitude and motivational levels were among the most consistent
predictors of trainee performance, stronger even than course content variables.
4.4.2 The Environment
Trainees have some understanding about the general extent to which factors in the workplace
support employee training. These general perceptions of workplace support are referred to as the
transfer climate.
47
Table4. 4: Extent that work environment affects transfer of training
Standard
Workenvironment Mean Deviation
The extent of support in the organisation
(policies, reward systems and managerial behaviour)
Thecontinuous learning culture
Thetask constraints
Organisational context and climate
Situational cues and consequences
Social support/ workgroup support
Supervisor's attitudes about the trainee
Opportunity to perform
Skill decay over time
4.264 0.251
4.023 0.147
4.318 0.504
4.105 0.259
3.624 0.612
3.814 0.713
3.291 0.105
3.701 0.284
2.834 0.341
(Source: Survey data 2013)
The respondents were requested to indicate the extent that work environment affects transfer of
training; According to the findings, the task constraints, the extent of support in the organization
(policies, reward systems and managerial behavior) and organizational context and climate
affected transfer of training to a great extent as shown by a mean of 4.318, 4.264 and 4.105
respectively. In addition, the continuous learning culture, social support/ workgroup support,
opportunity to perform and situational cues and consequences affected transfer of training to a
great extent as shown by a mean of 4.023, 3.814, 3.701 and 3.624 respectively. Moreover,
supervisor's attitudes about the trainee and skill decay over time affected transfer of training to a
moderate extent as shown by a mean of 3.291 and 2.834 respectively. Positive correlation was
48
shown between social support and motivation to learn and between social support and trainee
self-efficacy (Wagner and Gooding, 2007).
Organizational climate refers to a range of characteristics of an organisation, such as policies,
reward systems and managerial behaviour, to which employees attach meaning on the basis of
their own values, beliefs, needs and other individual characteristics.
Table 4. 5: Extent that training environment affects transfer of training
Training Environment Mean Standard deviation
4.624 0.802
4.405 0.261
4.392 0.173
4.108 0.169
2.021 0.248
3.719 0.371
3.901 0.219
The kind of training facilities available.
Hardware environment
Training facilities
Site layout
Classroom climate
Student involvement
Ambient conditions (sound, light, temperature, air)
(Source: Survey data 2013)
The study sought to find out the extent that training environment affects transfer of training.
From the findings, the kind of training facilities available affected transfer of training to a very
great extent as shown by a mean of 4.624. In addition, hardware environment, training facilities
and site layout affected transfer of training to a great extent as shown by a mean of 4.405, 4.392
and 4.108 respectively. Tannenbaum et at (2001) found that high levels of training fulfilment
were associated with increased training motivation, self-efficacy and organisational commitment,
their training fulfilment measure incorporating expectations of content, perceptions of actual
content and desired content. Moreover, ambient conditions (sound, light, temperature, air) and
49
student involvement affected transfer of training to a great extent as shown by a mean of 3.901
and3.719 respectively. To add, classroom climate affected transfer of training to a low extent as
shownby a mean of 2.021. The design of work and living environments can support or constrain
behavior and it acts as a catalyst (that is, mediating effect) for releasing latent behavior (Gans,
1968).
4.4.3 Training Design
The potential for transfer depends on the quality and depth of the original learning that occurs in
the training.
Table 4. 6: Extent that training design affects transfer of training
Standard
Training design Mean Deviation
Learning principles 3.804 0.307
Developments in cognitive research 4.625 0.105
Guidelines for effective training 4.839 0.842
Sequencing 4.317 0.424
Training Content 4.892 0.364
Framing of training/training approach 4.728 0.748
Giving of multiple examples and non-examples of concepts in a
variety of contexts
Providing inadequate practice time
Feedback mechanism
Inadequate test designs
Provision of additional or supportive guidance on using the skills
back on the job
4.205
4.593
3.182
4.462
0.572
0.812
0.246
0.321
4.936 0.601
(Source: Survey data 2013)
50
The study sought to find out the extent that training design affect transfer of training. According
to the findings, provision of additional or supportive guidance on using the skills back on the job,
training content and guidelines for effective training affected transfer of training to a very great
extent as shown by a mean of 4.936,4.892 and 4.839 respectively. Rouiller and Goldstein (2003)
found that better learners did better at transferring what they learned. In addition, framing of
training/training approach, developments in cognitive research and providing inadequate affected
transfer of training to a very great extent as shown by a mean of practice time 4.728, 4.625 and
4.593 respectively. Moreover, inadequate test designs, sequencing, giving of multiple examples
and non-examples of concepts in a variety of contexts and learning principles affected transfer of
training to a great extent as shown by a mean of 4.462, 4.317, 4.205 and 3.804 respectively. To
add, feedback mechanism affected transfer of training to a moderate extent as shown by a mean
of 3.182. Poor instructional design skills are also in evidence in the use of instructional strategy
for all types of learning outcomes (e.g., lecturing), failure to ensure that the conditions for
learning for a particular type of learning outcome are present, teaching at a rule or procedural
level instead of giving general and deeper principles, failure to give multiple examples and non-
examples of concepts in a variety of contexts, providing inadequate practice time and poor
feedback, or employing inadequate test designs (Smith-Jentsch, Salas and Brannick, 2001).
4.4.4 Trainer Characteristics
It is trainer's knowledge of the subject matter, professional expenence, and knowledge of
teaching principles (such as adult learning strategies) as important in supporting training transfer.
51
Table4. 7: Extent that trainer characteristics affect transfer of training
Standard
Trainer Characteristics Mean Deviation
Knowledge ofthe subject matter 4.826 0.304
Professional experience 4.704 0.701
Knowledge of teaching principles (such as adult learning
strategies) 3.873 0.184
Good communication and delivery skills 3.906 0.259
Ability to motivate and engage learners 4.271 0.318
Feedback about performance 4.369 0.821
(Source: Survey data 2013)
The respondents were requested to indicate the extent that trainer characteristics affect transfer of
training. From the findings, knowledge of the subject matter and professional experience affected
transfer of training to a very great extent as shown by a mean of 4.826 and 4.704 respectively.
According to Holton (1996), one reason transfer frequently fails is that training design rarely
provides for transfer of training. In addition, feedback about performance, ability to motivate and
engage learners, good communication and delivery skills and knowledge of teaching principles
(such as adult learning strategies) affected transfer of training to a great extent as shown by a
mean of 4.369,4.271, 3.906 and 3.873 respectively. When lecturing, trainers can stick closely to
the instructional material through careful focus on instructional objectives; or they can use
interesting material to spice up otherwise unexciting instruction in order to enhance adult
learners' motivation to learn (e.g., Noe & Colquitt, 2002).
52
Table 4. 8: Extent the factors affect transfer of training
Standard
FACTORS Mean deviation
Trainee characteristics 4.207 0.235
The environment 3.854 0.612
Training design 3.79 0.204
Trainer Characteristics 4.356 0.521
(Source: Survey data 2013)
The study sought to find out the extent the factors affect transfer of training. According to the
findings, trainer characteristics and trainee characteristics affected transfer of training to a great
extent as shown by a mean of 4.356 and 4.207 respectively. In addition, environment and
training design affected transfer of training to a great extent as shown by a mean of 3.854 and
3.79 respectively.
4.5 Factor Analysis
Factor analysis is a systematic, statistical procedure used to uncover relationships amongst
several variables. This procedure enables numerous correlated variables to be condensed into
fewer dimensions known as factors. The purpose of factor analysis is to discover simple patterns
in the pattern of relationships among variables (Anderson, 2004). In the context of this research,
the variables are the degree of agreement with various specific perception statements while the
factors are the general underlying constructs. In its procedure, rotation is applied to identify
meaningful factor names or descriptions.
53
Arotation, which requires that the factors remain uncorrelated, is an orthogonal rotation, while a
rotation, which requires the factors to be correlated, is called Oblique rotation. In this study,
oblique rotation using Promax was carried out because the proposed framework indicates that the
underlying constructs and variables are inter-correlated. Factor rotation was used to re-orient the
factor loadings so that the factors are more interpretable. Use of Oblique rotation allows for
correlations between factors since many attitudinal dimensions are in fact likely to be correlated.
For easier interpretation of the factors, only the pattern matrix is examined (Costello and
Osborne, 2005).
54
Table 4. 9: Communalities
Initial Extraction
Trainee personality 1.000 .879
Trainee ability 1.000 .909
Trainee motivation 1.000 .964
Cognitive ability 1.000 .841
Self-efficacy 1.000 .887
Goal orientation 1.000 .908
Active career management 1.000 .899
Agreeableness and extraversion 1.000 .919
Career and job attitudes 1.000 .874
The extent of support in the organisation ( policies, reward systems and 1.000 .897
managerial behaviour)
The continuous learning culture 1.000 .853
The task constraints 1.000 .811
Organizational context and climate 1.000 .822
Situational cues and consequences 1.000 .797
Social support/ workgroup support 1.000 . .890
Supervisor's attitudes about the trainee 1.000 .869
Opportunity to perform 1.000 .910
Skill decay over time 1.000 .884
The kind of training facilities available. 1.000 .787
Hardware environment 1.000 .884
Training facilities 1.000 .854
Site layout 1.000 .841
Classroom climate 1.000 .802
Student involvement 1.000 .859
Ambient conditions (sound, light, temperature, air) 1.000 .833
Learning principles 1.000 .838
Developments in cognitive research 1.000 .794
Guidelines for effective training 1.000 .931
Sequencing 1.000 .881
Training Content 1.000 .906
Framing of training/training approach 1.000 .889
55
Giving of multiple examples and non-examples of concepts in a variety of
contexts
Providing inadequate practice time
Feedback mechanism
Inadequate test designs
Provision of additional or supportive guidance on using the skills back on
the job
Knowledge of the subject matter
Professional experience
Knowledge ofteaching principles (such as adult learning strategies)
Good communication and delivery skills
Ability to motivate and engage learners
Feedback about performance
1.000 .951
1.000 .904
1.000 .891
1.000 .911
1.000 .898
1.000 .874
1.000 .926
1.000 .878
1.000 .869
1.000 .733
1.000 .804
Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis.
(Source: Survey data 2013)
The table above helps to estimate the communalities for each variance. This is the proportion of
variance that each item has in common with other factors. For example 'Trainee motivation' has
96.4% communality or shared relationship with other factors. This value has the greatest
communality ~ith others, while 'Ability to motivate and engage learners' has the least
communality with others of73.3%.
56
T hi 4 10 T t I V . E I' da e . : o a ariance xptame
Initial Eigen values Extraction Sums of Squared Loadings
Component Total % of Variance Cumulative % Total % of Variance Cumulative %
1 6.482 15.074 15.074 6.482 15.074 15.074
2 5.603 13.030 28.104 5.603 13.030 28.104
., 5.301 12.327 40.432 5.301 12.327 40.432.)
4 4.107 9.551 49.982 4.107 9.551 49.982
5 3.051 7.096 57.079 3.051 7.096 57.079
6 2.782 6.470 63.549 2.782 6.470 63.549
7 2.184 5.080 68.629 2.184 5.080 68.629
8 2.052 4.773 73.402 2.052 4.773 73.402
9 1.941 4.515 77.917 1.941 4.515 77.917
10 1.487 3.458 81.375 1.487 3.458 81.375
11 1.309 3.045 84.420 1.309 3.045 84.420
12 1.169 2.719 87.138 1.169 2.719 87.138
13 .903 2.099 89.237
14 .828 1.927 91.164
15 .539 1.254 92.418
16 .496 1.155 93.573
17 .459 1.067 94.639
18 .392 .911 95.550
19 .348 .810 96.360
20 .304 .708 97.068
21 .298 .694 97.762
22 .248 .576 98.337
23 .164 .380 98.718
24 .120 .279 98.996
I'
25 .103 .240 99.236
26 .091 .212 99.448
27 .083 .192 99.641
28 .059 .136 99.777
29 .047 .110 99.887
30 .027 .064 99.951
31 .013 .030 99.981
32 .008 .019 100.000
33 6.674E-16 1.552E-15 100.000
34 4.329E-16 1.007E-15 100.000
35 2.201E-16 5.118E-16 100.000
36 1.686E-16 3.922E-16 100.000
57
37 9.397E-18 2.l85E-17 100.000
38 -3.365E-17 -7.826E-17 100.000
39 -l.317E-16 -3.062E-16 100.000
40 -2.242E-16 -5.213E-16 100.000
41 -3.211E-16 -7.467E-16 100.000
42 -6.583E-16 -l.531 E-15 100.000
Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis.
(Source: Survey data 2013)
In the above table, the Kaiser Normalization Criterion was used, which allows for the extraction
of components that have an Eigen value greater than 1. The principal component analysis was
used and 12 factors were extracted. As the table shows, these 12 factors explain 87.l3 8% of the
total variation. Component 1 contributed the highest variation of 15.074%. The contributions
decrease as one move from one factor to the other up to factor 12.
58
T bl 4 11 C tM t .a e . : omponen a rIX
Component"
I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 II 12
Trainee personality .492 -.057 .538 -.064 .351 -.113 -.323 .096 .034 -.061 .270 -.113
Trainee ability .346 -.051 .358 .547 -.207 .376 -.275 .169 .033 .168 .202 .038
Trainee motivation -.439 .751 -.138 -.016 .178 .056 .213 -.001 .269 -.164 -.075 -.061
Cognitive ability .104 .191 .463 .542 .075 .251 .161 -.319 -.195 .131 .044 -.178
Self-efficacy -.271 -.318 .523 .376 .127 .238 -.077 .. 130 .099 .080 -.277 .331
Active career management .036 .037 -.575 .587 -.063 -.323 -.014 -.226 .026 .243 -.021 .026
Agreeableness and extraversion -.264 .684 .071 -.012 .027 .043 .164 .482 .237 .139 .163 -.113
Career and job attitudes .583 .120 .455 -.184 -.366 .095 .063 -.121 .291 -.131 .100 -.076
Goal orientation -.462 .698 .054 -.068 -.248 -.067 .003 .180 -.290 -.133 .074 -.058
The extent of support in the -.026 .232 -.296 -.067 .122 .581 -.252 -.245 .413 -.174 -.094 .257
organisation ( policies, reward
systems and managerial behaviour)
The continuous learning culture -.676 -.307 .081 -.089 -.109 .229 -.327 -.115 -.304 .022 .636 -.094
The task constraints .050 .295 -.126 -.258 .055 .045 .374 .754 .213 .311 .349 .155
Organisational context and climate .628 -.076 .185 .010 .219 -.007 -.099 .328 -.266 -.253 .275 -.110
Situational cues and consequences .302 -.374 .234 -.278 .290 .154 .650 .105 .080 .044 -.270 -.334
Social support! workgroup support .278 .400 .015 .584 .320 .235 .312 -.028 -.227 -.302 -.134 -.049
Supervisor's attitudes about the .522 .262 .034 -.488 .227 -.036 .039 .178 -.103 .365 -.242 -.025
trainee
Opportunity to perform -.234 .157 .537 -.120 .581 -.262 .191 .003 .047 -.039 .189 .213
Skill decay over time .407 .595 .364 .404 .076 -.071 -.086 -.097 .029 -.003 -.133 .151
I'The kind of training facilities .525 -.392 .017 .328 .208 -.101 .244 .059 -.128 -.086 .317 -.098
available.
Hardware environment -.108 .227 -.123 .000 .804 .080 -.319 -.034 -.153 -.005 -.161 -.004
Training facilities -.421 -.062 -.250 .615 -.289 .031 -.185 -.132 .169 .025 -.163 -.203
Site layout -.261 .156 -.028 .351 -.241 -.098 .508 .116 -.363 .375 .058 .099
Classroom climate .654 -.009 -.276 .229 .174 .070 -.007 -.020 -.154 -.151 -.384 -.126
Student involvement .464 .222 -.303 -.186 -.203 .040 .050 -.040 -.384 -.328 -.023 .407
Ambient conditions (sound, light, .579 .237 .444 -.021 .059 -.075 -.297 .244 -.059 .200 .006 .210
,,~mperature, air)
Learning principles .117 -.303 -.069 .195 .105 .687 -.041 -.187 -.070 .042 .114 .388
Developments in cognitive .052 -.369 .416 -.078 .426 .221 .067 -.061 .057 .767 -.116 .031
research
59
Guidelines for effective training -.296 -.537 -.038 .662 .261 -.197 .233 .309 .331 -.132 -.055 .189
Sequencing 0465 -.085 -All .045 .375 .558 .143 .099 -.108 .058 .299 -.028
Training Content .345 -.086 0405 0457 -.238 0429 -.262 .192 .672 .012 .138 .193
Framing oftrainingitraining -.317 .699 -.181 -.045 .268 -.200 -.295 -.196 .069 .140 -.055 -.024
approach
Giving of multiple examples and .104 .223 .358 .555 .132 -.245 -.243 -0431 -.080 .141 .054 -.320
non-examples of concepts in a
variety of contexts
Providing inadequate practice time -.517 -.244 0435 .643 .268 -.038 .118 .268 .138 -.115 -.003 .026
Feedback mechanism .266 -.006 -.650 .251 -.119 .282 .011 .656 -.150 .094 -.025 -.041
Inadequate test designs -.047 .075 -0481 .571 -.192 -.082 0447 -.034 .297 -.089 -.066 -.006
Provision of additional or -.121 .694 .060 -.031 -.050 -.116 -.115 .390 0426 .179 .007 -.060
supportive guidance on using the
skills back on the job
Knowledge of the subject matter .583 .140 0455 -.184 -.366 .095 .063 -.121 .291 -.131 .100 -.076
Professional experience -.350 .638 .110 -.003 -.199 .312 .087 .028 -0443 .172 .000 .119
Knowledge of teaching principles -.154 .234 -.317 .109 0431 .564 .160 -.261 .077 -.089 .263 .078
(such as adult learning strategies)
Good communication and delivery -.770 -.294 .117 -.030 -.037 .638 -.218 -.227 .042 -.041 .119 -.005
skills
Ability to motivate and engage .286 .073 .630 .042 .119 -.268 -.067 .013 -.042 -.238 .241 -.201
learners
Feedback about performance .252 .640 .281 .275 .093 -.255' -.080 .005 -.047 -.275 -.116 .072
Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis.
(Source-Survey data 2013)
The initial component matrix was rotated using Varimax (Variance Maximization) with Kaiser
Normalization. The above results allowed for the identification of which variables fall under
each of the 12 major extracted factors. Each of the 42 variables was looked at and placed to one
of the 12 factors depending on the percentage of variability; it explained the total variability of
each factor. A variable is said to belong to a factor to which it explains more variation than any
other factor. All items except one in the 12 factors identified had factor loadings above the cut-
60
off value (0.4) impressing their importance and meaningfulness to the factors in the light of
recommendations by Hair et al. (1998).
4.6 Regression Analysis
In this study, a multiple regression analysis was conducted to test the influence among predictor
variables. The research used statistical package for social sciences (SPSS V 17.0) to code, enter
and compute the measurements of the multiple regressions
Table 4. 12: Multiple regression results of dependent variable and the independent
variables
Standard Error of the
Model R R Square Adjusted R Square Estimate
1 .824 .679 .658 .1042
a. Predictors: (Constant), trainee characteristics, environment, training design, trainer
characteristics.
(Source: Survey data 2013)
R-Square (coefficient of determination) is a commonly used statistic to evaluate model fit. R-
I'
square is 1 minus the ratio of residual variability. The adjusted R2, also called the coefficient of
multiple determinations, is the percent of the variance in the dependent explained uniquely or
jointly by the independent variables. Thus 65.8% of the changes in the transfer of training
variables could be attributed to the combined effect of the predictor variables.
61
Table 4. 13: ANOV A regression analysis results between ownership and predictor variables
Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
Model
Regression 12.223 3 3.112 3.671 .001
Residual 92.876 65 .641
Total 115.099 68
a. Predictors: trainee characteristics, environment, training design, trainer characteristics.
b. Dependent Variable: transfer of training.
(Source: Survey data 2013)
The probability value of 0.001 indicates that the regression relationship was highly significant in
predicting how trainee characteristics, environment, training design, trainer characteristics
influenced transfer of training. The F critical at 5% level of significance was 3.671 since F
calculated is greater than the F critical (value = 2.830), this shows that the overall model was
significant.
Table 4. 14: Regression coefficients relationship of dependent variable and the independent
variables
,- Unstandardized Standardized
Coefficients Coefficients
Model B Std. Error Beta t Sig.
1 (Constant) 2.770 0.451 4.307 0.000
Trainer Characteristics +0.691 0.095 0.0152 3.107 0.006
Trainee characteristics +0.432 0.121 0.146 3.333 0.028
Training design +0.533 0.079 0.126 3.214 0.025
Environment +0.348 0.073 0.045 3.329 0.032
a. Dependent Variable: transfer of training
(Source: Survey data 2013)
62
ER ITY L=IB-==-==-
The regression equation above has established that taking all factors into account (trainer
characteristics, training design, environment, and trainee characteristics) constant at zero transfer
of training will be 2.770. The findings presented also show that taking all other independent
variables at zero, a unit increase in trainer characteristics would lead to a 0.691 increase in the
transfer of training. A study conducted by Brown and McCracken (2009) found that within the
transfer influences category, 14% of the responses described specific attributes of trainers that
are important to supporting training transfer. They labeled them trainer characteristics and
defined this subcategory as a trainer's knowledge of the subject matter, professional experience,
and knowledge of teaching principles (such as adult learning strategies) as important in
supporting training transfer.
The results also show that a unit increase in training design would lead to a 0.533 increase in the
transfer of training. According to Baldwin and Ford (2008) proposed a model of factors in the
training process that can affect transfer. According to this model, transfer will be enhanced
when the training design includes identical elements, the general principles of a skill are taught, a
variety of stimulus conditions are presented in the training to increase generalizability, and,
generally, distributed training practices are used.
The findings shows that a unit increases in trainee characteristics would lead to a 0.432 increase
in transfer of training. Trainee characteristics such as personality, trainee ability, and motivation
effects were originally identified by training practitioners as factors affecting transfer of training
(Baldwin and Ford, 1988).Mumford et al (2009) revealed trainee characteristics such as aptitude
and motivational levels were among the most consistent predictors of trainee performance,
stronger even than course content variables.
63
In addition, the findings show that a unit increase in environment would lead to a 0.348 increase
in transfer of training .Tannenbaum and Yukl (2002) define climate as perceptions of the
environment that evolve out of interaction among organisational members. An organisational
climate is said to exist when a group of individuals share a common perception of the work
context. Overall, trainer characteristics had the greatest effect on transfer of training followed by
training design, then trainee characteristics while the environment had the least effect. Recently,
several studies have confirmed that trainee's motivation to attend training and to learn, affects
their level of skill acquisition, retention, and willingness to transfer learning to the workplace
(Martocchio and Webster 2008, Mathieu et aI2010). Further, Quinone (2007) suggests the most
important aspect of framing is for organisations to be aware of how information can be perceived
and interpreted.
At 5% level of significance and 95% level of confidence, trainer characteristics had a 0.006 level
of significance, training design had a 0.025 level of significance, trainee characteristics had a
0.028 level of significance, environment had a 0.032 level of significance, hence the most
significant factor is trainer characteristics.
64
CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMENDATIONS
5.1 Introduction
This chapter presents a discussion of the findings, and conclusions drawn from the findings and
finally recommendations for practice and further research on the problem. This study aimed at
establishing the factors affecting transfer of training within military officers' training in the
Ministry of State for Defence, Kenya.
5.2 Summary
A common experience is that learning from a formal training program is not carried back for
application on the job. After that kind of training it's important to assess whether transfer of
training has taken place during the use of actual aspects and accessories and equipment. The
purpose of the study was to find out the factors affecting transfer of training within military
officers' in the Ministry of State for Defence, Kenya. The study sought to determine whether
trainee characteristics, environment, training design and trainer characteristics on transfer of
training in the Ministry of State for Defence. The study found that staff at the Army headquarters
offices and trainers was directly involved in training. Majority were currently undertaking,.,
training. They applied the acquired skills in the actual work situation.
The study found that self-efficacy and career and job attitudes affected transfer of training to a
very great extent. In addition, trainee personality, goal orientation, agreeableness and
extraversion and trainee ability affected transfer of training to a great extent. Moreover, goal
orientation, trainee motivation, active career management and cognitive ability affected transfer
of training to a great extent.
65
The study found that the task constraints, the extent of support in the organisation (policies,
reward systems and managerial behaviour) and organisational context and climate affected
transfer of training to a great extent. In addition, the continuous learning culture, social support!
workgroup support, opportunity to perform and situational cues and consequences affected
transfer of training to a great extent. Moreover, supervisor's attitudes about the trainee and skill
decay over time affected transfer of training to a moderate extent.
The study found that the kind of training facilities available affected transfer of training to a very
great extent. In addition, hardware environment, training facilities and site layout affected
transfer of training to a great extent. Moreover, ambient conditions (sound, light, temperature,
air) and student involvement affected transfer of training to a great extent. To add, classroom
climate affected transfer of training to a low extent.
The study found that provision of additional or supportive guidance on using the skills back on
the job, training content and guidelines for effective training affected transfer of training to a
very great extent. In addition, framing of training/training approach, developments in cognitive
research and providing inadequate affected transfer of training to a very great extent as shown by
a mean of practice time. Moreover, inadequate test designs, sequencing, giving of multiple
examples and non-examples of concepts in a variety of contexts and learning principles affected
transfer of training to a great extent. To add, feedback mechanism affected transfer of training to
a moderate extent.
The study found that knowledge of the subject matter and professional expenence affected
transfer of training to a very great extent. In addition, feedback about performance, ability to
motivate and engage learners, good communication and delivery skills and knowledge of
66
teaching principles (such as adult learning strategies) affected transfer of training to a great
extent.
5.3 Conclusion
The study concludes that trainee characteristics such as personality, trainee ability, and
motivation effects were originally identified by training practitioners as factors affecting transfer
of training. In a training situation, trainees with strong belief that they can control the provision
of organizational outcomes are more likely to facilitate application of training content on their
jobs. Such outcomes can be recognition, promotions, salary increase and job enlargement. It is
clear that trainees with a high level of confidence in attaining anticipated performance and
behavior change will be more likely to apply what they have learned from training on the jobs.
The study also concludes that the operation of a self-fulfilling prophecy in the context of a
leader-member exchange relationship. How much the trainee was liked and the perceived
potential for the trainee and workgroup support are important in establishing how much of an
opportunity the trainee had to perform trained tasks on the job. Social support, opportunity to
perform and situational cues and consequences affected transfer of training.
The study concludes that cultural commitment to learning often takes more specific forms -as an
incentive to apply new skills ,time or resource allowance to apply them, the cultivation of a
supervisor or peer support network, and clear policies on the importance of continuous learning.
Workplace design contributes to organizational effectiveness in two important ways: it directly
supports work tasks (that is, work quantity, and quality and style of work) and it acts as a catalyst
for organizational outcomes (for example, absenteeism and turnover). The study finally
concludes that the quality and depth of learning depend on the characteristics of the design and
delivery of the training. Transfer is enhanced when the training design includes identical
67
elements, the general principles of a skill are taught, a variety of stimulus conditions are
presented in the training to increase Generalisability, and, generally, distributed training practices
are used.
5.4 Recommendations
The study recommends the trainees need to have high level of confidence so as to attain
anticipated performance. They should be strong in self-efficacy and focus on the demands of a
situation. The organization need to engage trainees in cognitive or environmental search
activities. This will enable them have better understanding of their strengths, weaknesses and
interests and they recognize the importance of learning new skills. Trainees should have a high
level of organizational commitment.
It is important for the Ministry of State Defense to create an environment that supports the
transfer of newly trained officers to the work environment. The supervisor's attitudes towards the
trainee should be positive. Supervisors need to support workgroup by establishing how much of
an opportunity the trainee has to perform trained tasks on the job. The organization need to
encourage trainees to update the technical knowledge and skills and personal growth.
Supervisors and peers should provide trainees with opportunities for practicing new skills and
I'
knowledge in the job setting. A strong learning culture should be encouraged. Trainee should be
encouraged to use situational cues and consequences of their training on their return to the job.
Organizations should be active in ensuring training content matches expectations. Organizations
to think hard about the information they communicate to trainees. Organizations need to be
aware of how information can be perceived and interpreted.
The study recommends the training branch in Ministry of State Defence to update the design and
delivery system of the training in line with current developments. Transfer should be enhanced
68
by including identical elements, the general principles of a skill taught, a variety of stimulus
conditions presented in the training to increase generalizability, and, generally, distributed
training practices. Active learner participation in the training should be encouraged. Unlimited
practice opportunities need to be provided to trainees. Cultural commitment to learning should be
encouraged in the organization.
Since trainee characteristics were found to have a great effect on transfer of training, the study
recommends that the Ministry of State Defence should take into considerations the variety of
different training needs in the design of training programs. Trainers need to use interesting
material to spice up their teaching. The trainer needs to have opportunity to provide additional or
supportive guidance on using the skills back on the job.
5.5 Suggestions for Further Research
A similar study could be carried out in other organizations to find out whether the same results
will be obtained. The study focused on the military thus another study should be carried out in
other institutions such as government ministries and parastatals and also private institutions to
find out if the same results will be obtained and to allow for comparison.
69
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APPENDICES
Appendix I: Introduction letter
Geoffrey O. Misiani,
Kenyatta University,
P.O. Box 43844-00100,
Nairobi, Kenya.
The Ministry Of State for Defence,
Ulinzi House,
P.O. BOX 40668-01000,
Nairobi, Kenya.
RE: INTRODUCTION LETTER
Dear Sir/ Madam,
I am an MBA student at Kenyatta University. I intend to carry out a research on factors affecting
transfer of training within military officers' training. Your institution has been identified as a rich
source of information. I therefore request you to allow me to collect data required for thestudy
I'
from your area of jurisdiction .The information provided was confidential and was only used for
academic purpose.
Thanks in advance.
Yours faithfully
Geoffrey O. Misiani
76
Appendix II: Questionnaire .
FACTORS AFFECTING TRANSFFER OF TRAINING WITHIN MILITARY
OFFICERS' TRAINING IN THE MINISTRY OF STATE FOR DEFENCE, KENYA.
The purpose of this questionnaire is to help collect data for an MBA project in Kenyatta
University. All respondents and information provided will be treated as confidential.
Respondent no .
SECTION A: Background of respondents
Please answer the following questions by placing a tick ( ) where necessary in the spaces
provided
1. What is your age?
18 - 25 [ ] 26-35 [ ]
36-45 [ ] 46 -55 [ ]
56 and above []
2. What is your gender? Male [ ] Female [ ]
3. What is your highest academic qualification?
KCPE [ ] KCSE [ ]
Certificate [ ] Diploma [ ]
Bachelors degree [ ] post graduate [ ]
4. Which other professional training do you have? .
5. What is your designation frank? .
6. How many years have you served in the Defence Forces?
Less than 1 year []
6-10 years [ ]
More than 15 years [ ]
1-5 years
11-15 years
[ ]
[ ]
77
SECTIO B: MILITARY TRAINING FOR OFFICERS
7. a) Are you directly involved in training?
Yes [ ] No [ ]
b) If yes, state your role .
8. i) Are you currently undertaking any form of training?
Yes [ ] No [] .
ii) To what extent do you apply the acquired skills in the actual work situation?
Fully [ ] partial [ ]
SECTIO C: Factors affecting transfer of training
9. The following table indicates various factors that affect transfer of training in courses
undertaken by military officers. You are required to express your opinion on the extent that each
affect the transfer by placing a tick in appropriate columns named
VGE (5) = very great extent GE (4) = Great extent ME (3) = Moderate extent LE (2) = Little
extent NEA (1) = No extent at all
Factors affecting transfer of training VGE GE ME LE NEA
(5) (4) (3) (2) (1)
Trainee characteristics
Trainee personality
Trainee ability
Trainee motivation
Cognitive ability
Self-efficacy
Active career management
Agreeableness and extraversion
Career and job attitudes
Goal orientation
Work environment
The extent of support in the organisation ( policies, reward
systems and managerial behaviour)
78
The continuous learning culture
The task constraints
Organisational context and climate
Situational cues and consequences
Social support! workgroup support
Supervisor's attitudes about the trainee
Opportunity to perform
Skill decay over time
Training Environment
The kind of training facilities available.
Hardware environment
.Training facilities
Site layout
Classroom climate
Student involvement
Ambient conditions (sound, light, temperature, air)
Training design
Learning principles
Developments in cognitive research
Guidelines for effective training
Sequencing
Training Content
Framing of training/training approach
Giving of multiple examples and non-examples of concepts in
a variety of contexts
Providing inadequate practice time
Feedback mechanism
Inadequate test designs
Provision of additional or supportive guidance on using the
79
skills back on the job
Trainer Characteristics
Knowledge of the subject matter
Professional experience
Knowledge of teaching principles (such as adult learning
strategies)
Good communication and delivery skills
Ability to motivate and engage learners
Feedback about performance
10. Rank the following factors in a scale 1-5. 1- Most important, 5- least important showing the
extent the factors that affect transfer of training.
FACTORS RANK
Trainee characteristics
Work environment
Training environment
Training design I' .
Trainer characteristics
11. In your opinion what should be done to improve transfer of training in the Defence Forces
training?
THANK YOU VERY MUCH FOR YOUR CO-OPERATIO
80