INCULTURATION OF THE CONCEPT OF ATONEMENT IN AFRICA: A
CASE OF THE WANGA PEOPLE OF KENYA
by
MANY A WANDEFU STEPHEN, MDIV.
Reg. No C82/U047/08
A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE SCHOOL OF HtfMANITIES AND
SOCIAL SCIENCES FOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR
OF PHILOSOPHY IN THE DEPARTMENT OF pmLOSOPHY AND
RELIGIOUS STUDIES KENYATTA UNIVERSITY
APRIL 2012
K - I ATTA UNIVERSITY LIBRARY•..•
ERICHO Cl"::... PU
ii
DECLARATION
I declare that this thesis is my original work and has not been presented for a degree in
any other university.
Manya Wandefu Stephen, MDiV.
Department of Philosophy and Religious Studies
Signature ~ __ Date 20/f/:;U:;(A.
This thesis was submitted with our approval as University supervisors.
Signature .wa.Il," ~~ate '1- 5 - :L0 / ;;L
Prof. Anne Nasimiyu
Department of Philosophy and Religious Studies
Signature -JJHJ);~~ Date f)Jt/G / 1}!Pfl
Dr. David J. Ndegwah
Department of Philosophy and Religious Studies
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DEDICATION
To the Lord, God, Almighty who, in His own will and wise counsel, atones us from all
sin, and to the Church of Jesus Christ, which is the agent of atonement.
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ACKNOWLEGEMENTS
It is with enormous joy and sincere appreciation that I acknowledge the precious
contributions of very many people, who graciously helped to enhance the successful
completion of my study. I wish to express my profound gratefulness to Daystar
University for offering me a part-time employment, as a Lecturer in the Departement of
Theology and Pastoral studies.
I am greatly indebted, and indeed consider myself very fortunate and privillaged, to have
worked under the untiring and dedicated supervision of Prof. Anne Nasimiyu and Dr.
David J. Ndegwah. Their humane approach, thorough and constructive criticism have
been a great incentive for the completion of this work. I am, therefore, warmly thankful
to these two, especially for their refined academic stimulation and motivation. Apart from
this, Prof. Nasimiyu had time to pray with me in some situations that would have seen me
down, while Dr. Ndegwah took time to share from his vast life, experience. This non-
academic aspect of our interaction has had immense effect on the success of my academic
endeavour.
I am equally very grateful to Rev. Patrick Musembi, my head of department, who has not
only prayed with me but has also given support of various kinds to me and my family. I
am equally indebted to Prof. Victor Cole, Dr. Zachariah Samita, Dr. Margret Gacaga, Dr.
Washington Kamau, Dr. Daniel MMtungi, Dr. Paul Mutinda, Rev. Joshua Karani, and
Mrs Ruth Omungo, for their constant interest in my work. Their helpful insight was a
source of great encouragement throughtout the writing of this work.
Also worth of mentioning are Rt. Rev. Beneah Salala, the Bishop of the Anglican
Church, Diocese of Mumias; who gave me permission to study; the Rev. Charles Keya,
Rev. Alex Makalama, Can. Rev. Nahashon Wamukoya, Can. Rev. Habil Omungu, Rev.
Timothy Mukanda and the Rev. John Masinde. Their immense support cannot be
measured; may the Lord God of heaven, who sees in secret, reward them openly. I cannot
forget the support I received from the Rev. Fr. Pius Wesunga and Rev. Fr. Wakhungu
Christopher who went out of their ways to link me to the Catholic fraternity. My sincere
vthanks also go to the Rev. Paul Wawire and the Rev. WycIiffe Wekesa Simiyu; these two
weremore than brothers to me. For their support and comfort, Iwill ever be greatful.
This study, and the entire programme, would never have been a reality without the
steadfast love, support, co-operation, consideration and care of my beloved wife Gladys
Nechesa, my daughters Cindy and Phloice who are always wishing to see and contribute
to my progress and success in life.
Finally, Iowe all and all to God Almighty, in whose heart lies forgiveness and cleansing
of all sin. He has manifested Himself greatly in every facet of my life. Great is thy
faithfulness, oh my God!
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TABLE OF CONTENT
DECLARA TION ii,
DEDICATION iii
ACKNOWLEGEMENTS iv
DEFINITION OF TERMS xii
GLOSSARY xiv
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ~ xvii
LIST OF FIGURES xviii
ABSTRACT ............................•.................................................................................... xix
CHAPTER ONE: BACKGROUND OF THE STUDy 1
1.1 Evangelization of the Abawanga 2
1.2 lnculturation in the Wanga Religio-Cultural History 2
1.3 Statement of the Problem 4
1.4 Objectives of the Study 5
1.5 Premises 5
1.6 Research Questions 6
1.7 Justification and Significance ofthe Study ~ 6
1.8 Scope and Limitation 7
LITERATURE REVIEW 9
1.9 Introduction 9
1.10 Inculturation of Christian Faith 9
1.11 Meaning and History ofInculturation in Africa 10
1.12 Inculturation of Christian Faith in Europe 13
1.13 Atonement among the Abaluhya 17
1.14 Atonement in the Bible 22
1.15 Atonement in the Old Testament 23
1.16 Atonement in the New Testament.. ........................................•........................ 23
1.17 Theoretical Framework 25
1.18 Summary 28
vii
RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY 30
1.19 Introduction 30
1.20 Research Design 30
1.21 Rationale for the Choice of Research Design 31
1.22 The Study Population 32
1.23 Data Collection and Entry 32
1.24 Sampling Techniques and Size 32
1.25 Focus Groups 34
1.26 Research Instruments 35
1.27 Validity and Reliability of the Instruments 36
1.28 Data Analysis Procedure 37
CHAPTER TWO: ATONEMENT IN TRADITIONAL W ANGA 39
2.1 Introduction 39
2.2 Atonement, Sin, Evil and Guilt in the Wanga Culture 40
2.3 Existence of Sin 42
2.4 The Meaning of Sin .. 46
2.5 Etymological Understanding of Sin 47
2.6 Classification of Sin 48
2.7 Individual Sin 50
2.8 Religious Sin 52
2.9 Social Sin 53
2.10 Sin against the Divine 56
2.11 Dealing with Sin among the Abawanga 61
2.12 Categories of Sacrifices 62
2.12.1 Appeasement Sacrifice 62
2.12.2 Substitution Sacrifice 63
2.13 Qualities for Sacrificial Elements 65
2.14 Gradation of Sins among the Abawanga 66
2.15 Atonement for the Major Sins : 67
2.15.1 Atonement for Minor Sins 70
2.16 Existence of Evil 71
2.17 Describing Evil ,' 72
2.17.1 Evil against the Universe 73
viii
2.17.2 The Rain Making Ritua1. 74
2.18 Guilt 77
2.19 Necessity of Atonement in Wanga Culture 79
2.19.1 Cleansing of Circumcision Knife ~ 80
2.20 Classifications of Blood in Wanga Culture 82
2.21 Passing the Concept of Atonement on 85
2.22.1 Micro-Teaching Methods 86
2.22.2 Macro-Teaching Methods 89
2.23 The Qualifications of the Wanga Atoner 90
2.23.1 Individual Qualifications 91
2.23.2 Societal Qualifications 91
2.24 Sacrificial Places 93
2.25 Wanga Atonement and Niebuhr's Christ and Culture Theory 93
2.26 Summary ofWanga Atonement Process 96
2.27 Conclusion ' 97
CHAPTER THREE: BIBLICAL UNDERSTANDING OF A"':" ONEMENT 99
3.1 Introduction 99
3.2 The Nature of Atonement 100
3.3 Obedience in the Bible 100
3.4 Sacrifice 103
3.5 Propitiation 105
3.6 Reconciliation 108
3.7 Redemption 112
3.7.1 Redemption from Sin 113
3.7.2 Redemption from the Curse of the Law 117
3.8 The Biblical Nature of Atonement in View of Various Theories 118
3.9 Niebuhr's Theory and the Elements of Atonement 122
3.10 Summary of the Nature of Atonement.. 123
3.11 The Process of Atonement in the Old Testament : 124
3.12 The Process of Atonement in the New Testament. 125
3.13 Summary of the Process of Atonement in the Bible 127
3.14 The Extent of Atonement in the Bible 127
3.15 Exegetical Analysis of Atonement.. 128
ix
3.16 Summary of the Nature, Extent, and Process of Atonement 130
3.17 Conclusion 132
CHAPTER FOUR: THE WANGA CHRISTIAN UNDERSTANDING OF 134
ATONEMENT 134
4.1 Introduction 134
4.2 Christian Understanding of Atonement 134
4.3 Christian Symbolism of Atonement.. ~ 138
4.4 Jesus Christ the Atoner 142
4.4.1 Jesus Christ the Intercessor 145
4.5 The Scope of Christian Atonement.. 150
4.6 Summary 153
4.7 Conclusion 156
CHAPTER FIVE: INCULTURATING BIBLICAL ATONEMENT AMONG THE
ABAWANGA 158
5.1 Introduction 158
5.2 Relating the Jewish and the Wanga Atonement.. 159
5.2.1 Atonement Regulations 159
5.2.2 Ritual Leadership 161
5.2.3 Sacrificial Elements 161
5.2.4 The Atonement Process 162
5.2.5 Natural and Supernatural Intervention 163
5.3 Contrasting the Jewish and Wanga Atonement Practices 165
5.3.1 The Timing of Atonement Rituals 165
5.3.2 Leadership and Sacrificial Elements 166
5.3.3 Atonement and Sanctioning Process 167
5.4 Atonement Theories Versus Wanga and Jewish Atonement.. 168
5.5 Summary 169
5.6 Conclusion 170
CHAPTER SIX: IMPORTANCE OF INCUL TURA TING ATONEMENT 172
6.1 Introduction 172
6.2 Sin and Evil in Relation to Atonement 173
x6.3 The Ritual of Atonement ~ 176
6.4 Pre- liminaries to Inculturation 177
6.4.1 Bible Translation 177
6.4.2 Inculturation of the Atoner 178
6.4.3 Representations and Symbolisms 179
6.4.4 The Ritual Meal of Sacrifice 181
6.4.5 Relating Mulembe to Atonement.. 182
6.5 The Ritual of Nababa 183
6.5.1 Chasing Nababa Away 184
6.5.2 The Evil of Nababa and the Evil of Satan 186
6.6 Summary 188
6.7 Conclusion ~ 190
CHAPTER SEVEN: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 192
7.1 General Conclusions 192
7.1.1 Atonement and Peaceful Co - existence 192
7.1.2 Atonement and Culture 193
7.1.3 Categorizing Atonement in the Old Testament 193
7.1.4 The Elements of Atonement 193
7.1.5 The Universality of Atonement... 194
7.1.6 Atonement: Reconcilliation between God and Humanity 195
7.1.7 Atonement versus Sin and Evil.. 196
7.1.8 Incultrating the Concept of Atonement.. ~ 196
7.2 Recommendations for Inculturation 197
7.3 Recommendations for Further Research 199
REFERENCES 200
APPENDICES 212
Al Chapeterization ofthe Study 212
A2 Tentative Time Schedule 213
A3 Tentative Budget 214
A4 Research Instruments 215
AS Interview Questions for Male and Female Community Elders 216
xi
A 6 Interview Questions for the Clergy and Lay Preachers 217
A7 Interview Questions for Traditionalists 218
A8 The Map of Kenya, Provincial Boundaries 219
A 9 Mumias District 220
xii
DEFINITION OF TERMS
- Declaring the offender free from sin, mainly done by a
priest.
Atonement - Removing an offence by way of sacrifice. At times this may
be, by way of payment; and so bringing the offender and the
Absolution
Euro-American
offendee together; reconciliation.
Confession - Admitting of one's sin.
Contextualization - The ability of indigenous concept, after having been
determined as relating to biblical concepts of the same nature,
to take on biblical form and meaning (contextualization of the
word). The ability of the missionary to live and work in the
receptor culture; without seeing it as inferior to their own
(Contextualization of the Witness). This will also mean
developing indigenous church leadership (contextualization of
Church leadership).
-The Gospel carriers from Europe and North America, who
brought Christianity to Luhyaland. They carried it embodiedMissionaries
in the European and American culture.
Historio-CuItural - The nature of this study is historical; yet it is also cultural. It
will, therefore, be referred to as historico-cultural.
Inculturation - Honest and serious attempt to make Christ and his message
of salvation understood by peoples of every culture, locality
and time.
Wanga Culture
Penance
Restitution
xiii
-The living patterns of Wanga people; these include their
music, science, myths, proverbs, stories, riddles, their art and
all literary works.
- Payment of any kind that substitutes for one's sin.
- Paying back to the offended what one may have acquired
wrongfully.
Abaluhya
Abaafwa
Abawanga
Abachuuma
Abakuuka
Amabaanga
Amatsayi
Amalasire
Amanyasi
XIV
GLOSSARY
- (Plural) a section of the Western Bantu of Western Kenya.
-The dead people.
- (Plural) people belonging to one of the sub-ethnic groups of the
Abaluhya; who live in Mumias District of Western Kenya.
- Specific circumcision age set.
-The great grand fathers; sometimes referring to the Iiving dead.
- Menstrual blood; at times refers to foetal blood.
-Sacrificial blood.
-Blood from animal; at times cooked or eaten raw.
- Concoctions of plants and grass mixed so that one takes for
cure.
Ebisoni -The living dead.
Ebishieno - Evil spirits.
Efikonjio -Broken pieces of a pot.
Eshiembekho -Sacred forest; Sometimes referring to the cemetery.
Eshinokhonokho -A generational curse.
Eshisinyo -Shame brought about by sin.
Eshikhasio - Special meeting for elders.
Eshisanda -Calabash.
Emakombe - Abode of the living dead.
Emisilo - Taboos.
Khwitisa - To make oneself clean, or pure, after committing an offence.
Luhya
Nababa
Nabongo
Namwiima
Oluluhyia
Omuwanga
Omuluhya
Omulukha
Omwisalisi
Omufumu
Obusee
Omufumu
Omulakusi
Omulonji
Omwirima
Omwiimo
Okhufuwa
Omusilo
xv
- (Adjective) used to describe the language, or any other element,
of the indigenous people of Western Kenya.
- A ritual for casting away bad omen that brings unexplainable
death and diseases to the community.
- Title for Wanga king.
-Special grass thatched housed used for performing rituals.
- Any of the dialects spoken by sub-ethnic groups of the Luhya
community.
- (Singular); an indigenous person who lives in Mumias District
in Western Kenya.
- (Singular) an indigenous person (Omundu) who belongs to one
of the Bantu groups of Western Kenya.
- The atonement ritual.
- The Luhya and by extension Wanga traditional priest.
- The un-dower/undertaker of curses.
-Chyme found in the stomach of a remnant animal.
-The person who reveals the evil spirits, sometimes called
Omuchesi.
-The seer; the prophet.
-The creator; the one who moulds.
-Special Wanga club used for oath taking.
- A memorial service.
-A special offering for the living dead.
-Taboo.
Omusambwa
Wanga
Were
1D.O)(JKOJlUl
KUTulluYE
AUTPOV
~~,
XVI
-Ancestral spirits.
- (Adjective) used to describe the language or any other element
of the indigenous people of Mumias District-Western Kenya.
- God; at times referred to as Nyasaye.
- Make propitiation.
- Exchange for, or reconciliation.
- Ransom, or redemption.
- (kaphar) sacrifice or offering.
- (yuom kipur) day of atonement.
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
NIV - New International Version
OT - Old Testament
NT - New Testament
SIL - Summer Institute of Linguistics
MHF - Mill Hill Fathers
eMS - Church Missionary Society
KEN (tTTll,! f·IIVERSITY LIB A Y
xvii
xviii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 4.1 The Process of Atonement 147
Figure 4.2 Gospelled Atonement 155
Figure 6.1 Scripture interaction with Wanga culture 191
xix
ABSTRACT
This study sought to address the problem of inconsistencies between faith and practice
of Christianity among the Wanga people; which has resulted in less commitment of
the Abawanga to their churches. This has farther led to the Abawanga moving from
Christianity to other religions such as Islam; and at times back to the Wanga
traditional religion, to seek religious satisfaction. This study proposed inculturation of
the ritual and its interpretations as the most appropriate way to solve the problem.
This is because inculturation will make Christianity an internalized religion hence
becoming a faith that is fully lived, able to answer 'religious' questions among the
Abawanga. The literature review of this study looked at the following aspects of
atonement, namely; atonement among the Abawanga, and atonement in the bible.
Being a relational concept, the interpretation was bound to be relation based. Yet this
relationship ought to have its value founded on the bible; thus the bible must
relationally speak to the Wanga religio-cultural form of atonement by way of
inculturation. It is, therefore, necessary that the missionary as the chief evangelizer,
understands the finer details of the Wanga culture; and the usage of various concepts
such as, atonement; that form this culture. It is also important to understand their
functions and the value attached to these details, because, if this does not happen, the
missionary may not be able to provide the necess ••ry guidance, needed by Wanga
converts. This study approached atonement as a cultural issue, and as such used
Neiburh Richard's reflections of Jesus verses culture as a theoretical framework. This
study was also, Christological in nature, based on anthropological research,
specifically ethnography. Thus, the preferred method of research was qualitative. The
qualitative data collected was analyzed using emerging themes; found in both
ethnographic and focus group interviews. Ultimately, the idea was, to inculturate the
biblical understarxiingof the concept of atonement, into the Wanga religio-culture so
that Christian faith is internalized. The major findings showed that atonement rituals
are some of the major rituals practiced among the Abawanga. These rituals involve
the shedding of blood from animals and birds. At times special plants were used, as a
replacement for animal blood. The study also found out that, there were specific
people designated for leading this exercise. According to this study, if these rituals
were conducted in accordance with the laid down procedures, then it was assumed
that people had good relationships among themselves; and with their God.
1CHAPTER ONE: BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
Luhya-speaking groups have occupied the East African region for nearly 500 years;
when they displaced long established foraging and herding peoples. The Abaluhya
sub-ethnic groups, most of whom probably originated from central Africa, were
originally clans; with diverse historical origins that grew large and then split into sub-
ethnic groups. In general, the Abaluhya are divided into 21 sub-ethnic groups, three of
which are found in Uganda. This study will focus on the Wanga, who form one of
these 21 sub-ethnic groups (http://www.everyculture.com/Africa-Middle-EastlLuyia-
Kinship.html).
Mosley (2007: 1) observes that the Wanga people are one of the sub-ethnic groups of
the Aba/uhya of Western Kenya. They mainly occupy Butere, Mumias and Kakamega
districts. Today, the Wanga people number around 0.6 million and reta~nthe Nabongo
as their cultural monarch. The Wanga ancestors came from Egypt, as part of the
migration, moving to central Africa and later settled in Kampala area that formed the
Buganda Kingdom. A Muganda prince, called Kaminyi, a son of Ssekabaka Mawanda
fled after a conflict within the state house to Tiriki area, in the current Western
Province where he became a ruler and was succeeded by his son, Wanga who
established the Wanga Kingdom with the title of Nabongo in the 18th Century. It is
Wanga who established the Wanga community in Mumias area.
Fedders and Cynthia (1984: 99) further observe that the Wanga language is one of the
dialects of the Luhya people. But although there are variations in the Luhya dialects,
the essential elements in the Luhya rituals and culture, in general, are essentially the
same.
21.1 Evangelization of the Abawanga
The Roman Catholic and the Anglican churches, through their respective evangelistic
arms, the Mill Hill Fathers (MHF), and the Church Missionary Society (CMS), were
responsible for the first evangelistic activities in Wangaland. Baur (1990: 102), on the
one hand, reports, that the Mill Hill Fathers moved into Mumias town in 1904. By
1916, Rev. Father Stam, the great Luhya apostle was posted to Mumias Parish;
making it the second largest Parish after Kakamega Parish. Chandran (1994: 54)
records that, by the year 1914 the Anglican Church was already in operation in
Mumias. He further observes that the Roman Catholic Church and the Anglican
Church were partners in evangelism and always collaborated together in missionary
work. He gives this as a reason for the choice of Mumias town for both the Roman
Catholic arv. the Anglican Churches as their base of operation. Nthamburi (1991: 16)
says that the Pentecostals were not left behind. In 1922 they pitched tent in
Wangaland in a place called Musanda. It is, therefore, evident that Christianity is not
a new religion in Wangaland; it is now more than a century old.
1.2 Inculturation in the Wanga Religio-Cultural History
To many people, inculturation means nothing more than a translation and
translocation of symbols; finding suitable symbols or rituals from a given culture to
express the Christian message (Ndegwa 2007: 37). Waligo (1986: 12) defines
inculturation as the honest and serious attempt to make Christ and the biblical
message of salvation understood by the people of every culture, locality and time. It
means the reformation of Christian life and doctrine into the very thought-patterns of
each people and expressed by the people's language.
3In an effort to reach the Luhya community, and in particular the Abawanga,
missionaries used the concept of inculturation. For example, Lee Appleby assumed
the Luhya name "Bakhoya," learnt the Luhya language and Luhya culture; before
making any attempt to translate the Bible in this language. It is worth noting that the
standard Luhya Bible translation was done in the 'King's dialect of the Luhya
language. The king being 'Nabongo' of Mumias the translation is, therefore, in the
Wanga dialect of the oluluhya language (Chandran 1994: 52). The translation of the
Bible in Wanga dialect was the initial attempt to inculturate the Christian faith among
the Abawanga.
Baur (1990: 102-105) says that the Catholics went ahead and authorized Luhya
dances and symbols to be used in conducting the Holy Mass. Although the language
and Luhya symbols vere used in this new Biblical faith, Baur expressed doubt in the
seriousness of the Abaluhya believers, particularly the Abawanga, in embracing the
Christian faith. He notes that the early Swahili and Arabic traders gave Mumias a
distinctive Islamic character. He warned that later, Christian evangelization might not
be easy. Chandran (1994, 177) confirms Baur's fears when he claims that by 1990,
many Christians were turning not only to the Islamic faith but were reverting back to
the traditional Wanga religion, especially in times of calamities. This is mainly
because of seeking for answers, which seemingly were thought not to be available in
the Christian faith. This makes this research viable and relevant in seeking the reasons
as to why Christians in Wangaland should look for religious fulfillment from other
religions like Islamic and traditional Wanga religion.
41.3 Statement of the Problem
According to Ndegwa (2007: 40-41), inculturation should form part of the process
and the end result of the missionary's task of evangelization in any given culture.
Ndegwa says that, this is so, because of the intensive and extensive nature of this
concept. The process of inculturation in every culture should ideally be done by the
people themselves under the guidance of an interested evangelizer who could be a
priest or any other trained theologian. Ndegwa's expression is what Burke (2001:
193) calls 'inculturation from the bottom up, 'where people produce cultural raw
material, while the theologian produces doctrinal material. The result of such a
process is that all gospelled concepts become culturally relevant. In this way,
Christianity is able to embrace, interpret, explain, and use symbols and concepts from
the peoples' culture. Incultt..•ation, therefore, makes Christianity the people's religion.
Unfortunately, missionaries made little effort in inculturating the Christian faith to the
Wanga community. Instead, the Wanga culture, just like any other African culture,
was looked at as inferior and its institutions seen as incompetent.
Having looked at inculturation in the foregoing perspective, the problem then comes
from the missionaries' encounter with the Wanga culture. The result of this encounter
is the new things, such as institutions and concepts, from the Euro-American culture
that had to come in place. Evangelizers however, forgot that what they were in
essence teaching the Abawanga was the biblical message inculturated in their own
cultures. For example, the concept of atonement was taught using Western theories
such as, the ransom, the government and the moral theories (Grudem 1994, 570).
Although Abawanga had their own theories of atonement, the Euro-American theories
were unfamiliar with them. What was needed was a gospel that was inculturated into
5the Wanga religio-cultural understanding of the concept of atonement. This would
havemade the biblical faith to become a lifestyle of the Wanga people.
To address the problem of these knowledge gaps that are missing within the Christian
faith among the Abawanga, purposeful inc1uturation of biblical faith concepts need to
be done. This study, therefore, singled out atonement as a biblical concept of great
importance that needed to be inculturated among the Abawanga.
1.4 Objectives of the Study
The objectives derived from this study were as follows:
1. To investigate the concept of atonement in the traditional Wanga thought and
practice.
2. To survey the biblical understanding of the nature and process of atonement.
3. To assess the impact of the Euro-American Christian teaching of the concept
of atonement in the Wanga community.
4. To relate the Wanga perception of atonement to the biblical perception of the
same.
5. To show that inculturation is an important and dynamic ongoing process that
every evangelizer must embrace.
1.5 Premises
This research started from several premises as follows:
(i). The Abawanga have their own ways of instilling into their community the
concept of atonement.
6(ii). The biblical understanding of atonement resonates with the Wanga
understanding of the same concept.
(iii). There has been little attempt by missionaries to use the African worldview;
that is, African mind, thought and religious heritage, in inculturating biblical
faith in Africa, and in particular the Abawanga.
(iv). There are some elements in the Wanga understanding of atonement that are
similar to the biblical understanding of atonement.
(v). There is need for inculturation of biblical concepts in all cultures for the
success of any mission work.
1.6 Research Questions
The guiding questions in this research were:
1. What is the Wanga understanding of atonement?
2. Why is atonement necessary in the traditional Wanga thought and practice?
3. What is the nature and process of atonement in the bible?
4. What are the similarities and dissimilarities between the biblical and Wanga
traditional ways of atonement?
5. How does the traditional Wanga concept of atonement impact the Christian
evangelistic enterprise, in this community?
1.7 Justification and Significance of the Study
This study endeavored to lay bare the notion of atonement, as used in the
contemporary Wanga thought and practice; so that missionaries and other religious
7workers may use this as a window of evangelizing the community. This research was,
therefore, helpful in the following ways:
1. To the Church, in her evangelistic mandate to the Wanga community; the
Clergy are able to understand the concept of atonement as they do theology
within the Wanga community.
2. This study endeavored to create an integrated theology that would incorporate
the biblical and the Wanga thought and practice of atonement. This is an
addition to the knowledge that already exists in the area of the theology of
atonement and the theology of inculturation, for the world and students of
theology.
3. The study provided a roadmap towards a contextualized theology that takes
African traditional themes and concepts; carefully studied them, and applied
them to the African Christian life.
4. Atonement is a conflict management concept. As such, the government of
Kenya officials, none-governmental organizations, and any other interested
parties, may use this research as a window to conflict manage~ent among the
Abawanga, in particular, and the Abaluhya in general.
1.8 Scope and Limitation
The study was an inter-disciplinary study, looking at the history and theological
aspects of atonement. In this study, theology of atonement was the main approach.
Other disciplines were used in so far as they yielded and related to theological issues
associated with atonement. Such issues as reconciliation, forgiveness, restitution,
incorporation, membering and dis - membering processes were all explored in this
8study. Although this study looked at atonement from the biblical perspective, in
general,the main focus was on the New Testament.
The study covered the geographical areas ofMumias and Matungu districts; which are
inhabitedby the Wanga community. These districts are found in the Western Province
of Kenya. The researcher chose the Abawanga, because the standard Luhya bible
translation is in the Wanga dialect; yet the Christian faith is not deep rooted among
the Wanga people. The study was interested in the underlying reason for this scenario.
The nature of the concept of atonement is basically cultural; and as such, the
researcher, though conscious of the young people, did not include them in the•
population of the study, because of their lack of chronological experience. Instead,
this research targeted people aged at least forty years and above; both male and
female.Apart from this, the researcher intentionally included theologians in this study
so as to establish the theological impact of the concept of atonement among the
Abawanga. The study covered the period between 1920 to date.
KF~ YATTAUNIVERSITY LI Y
9LITERATURE REVIEW
1.9 Introduction
In an effort to understand Abawanga, in particular and the Abaluhya in general, as
well as the biblical perception of atonement, the researcher reviewed related literature
This included, a brief history and meaning of inculturation in Africa and Europe,
atonement among the Abawanga and atonement in the bible, specifically the New
Testament.
1.10 Inculturation of Christian Faith
Christianity is a historical religion and inculturation is part of the church's history. As
a by-product of this historical process, inculturation forms a certain accr .nulation of
cultural elements, beginning with the cultures of the bible and going through the long
list of successive inculturations. Shorter (2011:4) submits that, inculturation is the
accumulation of the church's cultural patrimony. Shorter goes ahead and says that,
because of the unique history and character of Christianity, elements from the
church's cultural patrimony are always included in the synthesis brought about by
inculturation. It is this research's position that African Christianity should not fear
absorbing some of these Jewish cultures, because they form the humanity and
historicity of Jesus Christ, who in the view of this research is the subject of
inculturation. Indeed, it is the understanding of this study that people of every culture,,
the Abawanga included have to absorb part of the bible culture. This is part of the
reality of inculturation, especially where these elements are essential to Christian
identity.
la
1.11 Meaning and History of Inculturation in Africa
The meaning and history of inculturation is wide and varied, spanning over a long
periodof time. As such, this study is not able to adequately handle it in its fullness;
therefore, this study looks at language, Church institutions and worship as the major
themesof inculturation.
Even though inculturation as a terminology may seem recent within the Christian
theologyand even language, in reality inculturation is as old as the church. According
to (Waliggo 1986: 11), inculturation has been misrepresented throughout history to
mean adaptation, indigenization and reformulation. Waliggo contents that none of
these terms represent inculturation. According to him, inculturation is the honest and
serious attempt to make Christ and his message of salvation understood by peoples of
every culture, locality and time. This study agrees with Waliggo in his defmition and
understanding of inculturation. What this means to this study is that the gospel of
salvation and generally Christian life and doctrine must be understood in every
thought-patterns of each people for Christianity to qualify as a lived faith.
In support ofWaliggo, (BediakoI997: 59 - 65) argues that Christianity in Africa will
not survive based on its network of schools and parishes, hospitals and other
institutions; not economic or political support, but survival of Christianity will be
based on how it engages African cultures. Bediako's argument raises one of the most
fundamental questions at the centre of this study. That is "a Christian faith which is
authentic and truly African." If this is true, then Africans will be able to make
Christian ideas part of their worldview. To the understanding of this study, the above
11
can only happen if the Christian vision of life fulfils African needs, atonement being
oneof the fundamental African needs.
According to (Waliggo and Nkeramihingo 1986: 12), Christianity succeeded to
survive several centuries in the Coptic speaking communities of Egypt, Ethiopia and
the Kingdoms of Nubia where it had been translated into the local languages and
adopted to some local cultures. In support of Waliggo and Nkeramihingo this study
argues that, simple rules of communication require that the speaker adopts himself!
herself to the audience for understanding to take place. This then requires that the
speaker learns the audience language. This is because language is the train that carries
meaning and expression. Meaning and expression of atonement ritual must than be
carried by way of language. Vatican II recognized this important truth when they
recommended that language of worshihp be the peoples language, thereby directing
that worship be carried out in the language that people can understand and relate with
(FlanneryI984: 41- 45 ). Mugambi and Magesa (1990: 12 - 14) submit that it is only
through the peoples language that Christian message is passed on. People therefore
desire a Jesus Christ who speaks their own language.
What the above speaks to this study is that the meaning of atonement as a ritual is
carried within the language of the people. It must therefore be understood within the
expressions of the Luhya language; which in this case is the language of the Wanga
people. In the words of (Mbiti 1991: 63 - 65), atonement is an expression of identity
in any given community. Bediako (1997: 17 - 25) submits that a religion that does not
give people a form of identity lacks the facts of ideal religion. He goes a head and
claims that Christianity has offered the much needed identity to its followers. Thus the
12
Wanga forms of atonement which in the understanding of this study is religio -
cultural must be able to provide identity to the Wanga community. It is therefore
important that these atonement rituals be carefully studied to establish the kinds of
identity they provide. If these identities are in agreement to scripture, then they should
be retained and if not then they should be discarded.
Commenting on monasticism and celibacy in the history of African Christianity,
(Gonzaleze 1984: 136 ~ 138) says that these came because of the felt needs of the
time to bear witness to Christ. This he claims was part of the inculturation process, as
Christianity translated itself into the Eastern and African faith. (Bellagamba 1988: 67)
supports what Gonzales says by submitting that; celibacy of the clergy was promoted
based on the demands and conceptions of the time. Based on what Gonzales and
Bellagamba are saying, one cannot fully appreciate any evangelistic enterprise unless
one first appreciates the aspirations and the needs of the "people of the, time" thus it is
important that the issue of atonement rituals and their impact of the Christian faith
among the Abawanga of today be fully studied with a view of inculturating some into
Christian faith and throwing out those that do not conform to the scriptures. This
arises based on the premises that, just as celibacy, atonement ritual is a felt need
among the Abawanga.
According to (van der WaIt 1994: 465 - 470), institutions are very important for any
meaningful spreading of the word of God. Institutions facilitate the transfer of
scriptures from one community to another. He therefore argues that people who lead
these institutions are themselves one with the institutions they lead. Waliggo (1986:
18 - 24) supports Van der Wait, when he says that the gospel spread so fast in Congo
13
because,missionaries accepted to ordain African clergy rather fast, compared with
other parts of Africa. He calls this the first level inculturation. Whereas these two,
Van der Walt and Waliggo speak of institutions and their leadership, this research
asks the question "were these leaders inculturated together with their rituals?" what
seems to come out clearly from the argument of these two is that people are
important. However their worldviews are important too. This world is what informs
this study; because one can not separate people from their worldviews. Atonement
being part of the Wanga worldview this study submits that it is important that the
Wanga atonement ritual be linked to their belief system. (Nasimiyu in Namwera
1990: 23 - 28) supports this research in her claim that not all that is seen within a
community is not evil and therefore what is moral within specific offices and
institution should be upheld as part of Christian practice.
In conclusion, inculturation will make Christian faith a faith that is lived and owned
by a people of a specific culture, context and time. This will happen because Christian
faith will become applicable to the day to day living of the people. In this way Jesus
Christ will speak to the people in a language and expressions that are appropriate to
them.
1.12 Inculturation of Christian Faith in Europe
Europe was one of the first continents to receive Christian faith; inculturation has
therefore had a long history on this continent. This study is therefore not able to
exhaustively deal with inculturation issues in Europe. However, as a way of
14
introducingthe inculturation of atonement rituals among the Abawanga of Kenya, this
studywill only have a brief treatment of inculturation in Europe.
According to Shorter (1988: 137) the New Testament provides evidence for the first
insertionof Christian resurrection faith into the cultures of the Mediterranean area and
for the beginning of a dialogue between that faith and those cultures. However, this
study does not see Shorter's claim becoming a principle that animates and brings
together those Mediterranean cultures, transforming them into a new creation all
together. Instead this study agrees with Bediako's (1997: 91 - 93) claim that the New
Testament is itself a product of the first attempt of inculturation. Thus the dialogue
begins with the culture of Hellenistic Judaism.
As gentile converts increased (Acts 14:1) it became necessary to evangelize gentile
cultures; the Graeco-Roman cultures of the Mediterranean. Pelikan (1985: 38 - 40)
observes that in all these cultures, the expectation of a Messiah was evident. These
cultures therefore, sought to identify the questions in those traditions to which Jesus
Christ as Messiah provided the answers. Shorter (1988: 139 - 140) for example, says
that there were talks of the pagan Odyssey as a type of Christ and Socrates as a type
of the biblical Moses among the Greeks; these two were thought to be liberating
figures among the Greeks. Indeed, based on Pelikan and Shorter's discussion, these
two represent not only liberating figures but a liberating thought, which to this study
forms an entry point into the Greek culture. It is therefore the starting point of
inculturation. In support of Pelikan and Shorter, Mettei (2011:3) suggests that
Odyssey was included in the Greek Pantheon that the apostle Paul talked of in Acts
17:22-31. Although he suggests Odyssey among other Greek gods to be used as an
15
illustrationfor the liberating power of Jesus Christ, the unknown God must become
the ultimate: Jesus Christ. As such, the apostle Paul in the incu1turation process,
names Jesus Christ as the unknown God of the Ephesians. To this study, this is
inculturation per-excellence, because the formerly unknown God is now incarnate;
livingwith the Ephesian populace and thus making Christianity a faith that is lived.
The other question that inculturation sought to answer was the issue of language.
Mattei (2011:3) argues that the poor and illiterate masses were by far the largest
component in the Europe. The Christian message therefore, inculturated itself among
the illiterate masses, speaking in their own languages and thus finding a place within
European cultures. He goes on and claims that, the "Latin" that was used for
evangelism was humble and degraded. This statement of Mattei shows that this may
have been a poor man's language/low class language. In most cases low class people
are illiterate. This study agrees with Mattei's argument. Indeed any language is a
vehicle in which people's world view is embodied. It is therefore important that
language becomes the first aspect of inculturation.
Symbolism took a centre stage in the inculturation of Christian faith in Europe.
According to (Arbuckle 1990: 26 - 41), in any given culture, symbolism gives
meaning of things around people; and that is what culture is all about. He goes ahead
and submits that the clerical vestments used by the clergy were not initially used by
the Apostles and early Church fathers; they serve symbols of representation of the
Priestly community. This according to Arbuckle was European way 'of recognizing
the Priests. To this study, once meaning and significance of things are known, then
people are able to develop that sense of belonging. This being the case, then
16
symbolismin Christianity gives identity to the adherents. Symbolism therefore is not
just a sign but a means of communication.
The next question that inculturation sort to answer in Europe was the question of
hermeneutics. According to (Schreiter 2004: 30 - 42) interpretation of scripture must
be tempered with culture for people to be able comfortably understand it. He says
that, communication is appropriate when it is achieved without a violation of the
hearer's cultural code. He gives an example of the 1950 Kyoto Cathedral which had
stained glass windows installed. One of them depicted St. George in the act of killing
the dragon. This according to Schreiter caused an uproar in Japan, because in Japan a
dragon is the symbol of the Empire while in Europe it is a symbol of evil. To have
this symbol on this Cathedral therefore meant that Christianity destroys Japan. This
scenario painted by Scheiter shows the importance of specific elements within a given
culture in relation to Christian faith. It is therefore important that atonement rituals
among the Abawanga be carefully studied for any meaningful biblical exegesis
relating to the sacrificial death of Jesus Christ to be understood.
All having been said and done, inculturation is a very important ingredient in the
spreading of the gospel; yet culture cannot be ignore because in the foundation upon
which the principles of inculturation are based. It takes the dynamics of these two;
scripture and culture with all they entail about identity and change to have the making
of a local -theology which in the view of this study is lived theology. How this
interaction of scripture and cultural elements takes place is the subject of this study,
particularly atonement rituals.
17
1.13 Atonement among the AbaJuhya
To understand the need for atonement among Abawanga, one has to have a closer
look at the words and terminologies used to describe sin among the Abaluhya.
According to Saliku and Anagoli (2007: 6-11), the Abaluhya use various words to
conceptualize sin; which include amakosa, obwononi and tsimbi. The words tend to
lean on the results of sin in the context of the idea of relationships. These words, in
themselves, are not definitions, but rather descriptive terms. Magesa (1997: 149)
observes that in the African context, such words lead to seeing sin through its
consequences rather than its nature. Hence the extent of evil is emphasized at the
expense of its nature. Atonement is, in this case, regarded as something that comes in,
not to correct the situation but to restore the situation that was interfered with.
Were (1967: 53), Adeyemo (1979: 52), and Osogo (1987: 26), observe that another
word that is used to refer to sin in African communities is taboo. This word could
literary mean forbidden things. Among the Abaluhya, this is known as omusilo.
These writers say that the word taboo carries the negative idea of a 'thou shalt not ':
bearing relationship to that, which is customarily not done. They suggest that sin,
among the Abaluhya, is perceived within the boundaries of emisilo (taboos), in the
sense that once a particular omusilo is broken, sin has been committed. By breaking
the omusilo, Osogo, says that atonement engages the spiritual world; because taboos
affect not only the living but the living dead as well.
Among the Abaluhya, the process of atonement began by noticing the unfamiliar
phenomenon; occurring to an individual, a family or to the whole community
(Wagner 1970: 220-245). To warrant a serious attention, this particular phenomenon
18
mustbe a recurring one, as opposed to a once for all occurrence. This would stir up a
reactionfrom the concerned family or community to start the atonement process.
According to Wagner (1970: 220- 245) and Samita (1992: 228-232), the way of
atonement is the way of peace. They reckon that atonement is done, or performed, as
an act of reconciliation; in pursuit of the peace that must be maintained between the
living and the living dead. Wagner gives an example by way of a story about the
peace rituals of the Avalogoli. The person who has sinned, against the ancestors,
takes a sheep and places his hands on the sheep's back, uttering some words; and then
he invites the elders, who repeat the same ritual. In this way, the sacrificer identifies
himself/herself with the victim, as does the community through the laying on of hands
by the elders. The blood of the sheep is divided into three portions, for the sacrificer,
the elders and the ancestors. For the ancestors, the blood is poured down, while for the
sacrificer and elders, the blood is either drunk raw or cooked and eaten; as the
stomach contents are smeared on the body of the offender.
Wagner (1970: 220) and Sitati (2003: 40-45) contend that among" the Abaluhya,
unexplained deaths, for example children's deaths, would raise questions within the
community. Such questions include, but not limited to questions like, "Is there sin
anywhere? Why is this happening?" Answers to these questions would then determine
the next course of action. The lineages of both parents would be strictly scrutinized to
see if they may be the cause of this regrettable phenomenon. Once the cause has been
identified, accusations, or questions would then be brought, first by close relatives.
The affected family would begin to talk and ask questions; forming the beginning of
the atonement process.
19
Ray (2000: 72) and Wagner (1970: 253) say that if a person intentionally or
unintentionally killed another person, the offenders stayed outside the gate. Upon
arrivalat home, and shouted saying they had 'bloody hands'. The cleansing process
would then begin. From their observation, individual offenders, too, had the
responsibilityof initiating the atonement process.
Osogo (1987: 54-58) and Wandiba (2006: 37-49) observe that among the Abaluhya,
animals became sacrificial victims. Thus a cow, or a sheep, slaughtered in sacrifice is
also a form of communication between the human or natural and supernatural. Grains
and plants were also used as atoning elements. According to the abo~e scholars, the
departed share the feelings with their kins that are still alive. They cannot be at peace
seeing their living kins change form, only to end up in the bad emakombe. They
vould love to see them join the good emakombe.
According to King (1986: 65 - 66), atonement is a form of deterrent for the calamities
that may befall the people, or the clan in the future. Such atonement, he claims, covers
all stakeholders and distance is not a hindrance. Whether one is present, at the time of
the atonement act or not, does not matter; wider consequences are P?ssible. Hence,
someone living in New York would be associated by an offered sacrifice performed
on Mt. Elgon in Kenya; and thereby be involved in its consequences. A good
example, he says, is the Luhya circumcision sacrifices that are performed before the
actual physical cut. These are purely atonement acts, geared towards asking for
protection during the exercise; so that no bad omen befalls the boys.
Makila (1978: 44-45) and Mugambi (1976: 101), giving a detailed description of the
final sacrifice and atonement practices of a dying man among the Abaluhya, mention
20
that a sick man instructs his brother to kill the oxen before his death. According to
these authors, the sacrifice serves as his last sacrifice, offered to God, the spirits, or
ancestors; for his welfare and that of his family and friends. It also serves as a means
to detect, and punish, people who are believed to be responsible for the person's
illnessand subsequent death.
As Mbiti (1991: 149) testifies, the Abaluhya for a long time, have had specific natural
places set aside for religio-cultural purposes and indeed, there is no limit to these.
They include groves and forests, trees, rocks, rivers and Lake Victoria. These places
are regarded as the meeting points between the heavens or sky and the earth; and,
therefore, of the visible and the invisible world. Such places were not to be put to
common use, because doing so would desecrate them. There are people assigned to
look aF-~rthese special places; and as such, the importance attached to them cannot be
under-estimated. Mbiti concludes that these places may have been objects of worship
or had special relationship to either the ancestors and/or God.
Osogo (1987: 54-59), Were (1967: 57-63) and Wandiba (2006: 37-39) have observed
that the Abaluhya, perceive sin as any anti-social act that disrupts the harmony and
injures relationships, in the community. They further say that, among the Abaluhya,
sin is described as existing both in its nature and its consequences. Thus, in
describing sin, the Abaluhya tend to look at the outcomes, and how these outcomes
affect the equilibrium within the community, as well as humanity and relationships;
which, therefore, produces evil as its consequences. For example, natural calamities
are said to be the products of sin. Atonement, therefore, becomes an act of balance
that restores the order that sin has previously disordered.
21
Wandiba (2006: 37-39) stretches the Abaluhya understanding of sin beyond its nature
and consequences. He observes that sin is perceived as incarnate in persons, who are
then termed as evil or bad. Sin is, therefore, perceived as rooted in personal ontology.
This understanding accordingly, frustrates the essence, nature and meaning of
atonement among the Abaluhya. By way of looking at the contributions of these
scholars, this study will be able to find out if the consequences of the Wanga
atonement include the living dead.
Sangree (1966: 49-54) points out that among the Abaluhya, there were specific and
pre-determined types of atonement. A good example is the atonement made for the
circumcision candidates; which was said to have been there from the beginning. The
only explanation given is that it was from the roots; meaning from time immemorial.
This type of ator .rnent was community initiated.
According to Wagner (1971: 290), Makila (1978: 48 - 51) and Bottignole (1984: 78),
traditional ethics, which regarded every transgression as a 'social sin': was based on
respect for life and individuals within families and clans. The seriousness, with which
the council of elders debated, judged and atoned for the communal sin shows the
seriousness with which environment, and life in general, was taken. Some trees were
not to be cut; river stones were not to be taken away, while some forests were not to
be destroyed. Among the Abaluhya, such sacrifices were performed twice a year; just
for the sake of the environment. This, according to this study, is a leadership
initiative. Unlike in the bible, where atonement is mainly a humanity issue, the Wanga
atonement wholly includes plant and animal life. This scholarly of w.ork of Wagner
and Makila, informed this research on the extent to which, this kind of atonement
finds space within the biblical atonement.
22
Sacrifice, in its ritual use, means "making sacred, an offering that becomes divinized
(Osogo 1987: 54-58; Wandiba 2006: 37-49; and Ray 200: 72), whatever is sacrificed
crosses over from the living to the living dead, and thus becomes divine: hence
animalsare sacrificial victims." Thus a cow, or a sheep, slaughtered in sacrifice; grain
and plants, given in sacrifice, become a form of communication between the human
or the natural and the supernatural. In this respect, only selected people are allowed to
perform the omulukha; in which the omufumu is responsible for the performing of the
atonement rituals.
1.14 Atonement in the Bible
Based on the righteousness and the justice of God, people ought to pay for their sins,
as taught in the Bible (Frekiel 18:1-30). No effort, put forth by any human being,
could/can meet the righteousness and justice of God. God, therefore, allowed a
sacrificial system among people beginning with the Old Testament; the Jewish
community where an animal was sacrificed in place of a wrongdoer.
The Hebrew word for atonement is kaphar (:;~7),which means, 'to cover or cancel.' It
is very close in pronunciation and meaning to the Swahili word kafara, which means
a sacrifice. The Greek word for atonement is katallage (KU'tUA.A.UY€), which means,
'exchange for, or reconciliation.' These two scriptural terms explain atonement as 'the
covering over of sin, and the reconciliation between God and man; which was most
effectively and adequately accomplished by the Lord Jesus Christ' (Unger 1988: 258).
23
1.15 Atonement in the Old Testament
Atonement is an Old Testament ritual that was carried out on the Day of Atonement
(yom kippur "mq 0;') as explained in Leviticus 16: 21: 22: l ff On this day, sin was
removed from Israelite families and the community as a whole; and their relationship
with God was renewed. This ceremonial ritual was done once a year; and it was
preceded by prayer, confession, fasting and repentance. In addition, there were three
animals to be slaughtered. First, an ox for the cleansing of Aaron the Priest, and his
family; secondly, two goats were used in the cleansing of the sins of the people. The
fourth animal was the scapegoat. Before it was sent off to the wilderness, the elders of
the people put their hands on its head, a symbol of transferring their sins over to the
animal. The animal was then sent away from their land, symbolically 'carrying all the
sins of the Israelite community ar.u taking them far away.' It was believed that, with
I
their sins taken away and destroyed, these sins were forgiven and forgotten by God.
Once the ox and sheep were slaughtered, and their blood sprinkled on the altar, it was
seen as covering or atoning the victim from the wrath of God, thereby, meeting the
righteousness and justice of God (Lev.l6:27-35).
1.16 Atonement in the New Testament
Whereas in the Old Testament, the ritual is repeated annually, in the New Testament
Jesus Christ, the son of God has been made the final sacrifice for sin once for all. In
this teaching lies the belief that all sacrifices, in the Old Testament sacrificial system,
were only a foreshadow of the complete and perfect sacrifice; which Jesus Christ
made on the cross at Calvary (Heb.lO:II-15).
24
Therefore,His death is a sacrifice that removes the guilt of humankind and reconciles
them with God; by providing the inward cleansing (Heb.5:8; Rom.5:19; PhiI.2:8).
Basedon these scriptural texts, Grudem (1994, 569), describes atonement as, the work
JesusChrist did, through His life and death, to earn the salvation of humankind. This
description appears to capture a broader sense of atonement; for; in most cases, it is
usedto refer only to Jesus' dying and paying for the sins of the humankind.
Olowola (1991:4-5) sees biblical atonement as a fundamental means by which sins of
humanity are dealt with; through the sacrificial death of Jesus Christ. This sacrifice is
substitutionary; because Jesus becomes the perfect and complete substitution for
man's punishment. He takes on those sins on Himself in the place of, and on behalf of
humankind (cf. Matt 20: 28; Mark 10:45). Gonzalez (1985: 132) says that, within
biblical understanding, atonement is user .1S a reference to the redemption; achieved
by Jesus Christ, by his crucifixion and resurrection.
Angeles (1985: 24) stretches this concept further by explaining it, as bringing together
in reconciliation; or to remove obstacles preventing a union or acceptance. He adds
that it could mean the act of making reparation of expiation. To this end he cites
Romans 5:11 as the only scriptural verse that uses the word atonement, in the King
James Version of Bible translation. Otherwise all other scripture references, in other
versions, use the term reconciliation; in describing the biblical concept of atonement.
These scripture references include; the Gospels of Matthew (1:21; 20:28; 26:28),
Mark (14:24), Luke (22:20), John (1:29; 10:14-15; 14:6), and the epistles to the
Romans (5:6-11) 2Corinthians (5:14-15), Galatians (3:14).
KI= VATT'~ llt\JI rr:. . ITV I "
25
In forgiving sins, in the Old Testament period, God acted in perfect righteousness
since God anticipated the coming of Jesus Christ, as a sacrificial lamb, who would, in
no way, pass over or cover sin temporarily; but would take it away for ever, as shown
in John 1:29 (Chafer and Walvoord 1975: 60-62). Erickson (1999: 816) says that, in
an attempt to consider the full value of Christ's atoning death, a number of facts are
revealed in the scriptures. However, because of our finite minds these facts can only
be looked at in line with four important truths. One, Christ's death was a sacrifice for
our sins as 'individuals' (Heb 9: 26; 10: 5-18). Two, Christ's death was a universal
sacrifice for the sins of humankind (I John 4:10). Three, Christ's sacrificial death
brought the sinner back to God (2 Cor 5: 18-19) and four, by Christ's sacrificial death,
sinners were cleansed from sin (Mark 10:45). Apart from these truths dictating the
way for the faith community, they highly direct the type and depth, of faith of the
Wanga Church. The syncretistic or non-syncretistic .ature of Christianity, among the
Wanga populace, rests on how these truths are interpreted.
1.17 Theoretical Framework
In its effort to understand the biblical concept of atonement, the Euro-American
Christianity developed various theories of atonement that take denominational
dimension. The Roman Catholic Church, for example, subscribes to such theories as
the satisfaction theory, which was advanced by St. Anselm in the 11th Century. This
theory states that Jesus appeased God by being a ritual human sacrifice, thus
satisfying God's demand for the removal of human sin (Anselm n.d: 8 - 15). They
also subscribe to the ransom theory, advanced by Origen in the 3rd Century. In this
26
theory,God deceitfully pays off Satan with a bribe (Erickson 2005: 798-818 and
Grudem2005: 568-582).
The conservatives and some of the mainstream protestant churches subscribe to the
penalsubstitution theory, which was advanced by the reformation theologians such as
Lurtherand John Calvin in the 16th century. In this theory, God's mercy replaces His
wrathafter the infinite sacrifice of Jesus (Wolfhart 2000: 403-434; Garrett 1995: 33-
44). According to Thiessen (1979: 235-240), and Schleiermacher (1976: 451-466),
the protestant word-faith movement (what is today known as Pentecostal Churches)
subscribesto the ransom theory.
Grenz (1994: 443-458) observes that there are liberal Christians and 'post-Christians'
who subscribe to the moral theory sometimes referred to as the non-violent theory. In
this theory, Jesus' death is an example for the rest of humanity to emulate. Being ar
moral act, atonement comes from the arbitrary choice of God. This theory was
advanced by Abelard, a feminist theologian in the 12th Century. There is also
acceptance theory advanced by Don Scotus, in the l3th Century. In this theory, Jesus
voluntarily allows Himself to be executed. According to these two scholars, this act of
Jesus defeated the power of evil and released humanity from its sin.
Inculturation of the biblical concept of atonement depends largely on the
interpretation of the various theories advanced by the Euro-American missionaries,
who were responsible for evangelizing the Abawanga. It must be noted, however, that
the Abawanga though intuitively having their own theories, may 'not have been
consciously aware of these theories. Probably, they also did not understand them; this
27
is because these theories were already inculturated within the Euro-American
Christianityand not the Wanga 'Christianity.'
Sinceatonement forms part of the culture of any given community, it is important that
any biblical interpretation, of the same, be done in a manner proper to the recipient
culture. Waliggo (1986: 12-18), Nkeramihigo (1986: 65-70) and Bediako 2002: 23-
49) are African scholars who subscribe to this school of thought. This study
endeavored to establish what is salvivic in Wanga culture was and what needed
purification and transformation. Thus, the study employed Neibuhr's concept of
culture and Christ. Neibuhr looks at Christ from four angles, Christ as being against
culture, Christ for culture, Christ and culture and Christ as the transformer of culture.
These four angles can also be regarded as paradigms which, to a great extent,
determine the functional definition of atonement. For example, the Christ against
culture theory states that, all cultures have some elements that are sinful and as such,
someone has to redeem them by way of removing these sinful elements (Neibuhr
1975: 47). To understand Neibuhr's argument, one needs to look at the history of sin,
and its effect on humanity. The Adamic sin affects us on who we are, as well as what
we are because of our cultural identity. Culture therefore, becomes sinful, not by
intent or design, but by human nature. It is from this original sin that Christ saved
sinners. This being the case then, the Wanga atonement rituals, which are part of their
culture, have some sinful elements and need redemption by Christ.
In Niebuhr's thought, Christ of culture theory declares culture as generally good
(Neibuhr 1975: 87). In this case, the biblical meaning of atonement is already
28
embedded within the Wanga culture. Now that culture is good, Holy Scriptures need
to constructively interact with this good Wanga culture.
The Christ above culture theory suggests that all cultures look up to Christ as an
example (Neibuhr 1975: 118). In this case, biblical atonement becomes a standard for
all cultures to follow; and the Wanga culture is no exception! Hence Wanga practice
of atonement needs to be elevated to Christ's atonement for it to be truly Wanga and
truly Christian. Christ and culture in paradox paints a picture of a culture, which is in
conflict with Christ. Here, some elements in culture and all their ingredients have
nothing to do with Christ (Neibuhr 1975: 149-150). As such, all these elements of
culture need to be redeemed. There was need to overhaul those elements. Wanga
atonement practices and rituals need to be looked at closely and be reconsidered in the
light of the gospel teachings.
Christ as the reformer of culture sounds positive. That is, somewhere along the line,
sin entered and corrupted culture (Neibuhr 1975: 194). Christ, therefore, seeks to
correct the corruption that might have crept into culture and restore the original state
of the culture. The Wanga atonement should, therefore, seek to bring back what was
initially corrupted; in this way, Wanga atonement is corrective in nature, just as the
biblical atonement is.
1.18 Summary
A closer look at the whole concept of atonement reveals a kind of transaction that
exists between the world of the living, the ancestors' world and the spirit world.
Atonement, manifested in its ritual and sacrificial systems, accomplishes a two to
29
three-waytransaction, between otherwise separate and partially opposed realms, the
visible and the invisible world. In this transaction, the animal and plant victims
becomesymbols of mediation.
In the traditional African understanding, animals, plants and grains are partakers of
bothworlds. The animal, particularly, lives in the human world, but its,life belongs to
the spiritual world. This being the case, then, this research establishsed that the animal
combinedcertain features that linked the natural to the supenatural; otherwise finding
acceptance in both worlds would be difficult. Further, this was part of the ingredients
that forms traditional Wanga view of atonement. The efficacy of any atonement
exercise would thus highly depend on the participation of the living dead and the
living.
In the New Testament, atonement must be viewed as a restorative agent that brings
together God and His people; by way of Christ's sacrificial life and death. Through
Christ's atoning death, the atonement that results in restored relationships is not a
human achievement but the work of God within humanity. Having looked at the
Wanga religio-cultural symbols of atonement, it may be observed that God had
remotely prepared them through this culture; thus pointing to Christ as the atoner per
excellence.
30
RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY
1.19 Introduction
Thissection presentes qualitative research, as the method of choice for this study. The
qualitative research mainly includes data collection, research participants, the
researcher's role, data analysis and categorization. Others include, themes and
patterns (coding), validation and verification. This study was evaluative and sought to
find out the value and meaning of the concept of atonement among Abawanga. This
work was treated as basic and formative evaluation, in line with Patton's advice
(2003: 214-217). It is hoped that this would be enriching to missionaries and
sociologists; who may want to live and work among the Abawanga.
1.20 Research Design
The research design for this study was qualitative. This is because it was concerned
with traditional concept of atonement among the Abawanga, a topic that could only be,
appropriately tackled by way of qualitative analysis. According to Creswell (1998: 1-
2), qualitative research refers to an inquiry process of understanding a social, or
human problem based on building a complex, holistic, picture which is formed with
words, reporting detailed views of respondents and conducted in a natural setting.
Qualitative inquiry employs different knowledge claims, strategies of inquiry and
methods in data collection and analysis, as compared to quantitative inquiry. It relies
more on text image data (Creswell 1998: 179). This means that the designs,
techniques and measures that were used were not necessarily geared towards the
31
production of discrete numerical data. Furthermore, this research took place in the
natural setting of the interviewees. It employed the multiple methods that were
interactive and humanistic; which are characteristic of any qualitative research.
Creswell (2003: 181) regards qualitative research as emergent rather than tightly
prefigured. Here then, the researcher changed questions and refined them as he
leamed what to ask and whom to ask. The researcher, therefore, varied methods of
biodata of respondents. Based on biodata, qualitative research method was, therefore,
used to explore and deepen the understanding of the concept of atonement in the
Wanga community.
1.21 Rationale for the Choice of Research Design
The rationale for employing qualitative design was based on the convincing reasons
that Mugenda and Mugenda (1999: 197-203) outline:
(i). When the research topic needs to be explored; in this case, by using the qualitative
method, researchers are able to collect data and explain phenomena, more deeply
and exhaustively.
(ii). The need to emphasize the researcher's role as an active leaner, who seriously
considers the emic view of the respondents. Qualitative researchers, therefore,
believe that studying social systems and problems should include giving voice to
those who are being studied; as a way of empowering them to freely communicate
their ideas.
(iii). The need to study the existing-tangible realities raise questions that render
prediction and controls outcomes questionable. Researchers can, however, gain
a deep understanding and hence be able to interpret these realities.
32
iv).The need to give respondents a chance to state their problems, in the way they
understand them and participate in seeking solutions to those problems as well
as effecting such solutions.
1.22 The Study Population
,
Mugenda and Mugenda (1999: 9) define population as the entire group of individuals,
having a common observable characteristic. Simply put, population is the aggregate
of all that conforms to a given specification. Although the Abaluhya have twenty-one
sub-ethnic groups, this research focued on the Abawanga; who constitute one of these
groups. The researcher chose the Abawanga because, the standard Luhya Bible
translation is in this dialect of the greater Luhya; and yet Christianity was not rooted
in this community.
1.23 Data Collection and Entry
For administrative and logistic purposes, the researcher sought permission letters from
Ministry of Education and the District Officers in order to facilitate the smooth
running of the study. This was of great assistance; since the researcher had planned to
use the services of two research assistant in gathering some of the information needed.
1.24 Sam.pling Techniques and Size
The study used simple purposive sampling technique, whereby the informants were
,
picked because of their experience in working in the Wanga-based churches.
Knowledge of Wanga language was an added advantage; since some of these data
33
wascollected using oluluhya language. For example, a priest or pastor, who was forty
years of age, and had more than ten years experience of working among the
Abawanga,could give valuable insights as regards the appropriate perception of the
concept of atonement in the Wanga and biblical thought and practice without
confusing the listener. For the traditionalists, age and experience, through
participationin community rituals of various kinds was considered.
The study comprised seventy-two (72) informants and three focus groups. These
included four (4) Clergy from the Roman Catholic, eight (8) from the Anglican
Church and eight (8) from the Pentecostal Churches. Ten (10) lay preachers (except
for the Roman Catholic and the Anglican Churches who had three, the rest had two
each. This is because the two churches cut across the Wangaland) and thirty (30)
ordinarychurch members from the Roman Catholic Church, the Anglican Church, the
Pentecostal churches and the African instituted churches. These were purposively
sampled as follows; ten (10) males and ten (10) females. The remaining ten (10), (5
male and 5 female) were young adults aged between 20 and 30 years of age. As much
as the researcher would have liked to include the youth in this study, this was not
possible because of the chronological experience of the youth. Twelve (12) members
of the Abawanga community who are traditionalists, also formed part of the
informants. They were distributed as follows; six (6) male and six (6) females. The
sample also included twelve (12) community elders, six (6) from each of the two
districts.
34
1.25 Focus Groups
Theresearcher intentionally used focus groups, as a means of extracting some of the
informationthat may not have been forthcoming at the individual level. Atonement,
being a communal concept, it was only fair that interviews be conducted at group
levelso that communal participation might be reflected. Commenting on how people
view the method differently, Silverman (2003: 8) says that, focus group has grown
from being a controversial method to high acceptance in certain industries. It has
fallen out of favor for sometime, but now it is enjoying a resurgence that probably
makes it the fastest growing research method.
A focus group discussion is a carefully planned discussion, designed to obtain
perceptions on a defined area of interest; in a permissive, non-threatening
environment. Participants share and respond to comments, ideas and perceptions;
using a synergistic approach to produce a range of opinions, ideas and experiences;
thus generating useful information. This method of gathering information, is
recommended for discovering new information, examining people's habits, obtaining
different perspectives on the same topic in participants' own words; and gaining
information on participants' views, attitudes, beliefs, responses, motivations and
perceptions on a given topic (Litosseliti 2003: 2). Silverman (2005: 12) counsels that,
focus groups can be used especially when the researcher is exploring, investigating, or
attempting, to understand motivations. He further says that it should b~ avoided if the
researcher wants to draw exact percentages, discover complex relationships or project
the extent of future actions.
35
Focusgroups typically consist of between six and ten participants; but they can range
to as few as four people, depending on the research purpose (Litosseti 2003: 3).
Again,depending on the purpose of the study, as many as six groups can meet; but
Litossetti recommends a minimum of three groups. The focus group is usually
facilitated by a moderator who guides the discussion; using a number of
predetermined and carefully developed open-ended questions with minimal
,
intervention. For the purpose of this study, the researcher had three focus groups,
namely; the Clergy, male and female lay preachers. Respondents who formed these
groupswere different from those interviewed above.
The Clergy's focus group comprised those who had served for more than ten years in
the ordained ministry and were forty years of age and above. The assumption was that
at this age, they had a commendable experience, living and serving in Wangaland;
and could give insights as regards both traditional Wanga and Christian perception of
the concept of atonement.
1.26 Research Instruments
Qualitative interviews and participant observation were used for data collection.
According to Spradley (1980, 12), a participant observer is interested in taking note of
the behavior, speech, instruments and artifacts of the people. This method enabled the
researcher to get first-hand experience with the respondents, record information as it
occurred as well as explore any topic that the respondents might have felt comfortable
to discuss.
36
An interview is defined as an oral administration of a questionnaire; .and as such, it
can be termed as face-to-face encounter (Mugenda & Mugenda 1999: 83). A face-to-
face interview was used because of its effectiveness in developing information (Weiss
1992: 3). This research used open-ended, interview guide questions with informants;
where clarification was needed, the researcher asked for it. There were separate
interview guide questions for the clergy, lay preachers, church members and Wanga
traditional adherents. This is because different groups play different roles in the
Church and by extension Wanga community which greatly enriched the researcher
with the information needed in understanding of the concept of atonement.
1.27 Validity and Reliability of the Instruments
Reliability and validation were fundamental in gathering of data. Reliability,
according to Mugenda and Mugenda (1999: 95), is a measure of the degree to which a
research instrument yields consistent results or data, after repeated trials. Creswell
(1998: 208) goes on to assert that for a qualitative study, where interviews are
implemented, effectiveness is in establishing rapport so that the important information
needed is elicited.
The instrument used in this study was cross-checked by two lecturers, with experience
in research, from the Department of Theology and Pastoral Studies, at the Daystar
University. They cross checked the clarity of the questions, the level of difficulty, and
the appropriateness of the questions. This cross-checking helped the researcher to find
out if the interviews and observation memos would yield consistent data. For the
questions that were found wanting, the researcher rephrased, deleted and adjusted,
37
depending on the target population. This, in itself, helped in the process of uncovering
someof the hidden ambiguities that were found in the instrument.
Second, the instrument was pilot-checked by three Wanga people within the city of
Nairobi. These three were forty years of age and above. They had more than five
years' experience of the Wanga traditional ceremonies and their general modern
functions among the Wanga people. The qualification said above, concerning the
elders, was not considered here; since this was a city context, and getting elders of
such qualifications was not practical. These people were interviewed to check the
degree to which they felt the instrument was reliable; and was able to measure the
traditional understanding of the concept of atonement among the Abawanga. The
researcher also consulted with the informants in the process of analyzing data; and the
same approved or disapproved the final findings.
1.28 Data Analysis Procedure
In qualitative research, data analysis aims at bringing order, structure and meaning to
the mass of information collected. Mugenda and Mugenda (1999: 117) state that, in
qualitative analysis, the researcher obtains detailed information about the
phenomenon being studied; and then tries to establish patterns, trends and
relationships from the information gathered. Data collected was, analyzed and
itemized in respect to the objectives of the study.
This research endeavored to expose thoughts and ideas contained in the answers given
during the interviews. To do this, the researcher used open, axial and selective coding.
In open coding, the researcher did the manual analysis and discovery and then sorted
38
out key concepts and their properties until a key concept was determined. Axial
coding then followed, whereby further determining of relationships between
categories was established. Finally, in selective coding, the researcher went after more
information only after identifying the categories. This helped the researcher evaluate
the understanding of the traditional value and meaning of the concept of atonement
among the Abawanga. This being a qualitative narrative, the researcher presented the
categories and themes using narrative narration.
39
CHAPTER TWO: ATONEMENT IN TRADITIONAL WANGA
2.1 Introduction
In chapter one, atonement was discussed as a cultural practice among the Abawanga.
Here, it was also laid out how the problem was going to be tackled by giving the
background to the problem, the problem statement, the purpose of the study, the
objectives,the premises ofthe study, the research questions, the rationale of the study,
the scope of the study, and the definition of terms. In the previous chapter also, the
researcherreviewed the related literature and proposed the qualitative approach as the
mostappropriate method of study for this particular topic.
This chapter seoks to give detailed information on the concept of atonement in the
traditional Wanga thought and practice. The objective of this chapter is to investigate
the concept of atonement in the traditional Wanga thought and practice. For this
objective to be realized, this study examined several aspects of the concept of
atonement in traditional Wanga thought and practice. These include the relationships
that exist between atonement and sin on one hand, and evil and guilt on the other,
hand.The study also incorporates the understanding of sin, evil and guilt in relation to
the natural and the supernatural worlds. In the Wanga religio-cultural practices, these
relationships also define the boundaries of the concept of atonement.
A clearer understanding of the above said relationships helps in establishing the
necessity of atonement among the Wanga people. The necessity of atonement further
pushed the researcher into finding out how it is taught to the succeeding generations;
andwho qualifies to teach, so that the originality of thought and practice are kept. The
40
traditional elements of atonement are also investigated so that a clearer meaning of
the concept of atonement among the Wanga people could be established.
2.2 Atonement, Sin, Evil and Guilt in the Wanga Culture
In order to investigate the concept of atonement in the Wanga thought and practice,
the researcher sought to understand the Wanga's perception of sin, evil and guilt in
the Wanga culture. The perception would thus lead to a clear interpretation of
atonement as understood by the Wanga. According to Muniafu (An Anglican Parish.
Priest), the Wanga people perceive sin as an offence against Were (God) and
humanity; because all sins are either an open transgression against another person or
the failure to do what should be done for others. To the Abawanga, sin is any anti-
social act that disrupt" narmony in the society and human relationships. Taking the
example of the Yoruba people of Nigeria, Adeyemo reasons along Muniafu's line of
thought; pointing out that this community recognizes sin, as an act that upsets the
equilibrium of the society or of personal relationships (1979, 52). Apart from
upsetting the equilibrium of the living, sins also disrupt the balance of the living dead.
Having upset the equilibrium of the society, then definitely, sin touches on Were's
requirements for humanity, attracting His wrath to the errand members of the Wanga
community.
Omusula, one of the informants in this study, classified the living dead into four major
categories (personalities). These are;
Abaafwa, abakuuka, ebisoni and ebishieno (different categories of the living dead)
41
Theabaafwa are the ordinarily dead. This may, as well, refer to all the living dead,
irrespectiveof their status. However, in the realms of sin, evil and guilt, Omusula
explainsthat the abaafwa are somewhere in the middle; they do not have a ranking
yet, because they are recently dead. The abakuuka are the living dead who are a
generation or two, after the abaafwa. Just like in the situation of the living, these
wouldbe at the grand-parents stage of life. Subsequently the ebisoni (plural) are next
in line.The ebishieno are long dead, they may not be remembered, and.so they are put
together in one category as 'the ebishieno:' The ebishieno are said to have been in a
bad relationship with the living at the time of their death. They, therefore, became a
bad omen at the time of their own death, resulting in their changing of status from
beingthe living dead to bad spirits. The ebishieno are the ones responsible for cursing
the living, should they break the emilukha (taboos) of the Wanga people.,
Since sin is perceived as destructive and spoiling human relations, as well as making
the higher powers frown at people (Arinze 1970:34), African societies have specified
means of dealing with sin. This exercise is procedurally carried out in case of the
occurrence of sin in order to avoid curses from the living dead and casting of spells
fromthe ebishieno (bad spirits), as well as restoring of harmony and tranquility within
the people.
The upsetting and disrupting of the society's balance is what atonement seeks to
address. Atonement then becomes an act of balance that brings back the order that sin
has previously disturbed. If this view is embraced, then atonement takes on a
universal definition. This is because sin has stirred up the community's equilibrium;
bringing about the undesired within the society. Atonement, therefore, must address
42
itself to the society's need of returning back the status of the community which has
beenmessed up by sin.
In regard to the above findings, atonement also, becomes an act of reconciliation that
is meant to heal, not only the broken relationship with God, but also with fellow
living human beings and the living dead. Reconciliation becomes a reconstruction tool
to bridge the natural and the super-natural. Appropriate relationships will lead one to
the good place at his or her death.
Looking at the relationship of sin to atonement from the Wanga persP7ctive, Niebuhr
would comfortably state that the whole Wanga culture needs to be atoned for the
equilibrium of the whole community has been messed up. Christ must therefore be
above the Wanga culture, so that it look' up to Christ as an example (Neibuhr 1975:
118). Moreover, the Wanga perspective of sin puts culture (their) in conflict with
Christ, especially in matters involving other mediums such as the abaafwa, abakuuka,
ebisoni and the ebishieno; hence the Wanga atonement practices and rituals need to
be looked at closely and be reconsidered, in the light of the gospel teaching which
states that Christ alone is the medium of atonement. Biblical atonement has therefore
to become a standard for the Wanga culture to follow.
2.3 Existence of Sin
Among the Abawanga everything appertaining to sin revolves around the firm belief
of the existence of sin. According to Omusula, sin among the Abawanga is described
as existing both in its nature and its consequences. In its nature sin resides within the
43
people and can be viewed in the people's actions. In its consequences, sin brings
about evil and guilt. For example, if one commits incest, the Omusula says,
Omundu oukholanga amakhuwa aka eshiruchi omwene oyo areranga isoni
khwitaala. The person who commits incest brings shame not only to
themselves but on their families and to an extent the whole home.
Apart from seeing sin in its nature and consequences, the Abawanga seem to push this
further to the abode of sin; which is, in fact, a personality, who is also part of the
nature and consequence of sin. According to Wakhungu, one of the informants of this
study, some specific sins are hereditary. He says,
Omundu owe tsimbi arula butoro, shichila tsimbi tsindi tsiruulanga
khumusule kwabwe owe tsimbi. The sinner can be seen from childhood
because some of the sins are hereditary.
Webele, another informant from Ekhabukoshe, adds to what Wakhungu says, though.
in a different dimension and explains that, sin is in the blood ofthe sinner. He says,
Tsimbi tsimenyanga mumatsayi ka omu.•du, abandu bandi bebulwa
mumatsayi ka tsimbi. Tsimbi tsiarakwa mubo. Sin lives in the people's
blood, some people are born in the blood of sin, and as such one can do
nothing about it.
Wekesa expresses it in terms of the spirit and says,
Omusambwa kwali kwa samwana kwamutila. The spirits that possessed the
person's fathers have possessed him or her also.
Although the word 'omusambwa' (singular) may mean good spirits, more often than
not, it is used to mean bad spirits that are associated with sin and evil. These spirits
are individualistic in nature. What this means is that sin emanates from the individual
person. Here then, sin can be said to be ontic, as such, sin is located in.the human self
rather than exclusively in social institutions and practice. In Bromiley's words, sin is
individual reasoned out and intentional actions that brings forth evil in the society
Bromiley (1988: 522). Enns (1989: 310) goes on and says that sin is enshrined within
a person's thoughts and intentions. Although Wekesa admits that sin among the
44
Abawangais also within the individual, he, however, claims that, these individuals are
aidedby the ebishieno so as to sin. This research therefore establishes that among the
Abawanga,a person is regarded a sinner, if he or she has the ebishieno, This brings in
thequestion of the role of spirits in bringing about sin. Atonement comes in not only
to cleansethe sinner, but to chase away bad spirits that cause people to sin.
In view of what Wekesa says, this research establishes that the Wanga believe in the
progressional characteristic of sin. Thus, sin proceeds from generation to generation.
It is only in this way that the bad spirits from the father can be able to possess the
child,and be noted to be with similar characteristics.
In addition to the above, this research establishes therefore, that, in the Wanga religio-
culturalworld, sin is attached to a wrongdoer; who is ultimately, the human person.
Thepoint here is that, sin does not exist in human experience, except as perceived in a
person. It is the person who is sinful, whether this person is aided by invisible forces
or not. For, even when invisible forces intervene, in human life to cause harm, it is,
because they are 'used' by sinful people. This further proves that in the Wanga culture
sin is perceived as ontic.
Based on the above findings, then the conservatives and some of the mainstream
protestant churches prescribe penal substitution theory, which was advanced by the
reformation theologians such as Lurther and John Calvin in the 16th century. The
application of this theory must be based on the understanding that all people have
sinned and fallen short of the glory of God. That means that sin finds its dwelling
within every person and as such every person needs the mercy of God; instead of His
wrath. The mercy must be expressed in the removal of the sin which is in the person;
45
in this case, it is done by way of atonement (Wolfhart 2000: 403-434, Garrett 1995:
33-44).
Now that the Wanga culture sees sin as ontological, it is people, or personalized
beings, who are evil; precisely because they actually entertain bad intentions, utter
bad words, or engage in wrong deeds. In other words, they are incarnations of evil
powers, at least for the time they behave in anti-life manner. This frustrates the
smooth running of the Wanga community by breaking its norms and taboos.
Prescribed atonement addresses the individual person, rather than the Wanga
community as a whole. In regard to Neihbuhrs atonement theory then, all of the
Wanga culture needs to be redeemed. This is because culture resides in humanity,
where sin abides. Reasoned this way, then, Christ has to be above humanity for him to
be able to redeem the human-kind which is from below and unal-'; to remove sin and
evil that besets it.
Though Omusula admits that sin lives in the person, he also says that sin manipulates
some earth forces and thus manages to live in this forces. Such forces include wind,
darkness and even trees! Sin also lives in insects and birds. The manifestation of these
sins would be seen in the character and behaviors of the things mentioned above.
Omusula says,
Ebishieno, ebia oluhyia lundi bimenyanga mumuyeka, efinanyenze efindi
fiamenya mulwanga lweshialo shino, kata orundi rwamenya munyanza.
Nochenda mushitsuru mushiteere onyaala okhuhurira olwimbo nekhane
norushieno.Orushieno rwene orwo rumenyaanga khumisaala nende
mubifwetere nende efibikhwa. Emisaala chindi onyala okhuhurira
nichwiupa omulosi. Some of the evil spirits live in the wind, some in the
universe and some in the water mass. If one takes a walk in the forest and
hears a song, one should take care, it could be an evil spirit singing; of such
kind live in the anti-hills that are found in the forest. Some who live in the
trees manifest their presence by whistling.
46
Lookingat the foregoing description of the activities of the bad spirits, sin in the
Wangaculture resides in the universe. Thus everything in the universe has to be
cleansedfrom the corruption of sin. The environment too can not go un-cleansed,
because it houses sin. The universal satisfaction theory of atonement, which was
advancedby St. Anselm in the n" Century, is more appropriate in this situation. The
RomanCatholics subscribe to this theory; based on the fact that Christ's atonement
cleanses the universe and all that are in it. Apart from being ontological, Christ's
atonementis universal (Erickson 2005: 798-818; Grudem 2005: 568-582).
2.4 The Meaning of Sin
Based on what Wekesa, Webele and Omusula informed this research (cf2.2), sins are
intentional concrete, historical actions of individuals or groups in violation .f the laid
downWanga law. Now that the abakuuka (living dead) are said to have contributed to
the formation of this law during their life time, it turns out that the Wanga law is also
eternal. This is because the Abakuuka are said to live eternally. Sin among the
Abawanga are in two major categories; these are, major sins and minor sins.
According to Anangwe, killing is a major sin while deceitfulness is a minor sin.
Anangwe says that, killing involves removal of the person's life and as such there is
no atonement for such sins. The only remedy is by way of killing the offender to
restitute for the offended and the family of the offended at large. The implication for
this research is that major sins, merit eternal damnation because they seriously violate
the intrinsic good. Minor sins on the other hand do not violate the intrinsic good. For
example, a lie spoken, either to save life or not, is sin but this can be forgiven,
because it does not violate the intrinsic good, The Wanga go ahead and subdivide sin
47
,
into different small categories that include actual sin, habitual sin, formal sin and
material sin.
2.5 Etymological Understanding of Sin
To understand the radical seriousness of sin, in the Wanga community, one has to take
a closer look at the words and terminologies used to describe sin in the African
traditional societies. For example, among the Abaluhya, sin is termed as, amakosa,
obwononi, tsimbi and obutobera (Saliku and Anogoli 2007). Masinde expresses the
act of sinning as, okhukhola obubi. This phrase means, acting badly or unproved behavior or
committingsin. The sinner is described as, omukho/i owe tsimbi. This means, the person who
acts badly or one who involves himself or herself in an unproved behavior or one who
commitssin.
The above descriptions, in themselves, are more descriptive than definitive terms; and
they tend to lean on the results of sin, in the context of the idea of relationships and
everything associated with them. Magesa (1997: 149) observes that what is elsewhere
conceptualized and explained as sin may be better expressed in African religion by
the concept of 'wrong-doing', 'badness' or 'destruction of life H. To this study, it
seems that Magesa's description of sin leads to seeing sin in its consequences rather
than its nature; whereby the extent of evil, which is the result of sin is emphasized at
the expense of the nature of sin. What this researcher observes is that, both sin and the
sinner need atonement. Atonement for sin will ensure that the.former state of things
return, while to the sinner atonement re-assures freedom from the sinful
consequences.
48
Another word that is used to refer to sin in African societies is taboo; which refers to
forbidden things or things not done. Adeyemo (1979:52), observes, that the word
taboo carries the negative idea of a "thou shalt not," bearing relationship to that,
which is customarily not done. In its original sense, taboo was connected with the
breach of ritual laws. A number of African scholars seem to suggest that sin, in
African societies, is perceived within the boundaries of taboos; in the sense that once
a particular taboo is broken, sin has been committed. Aguandia (2005:23), for
example, observes that sin in the African cosmology has a lot to do with the breaking
of the community taboos, and the disturbance of the harmony of the spirit world,
through misbehavior and misconduct. If such sin or evil is to be atoned for, then the
Wanga culture is to be regarded as essentially good. It is only that some people have
intentionally decided to break the laid down taboos and break the moral codes of the
community which are not bad! According to Neighbuhr, then, atonement comes in
only to bring back what the society has disabled in the course of living.
2.6 Classification of Sin
According to Bromiley (1988, 522-523), sin is classified into specific categories;
individual, religious and social sins. Individual sin is further divided into two, the
formal and material sins; that is, formal sin is a deliberate and voluntary action that
produces evil, whereas in the material sin the act may be materially wrong from an
objective standpoint, but the agent may not have satisfied the conditions of
responsibility required by formal sin. In the first incidence, Nabakolwe's focus groups
points at an individual who willingly and voluntarily goes on to steal people's
property. This action according to this research is deliberate and thus amounts to
KENYATTt-~1.11 il . u.
49
formalindividual sin. In the second incidence, a child who in the course of playing
accidentallybreaks another child's limb is said to have committed a material sin. This
sin according to the Nabakolwe's focus group is not severely punished. The parents
andto some extent, the clan of the child who broke the limb are only required to pay
themedical bill. When the injured child is healed a meal is prepared fer both of them
to share, bringing the whole exercise to a happy reunion.
On the other hand religious evil has to do with people; either intentionally or
unintentionally going against the will of Were (God). According to Webele, if a
personor people break the emilukha (taboos) of the Abawanga, Were visits them with
calamities such as flood and famine. This study establishes that this punishment
comesabout because this has to do with the Wanga belief system.
The social sin on the other hand is a collective, intentional concrete historical action
of a group of people who violate the cord of regulation of the Abawanga. Webele
mentions cattle rustling as one such sin. Here a group of people intentionally decide to
go and forcefully take other peoples' cattle. He goes ahead and says that such sins
may be hereditary. He mentions such sins as lying and killing, which he describes as
obwekholo (of the clan). He says that,
Abandu bebulwa mumatsayi kobwiri okhuula berekho omundu kho
bahuluushe. Nibashiri okhwira matsayi kasera seranga butswa. People
born in the blood of the killersmustalso kill. Before they kill their blood
is hot and can not rest.
Blood among the Abawanga signifies life, and therefore what Webele is saying is that
social sin is hereditary. Social sins can also be observed in specific clans or groups of
people as opposed to others. This study maintains however, that there can be no such
sin as belonging to a particular clan, yet it is true that sins can be inherited sin.
50
2.7 Individual Sin
If individual sin has to be understood as a conscious construct, then personal actions
seemobvious at first, especially if violence is looked at as a defining concept focus of
sin. Surely, for a child to be raped, the potential rapist must act and act consciously!
By 'consciously' this research means, this act must be very direct; whereby this
abuser or rapist must consciously, or acting purposely for that matter, take this girl
forcefullyand rape her thus committing sin.
,
In the above example, one person is acting alone as an individual! There are times
when a person acting in his capacity as head of an institution takes actions that result
in evil. Mwanga who is the village elder of Panyako village says that, should an elder
allow people to either graze or collect firewood in the eshiembekho (special forests),
without traditional cleansing ceremony, this would bring a curse not only to the
concern people but to the whole clan. What Mwanga is saying in this situation is that
leader's decisions have far reaching implications, not only on the immediate families
but the society as a whole. At times this may be bad institutional policies; such as
denying a dying person food because it belongs or it is being taken to the Nabongo.
Mwanga says that no-one was to be given food that was being taken to the king,
probably for his own or for his friends' consumption. Of course, the resulting evil is
death! This evil is purely to be blamed on the sinful action of the officer who was
taking food to the Nabongo; bypassing the hungry person who later dies out of
hunger. Polings (1996: 120) gives a good example of what is pictured in the thoughts
of this study. He says that, the government may require that, to receive her check, a
mother on welfare works twenty hours a week as a volunteer. If something prevents
her from fulfilling this requirement, the social worker may riot be able to give her, her
51
money.In this case, no clear individual action and intentions are causing evil. In such
case then, it is not the issue of individualistic analysis of actions but, it must be
.'realizedthat some personal decisions occur within a web of decisions which are sinful
andthatmay end up producing evil consequences.
Theevil consequence in this case is what may result from the mother's missing of this
cheque.This may be that she might not be able to treat her sick child, thus leading to
the death of this child; which is evil, for this death would have come up as a result of
lackingthe money to take the child to hospital.
Atonement of such evil must, therefore, take on a special and specific form. Wasiche,
an informant of this research states that, atonement process for such a sin must be
directional in nature; such that individual atonement and individual - community
atonement must be prescribed. It becomes individual, to the person who sins
intentionally and without community policies. It is community-individual to persons
who sin by way of effecting policies on behalf of the community. Atonement for the
later would be what most Pentecostal congregations, in Kenya today, would term as
repenting on behalf of the community. However, this second example can only be
effective where the decisions are consciously taken. This is because to this study, an,
officer is personally responsible for how they effect government or organizational
-policies. One is able to influence the organization or the government so that bad
policies that caUse sin can be changed.
52
2.8 Religious Sin
Thisresearch's understanding of religious sin is hinged on a belief system; where sin
findspower or is sanctioned by a set of religious and practices, this sin is wrapped and
maskedby abstract claims to virtue, love and justice. The Wanga people believe in
theirGod called Were' and as such every Wanga person has a desire to do good so as
to please Were (Were 1969: 63). People are therefore inclined to do good. If
Abawanga are good oriented, and are inspired by a vision of having good within
themselves, then a commitment to justice in such a community cannot be lacking. A
goodexample is their greetings. In these greetings they ask,
Muleembe? Peace!The generalansweris, "Muleembe muno or Muleembe
muno wesi." A lot of peace to you too!
Mu/embe is not just a greeting but also a form of asking about the well being of the
community, which includes the justice of the Wanga community! The concept of
justice must then find its roots in religion! The expression here is that every person is
religious! Yet evil also has roots in religious beliefs and practice. This speaks of evil
as being manifested within the personal and social structures, which coincidentally are
religious.
The unexplainable thing in evil is that the word evil is itself a religious concept, that
is, its definition requires reference to the religious worldview of good and evil.
Nyanje who is an ordained minister with the Anglican Church sees sin as an act of
organized opposition to God's love; a power that is against God's rule' under the sun"
and an opposition to Christ's power revealed by way of the cross. ~hat Nyanje is
saying in essence is that, sin cannot exist apart from religion. It is with this
assumption that this study recognizes that it is within religion that a belief system is
53
established. When one goes against the established belief system, then one is said to
,
have committed sin. In the Wanga case then, their culture carries with it the Wanga
tenets of faith and as such if one broke any of these then one is assumed to have
corrupted the culture. Here then, atonement must serve as a cleansing agent of what
otherwise is religiously dirty. The act of cleansing is done only on the part of the
culture that has been corrupted. In Neibhr's school of thought, the cleansing is to be
done only on the part that has been corrupted by the sinful act. Here then, it can be
understood that not all aspects of culture is bad, only the corrupted one needs
.'atonement. That is, a set of beliefs that have been messed up with are the only ones to
be cleansed and not the whole belief system.
2.9 Social Sin
Thinking sin as social is seeing sin as associating. Being social does not mean being
friendly or widely regarded, but as organized by economic forces, institutions and
even ideas or ideologies. What this study objects to, is the silence of the church and
society (social institutions) to tackle this issue. When people from high social
standing experience violence, it is always said that they need protection. When
vulnerable people of the low social standing such as, children, women, men and the
disabled, experience 'violence, the answer is obvious, "that is how things are". Does
this mean that this is the price of democracy? Stretched with the thought of
atonement, does this mean that, a hypocritical atonement should be made, or is
atonement based on class?
54
How does one explain, the case of a woman raped in the Wanga city of Mumias,
which is reported to the police but which is not given any serious attention! Church
leadership has, time and again, refused to listen to a child who has been sexually,
abused. Such thoughts drive this research to conclude that, social analysis must
include the economic forces, institutional forms and ideas and of course ideologies of
modernity which the Wanga people like any other people in Kenya cannot escape.
Speaking of economic forces, one must be referring to modes and ways or
manufacturing or production; the material requirements for everyday living being thus
the division of labour based on gender and class; the implications of which affect the
micro and macro-economic trends not only at an individual Wanga level but at
community level as well. This then shows that industrial forces must determine the
atonement process.
Concerning the social arrangements, one would think of the mediating structures,
which are closely related to the daily lives of the people. This means, interaction
levels of different ranks of people on a day-to-day living. These social arrangements
include, among others, families and clans of the Wanga community; their education
systems, local and Wanga national political processes. These social systems influence
the Wanga people's behaviour both implicitly and explicitly. The Wanga people
believe that out of these influences, evil emerges and as such atone~ent becomes a
requirement. Consequently, this type of atonement must involve both the individual
and the social system, which mayor may not be directly involved.
55
In matters of ideas and ideologies Tracy (1987: 48) says, that these refer to the
unconscious,but systematically functioning attitude, values and beliefs; produced by
and in the material condition of all uses of language, all analyses of truth and all
claimsof knowledge. This approach speaks of big ideas and concepts like the matters
of intelligent quotient (IQ) and arguments of "the perfect ones". These ideas,
determinepersonality functions within the Wanga society.
Nowthat these may be basically human, chances of error and sin are high. Ideas and
ideologies then, may lead to "humanly determined selective discrimination"; which
means that people determine or even dictate what one is able or not able to perform
withinthe Wanga community. In itself this is sin, because they may not have correctly
placed the individual where he\she is able to perform, resulting in the negative
performance, the implication of which is suffering-evil upon a social system. This
system, therefore, cannot escape prescriptive atonement. A good example is politics,
whereby, bad politics leads to community or even national disintegration, which then
leads to hatred or even war. The loss of life requires atonement! Wanga leadership is,
therefore, vulnerable to this sin and as such requires socially dictated atonement
which the society receives leadership from the appointed person, who in this case is
the omufumu- seer. The Omufumu in the quest for healing the society must appeal to
history; this is because history carries the people's knowledge and wisdom. Anangwe
says that,
Omufumu okhuu/a a/enje shinga akabakuuka befwe bakholonga
emilukha kho abo/ele abaandu omulukha kukhoyere okhukholwa.
Eshifune shiene, ni kha/e khaale. The seer must refer to what"our
fore fatherswere doing in the past beforeprescribingthe kind of ritual to
perform.This stems from long, longhistory.
56
Whatthis research establishes is that social atonement does not only affect the living
societybut the society of the living dead as well. These event are orally recorded,
theseoral records are then passed on from one generation to another by way of mouth.
The concept of atonement in all its forms is passed on in the same manner; there is
room for the officiator to refer to how a similar sin was dealt with and either do
likewiseor act depending on the situation.
2.10 Sin against the Divine
Shisia, an informant of this research, gives a good example of sin, which is
committed against the divine. He says that, when someone commits suicide, the
person is deemed to have committed sin against God, not only against God but also,
.ne abasuule, the ebisooni, the abakuuka and the whole of the abafwa community
(God, the greater living dead, the forefathers and the fraternity of the living dead).
According to Shisia, the Abawanga believe that the person has "poured blood on the
ground." Blood never belongs to a person but the community, part of which is now in
the realms of the living dead. What Shisia is saying is that life according to the
"
Abawanga is in the blood. What therefore has happened is that the person who
commits suicide removes one of the Wanga lives. At the same time he is informing
this research that the Abawanga treat life as corporate rather than individual. Life
therefore belongs to the Wanga community much more than it belongs to an
individual Wanga. If someone commits suicide, the person destroys not only'
individual life but the Wanga community life, whereby, community includes the
living dead as well. In this study then, life is seamless, from the living to the living
dead.
57
Fromthe above discussion, this research establishes that life belongs to both here and
hereafter; this brings in the aspect of the supernatural. One of the names of God in the
Luhya language, that is spoken by the Abawanga is Were omulonji (God who moulds
or creates). In view of this name, then, all the blood of the Abawanga belongs to
Were. Based on these postulates, suicide constitutes sin against the spiritual world; the
result of which is evil that corrupts the universe, the abode of the living and affects
the divine world at the same time. The effect in the divine world is a specific one;
because the living dead would not be happy seeing their kin join the bad emakombe.
They would, therefore, require that atonement be carried out to rescue the situation.
According to Anangwe and Webele, the atonement for the above category of sins is
more elaborate than any other atonement mentioned before. This isbecause it has
more ser.ous, elaborate and wide spread consequences than the any other sin. They
claim that, a person who commits suicide is said to have brought omunyiri (cold) in
the family. This brings shame, not only to the person, but to the whole family; and, by
extension, the clan as a whole.
The consequences of the sin of suicide include; young men being discouraged from
marrying girls from this family and clan. People from the said clan, where the person
who commits suicide comes from, are not allowed to hold public office (s). They are
also barred from attending and or performing certain rituals. The reason being that the
family and the clan have eshinokhonokho (suicide is from now on hereditary) of dying
by way of suicide. If one marries from this family, chances are that one's wife or,
husband and even children may also commit suicide. It must as well be noted that the
person who commits suicide does not go to the good emakombe, which is known as
58
mwikulu; instead, the person roams in the middle space of the universe, known as
mulwanga lweshialo, It is believed that, the person causes people to have bad dreams,
brings strange sicknesses, persuades other family members to commit suicide and
may as well cause poor crop harvest.
For this evil to be cleansed, Webele and Anangwe advice that, a white sheep and a
cock are slaughtered, particularly at the place where suicide took place. The bloods of
these elements are poured at the spot. The cock is wholly eaten right at the suicide
spot, the bones and the feathers are burnt and the ashes scattered all over the place
where the sin was committed. The mutton is shared among the families concerned;
whereby the head and the skin of the sheep are given to the senior member of the
family by birth. Amanyasi (concocted mixture from plant life) is carefully mixed,
pounded into po -vder and mixed with water, then given to everyone to take. This,
according to Webele and Anangwe, shields family members from bad dreams as well
as the spells that the deceased may send. If the deceased took their life-on a tree, then,
the tree is uprooted. Not even its roots are spared! If this happened it?-the house, the
house is burnt down. No one is allowed to use any of the rafters that may remain after
the fire, either for cooking or anything else. According to Angwe, if anyone uses this
wood for cooking or anything else, then the ebishieno (demons) will come disturbing
the person. The implication for this study that Abawanga do not condone induced
death such as suicide.
After the exercise, people return home using another route; and no-one is supposed to
look behind. It is believed that if a person does so, the spirit of death will get hold of
them. Those who participate in the ritual are not supposed to enter the home using the
59
officialgate; instead, a temporary or makeshift gate is made for them to use. The
corpse too is not brought in by the main gate; which would mean welcoming the
spirits of suicide. More so, the dead person is buried outside the home, for such
personis an abomination. Such a person is not to be remembered, and no-one is to be
named after anybody who dies by way of suicide. It is thought that the spirits of
suicidewill enter such a child. By the nature of such kind of sin, its atonement is
knownas omwikalo; which means, shutting up or closing up on anything to do with
the person, including the spirit of the person. Thus the Abawanga have nothing to do
with the person and anything pertaining to him or her. It is believed that, only after
this person has been locked up in the 'middle space' that the spirit world is appeased
and thus allows the normal life to proceed.
In resolving this riddle Grif.,n (1976: 6- 7), argues that certain kinds of losses cannot
be explained away by appealing to the limits of humans understanding. The issue then
becomes whether the reality of such sin should be affirmed. That is, should we affirm
that some things happen which really do not "turn out for the best?" Do events occur
without which the universe would have been a better place, all things considered?
Griffins goes ahead to argue that sin is something other than the good that appears
sinful, or suffering that good sometimes requires. According to Griffins, the biblical
Job's friends argued that, he falsely perceived evil because of his sin and pride. If Job
could see from God's perspective, his friends argued, what appeared sinful to him
would have a good purpose and suffering that seemed evil would turn out to be good.
Griffin's argument in every sense advances evil as a consequence of sin.
60
Lookingat Griffins argument concerning genuine sin raises the question oftheodicy.
As a religious and a theological study, this research raises the question of the
existenceof sin alongside the Holy God. This research, however, must start first with
human experience rather than logical argument. Along with the biblical Job, who
gives a clear picture of what this study sees as the consequence of sin, there are
childrenwho have been killed by their parents, adult survivors of sexual abuse, and
somepeople who have died after years of drug abuse. All these have been witnessed
insome villages: That violation and destruction of the human body and soul that leads
to loss, for which there is no adequate justification, from Christian theology, disturbs
the African mind. This then leads to everyday confusion concerning the nature of sin.
At this level and stage, atonement becomes religious duty to Wanga society. That is,
somesin cannot be explained nor can it be wished away, except by way of atonement.
In answer to the above dilemma, Poling (1996: 113), lists several factors that may
lead to the said confusion. First, persons with power refuse to acknowledge the evil
they have done. Polling goes ahead and claims that these powerful people disguise
their evil behaviour as necessary. Second, good sometimes appears to be evil, and he
gives an example of a rebellious child, who seems dangerous to a possessive parent;
yet the end result is an improved parent-child relationship. Third, actualising values
sometimes requires suffering, which may seem evil. Fortune (1995: 9) in support of
Poling gives an example of civil disobedience for a just course, which is a voluntary
act, yet at times this act causes much suffering which is not desired. However, some
people have chosen to endure the suffering for a larger purpose
61
2.11 Dealing with Sin among the Abawanga
Sin is perceived as destructive and as spoiling human relations; as well as making the
higher powers frown at the people (Arinze 1970:34). For this reason, the Abawanga
have specified means of dealing with or removing sin. There are special procedures
carried out, in the occurrence of sin, in order to avoid curses from higher spirits; and
also to restore harmony and tranquility among the people. According to Karakacha,
only sacrifices, which are mostly bloody, involving immolation of animals can restore
the destroyed harmony and resume broken ties. In most cases the animals sacrificed
are cows, sheep, and goats, all without spots. There is a general understanding among
all the Wanga people, that the animal to be sacrificed had to meet certain
characteristics; and a particular process had lv be followed on the material day. Every
step and procedure ought to be followed keenly, lest the sacrifice loses its meaning,
efficacy and effect. The sacrifice could be a totally black or 'white goat, cow or
"
chicken, without any spots; and the animals and chickens were either strangled to
death (so that the blood could be collected and poured as a libation from a half guard
at the foot of the tree) or carefully slaughtered (so that the blood would be collected
and poured at the designated place and or people). The animals and birds, which were
then roasted over the fire, are eaten and the left-overs burnt and ashes disposed
appropriately
62
2.12 Categories of Sacrifices
Thereare a number of categories of sacrifices among the Wanga people; but only two
of these categories will be dealt with in this study. These are appeasement sacrifices
and substitutionary sacrifices. An appeasement sacrifice is usually prescribed by
omfumu or omulakusi-(Wanga traditional prophet), in response to an inquiry on what
canbe done to save the situation, during a crisis like an epidemic, famine, drought, or
serious illness. On the other hand, a substitutionary sacrifice is offered when a person
is believed to be under the wrath of the divinities, or some malignant spirits, as a
result of an offense/wrongdoing. This wrath can lead to death; but if asubstitutionary
sacrifice is offered according to prescription, then it would save the afflicted person.
Waseka's focus group gives okhufuwa as an exampL of an appeasement sacrifice.
Okhufuwa is giving a gift to the living dead, with an aim of seeking favor from them.
Such favors include, deterring specific calamities, like injuries during circumcision or
restraining the floods or even strange sicknesses from attacking the people.
2.12.1 Appeasement Sacrifice
Mungoni, a member of Wekesa's focus group, says that, the sacrifice of okhufuwa is
done periodically, as a kind of annual or biannual anniversary celebrations.
Circumcision is one of the best examples of such rituals; which is in contrast to the
knife cleansing ceremony (which is done at the clan level) done at the family level.
The family slaughters a white sheep, at the grandfather's grave, and if the grandfather
is not dead, at any renowned ancestor's grave. The officiator, who in most cases is
63
chosen by the family, slaughters a white, sheep in the namwima- family shrine, and
pours some blood from the sacrifice to the four sides of grave. He then mixes a
special concoction called manyasi-plant concoction for the candidate and the people
present to drink. Then he utters the following words,
Kuuka Mungoni, eshiayo shino neshishio. Ewe kuuka, olalola obubi
nohomba okhusinyishila eshishebo eshia omwana uno tawe. Mulekhuule
yenjile murumbi obulahi .Grandfather Mungoni, this is your sacrifice. Do
not feel bad for the circumcision of your son; let him be circumcised
without any complications.
After this, both the candidate and the family members step in the chyme (obusee) of
the slaughtered sheep. Traditional beer, called kwete, would then be served. However,
before anyone drinks of it, the officiator gaggles and spits it on the four corners of the
grave. Food is, from now on, served to everyone present and the candidate starts to
play circumcision bells called tsinyimba, in preparation for circumcision.
2.12.2 Substitution Sacrifice
Substitution sacrifices are offered when a person is believed to be under the wrath of
the divinities or some malignant spirits as a result of an offense/wrongdoing. This
wrath can lead to death; but if a substitution sacrifice is offered, according to
prescription, then it would save the afflicted person (Adeyemo 1979: 35).
According to Mungoni, an informant to this research, if people or a person sins, so
that evil spirits are continuously attacking the person or the people (~he attacked are
said to be sick out of the spirits' wrath), the ritual is done at the graveside of the sick
person's grand father, who probably may be dead at this time. Although in most
cases, the attack may result into sickness, in some cases, the spirits may not be evil
64
but good spirits looking for recognition either from the people or the person
concerned. Good spirits are identified by the good they are able to do through the
possessed persons. Mungoni gives an example of good spirits as those that help
people to foresee the future. The spirits according to him are so strong that at times
they make the person lose normalcy. In case of good spirits, then the situation is
referred to as omusambwa kwamutila, (possessed by the spirits); normally a white
chicken, goat or sheep depending on the dead person specifications, is slaughtered at
the grave side. If it is the evil spirits (eshishieno or eshimakombe), the black sheep or
goat is slaughtered. The ritual appeases the living dead so that bad omen does not
befall the person, and by extension, the clan.
However, before all these processes are carried out, a small house known as
namwima, is constructed (on the grave), where the slaughtering takes place. Within
the namwima, a calabash, known as eshisanda, and broken pieces of pots, known as
efikonjio, are put. These will later serve as plates and bowls for the namwima meal.
Kuuka Mungoni, eshiayo shino neshishio nende abashio aba mulininabo.
Olalola obubi nohomba okhusinyishila omwitsukhulu wuwo uno tawe,
nochama rusia eshishieno shino khumubili kukwe. Our grand father
Mungoni, this sacrificial animal is yours together with those with you in
your world of the living dead. May it please you that our son, who is also
yours, be circumcised without any bad omen.
After the slaughter, some blood is poured on the eshisanda and sprinkled on the
grave. The lead elder utters these words,
After these words have been uttered, the people present, starting with the demon
possessed person would step in the chyme (obusee) of the goat. The substance would
be smeared on the head side of the grave; then the officiator gaggles' the traditional
beer and spits it on the four corners of the grave. A portion of it is- also poured in
65
namwima, as part of the libation. The officiator, who in most cases is the omufumu,
,
thenplays magic guards, referred to as okhupa etsinyengo, This is done to appease the
spirits that control this person/people so that they may leave them. The affected
person/people dance to the tune of tsinyengo, at times falling down in frenzy. The
omfumu, after determining that the demons have left them or that, they have been
recognized officially, will inform the other people in attendance. The people keep
quiet for some time before omufumu informs them of the spirit's decision; which in
mostcases is positive. After this has been done, the people can now begin to eat and
drink,believing that this and many other strange diseases have been dealt with.
2.13 Qualities for Sacrificial Elements
The animals sacrificed are cows, sheep, and goats; all must be without spots. r~ome
birds, like chicken isindu (quails) are also used as sacrificial elements. There is a
general understanding among all the Wanga people, that the animal to be sacrificed
has to meet certain characteristics" and a particular process has to be followed, on the
material day.
Ingombe ya opili shiimalaanga omusango tawe. Spottedcows are never used
for a sacrifice.
As regards the qualities and process of sacrificing, every step and procedure has to be
followed keenly, lest the sacrifice loses its meaning and effect. The sacrificial victim
has to be one colour (preferably black or white) goat, sheep or ox; and no spot should
be found on this animal. Omukoko informs this study that, according to Abawanga,
66
Accordingly, sacrificial animals should not be lame, while the plants, should be
green,and if possible, be obtained from one of the eshiembekho- (recognized forests)
of the Wanga people.
Just as the sacrificial element was supposed to be whole, the ritual or sacrificial
processes were expected to be complete. In some cases animals were strangled to
death so that the blood could be collected and poured out as a libation. In other cases,
animalswere to be slaughtered and some of the blood drunk uncooked. The same was
true for the birds such as, chicken and isindu (quail). As for the plant life, leaves, roots
or balks were pounded and mixed well; before being taken as manyasi, or burnt to
ashes so, that they are taken in the form of ashes.
2.14 Gradation of Sins among the Abawanga
The Abawanga categorize sins into two main levels, the major and the minor sins. The
major sins include violation of tribal taboos such as incest, murder, witchcraft, theft,
rape and adultery, particularly with the married people. Pertaining to the latter,
Omulama says,
Okwikushe nokukwo, nebutswa okwikaale shinokukwo tawe. Do not open the
door that is shut, it doesnot belongto you.
This is a phrase that is used to warn circumcised young people against having sex
with married women. They are allowed to have sex with unmarried women and this is
not punishable. In case of murder he says,
Olamalilana omwikho tawe, eshisheno shiomwikho shioma omurwe. The evil
spirit fromthe murderedrelativeis hardheadedand it is not easy to exorcise.
These acts of disobedience to the taboos and norms warrant severe discipline that
varies from restitution, to capital punishment; through poisoning and starvation to
67
death. Once involved in this category of major sins, one is regarded as a social
outcast;and hislher salvation lies in the willingness of the people to accept the person
backto fellowship in the community.
Minor sins, in the Wanga community, may refer to what Wamukoya terms as, daily
failures of individuals, such as cheating, bitterness, selfishness, lying and domestic
quarrels, among other family and inter-personal misunderstandings. While being
warned and encouraged to get rid of these behaviors, the Abawanga still look at these
behaviors as acts that are bound to happen, whenever people engage with each other
in the community.
2.15 Atonement for the Major Sins
Each major sin is unique and is dealt with uniquely Anangwe gives an example of IL,.
how killing, as one of the major sins, is atoned for. He divides killing into two,
intentional killing and accidental killing. According to him, killing a person, whether
intentionally or unintentionally, is the worst of sins that one can commit; because
nobody is supposed to kill another person under any circumstances. This evil, though
committed by one member of the family, affected all other members and at times the
whole of his or her clan; depending on who was killed and circumstances under which
the crime was committed. The sin of murder, therefore, resulted in the greater evil of
death as it required a life- for- life sacrifice. A lamb with special characteristic of
being either black or white is slaughtered as a means of repaying for the blood that
was poured.
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If someonekills a person accidentally, or in the process of self-defence, this person is
not supposed to come in to the homestead. He instead beacons, with' his hands and
sendsfor either of his parents. If both of them are dead, then the elde~t living brother
is called. The person explains what has befallen him or her. Any of these three
membersof the family sends for Omuchesi/Omufumu to come and do the atonement.
"At dawn the next morning, the person together with a spotless sheep is led into a
designated place in a bush near a river. He then stands and the sheep is strangled in
his 'shadow' while he places his hands on its head. Then the sheep's intestinal
substance (chyme) is taken and sprinkled on him. The man is shaved clean and after
chanting some few other words, he proceeds to the river and take a !'ath. From the
river, the Omulakusi prays and asks the spirit of the dead person not to come and
disturb him. He then blesses him and they together proceeded home, where
Omulakusi also offers prayers. After eating, the Omulakusi is given two hens from the
hands of the man. One of the chickens (black) is to be thrown into the bush along the
way as the Omuchesi goes home, while the other is to be strangled and its feathers
removed and scattered along the way, in order to repulse the spirit of the dead person.
Finally the murderer pays 10 to 14 cows as a way of restitution to the bereaved
family. If the murdered person was young, then all the 14 cows are to be given, but if
old then the elders decide the number of animals to give.
It is only by being atoned for that the offender can live. Otherwise, he has to die
because he shed a person's blood. By not entering the homestead, it is believed that
the spirit of the dead person will not enter/posses his household. Today, the same
ritual is also done to the following people: a driver who has knocked and killed a
.,_ 'HATTA I I 1I\1(::Q~\TY \JBrAR
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pedestrian, one who has seen a person being killed, and even one who comes across a
person who has been killed on the way.
As for intentional killing, the murderer is never forgiven! If in a family one member
kills another, there is no atonement enough for such a case as to keep the killer within
the community. The whole society warns the concerned families to.leave. A grace
period is however, given depending on the situation. This does not mean that they will
not vacate the home; as they have to leave, they cannot live within the Wanga
community! One of the informants of this research, Mr. Anangwe says,
Omundi omwiri owa chimuniai a/areranga eshinokhonokho muluhyia. A
murderer set a bad precedence in the community which will never end.
It is believed that the act will become repetitive year after year and specifically on the
date and month it is committed; someone else will always commit murder on the said
date. This research therefore establishes that murder is a sin that needs to be dealt with
for once and for good as this helps in stopping this sin so that it doesn't become
repetitive.
If the murderer and his or her family do not obey the orders, the whole village is
marshalled and all members of the community, young and old, men and women;
come wailing, with machetes and fire. They kill and destroy everything on sight; and
if there is any person in the homestead, he or she is only spared if they run away. In a
nutshell, all life is destroyed from the homestead. Then the members are driven far
away from the home never to return again.
After they have driven away the family, the whole community carries out a cleansing
ceremony at the home. A bull is slaughtered and prayers for cleansing are offered, and
70
the home becomes desolate. No one can cultivate the land; which remains a grazing
fieldfor animals.
Looking at the atonement described above, Niebuhr's theory of Christ against culture
stands out prominently. This is because there is a part of culture that is evil and needs
cleansing; should anything to do with the murderer be left, then a bad omen befalls
not only the family of the murderer but the clan as a whole. This being the case then,
the whole culture has to be renewed! The equivalent of this is Anselms theory of
universal atonement of Christ. Here, all have sinned and fallen short'of the glory of
God; all of them, therefore, need atonement. Despite these, this research found out
that sin is perceived as repetitive; the nature of atonement in this community has to be
repetitive also.
2.15.1 Atonement for Minor Sins
Whereas major sins may require major atonement, minor sins only need minor
atonement. Atonement rituals for the minor sins are not as elaborate as those for
major sins. Webele, an informant for this research cites one example of ishila (slim)
as an example of such ritual. After the birth of a child, the parents are not supposed to
have sex outside their marriage. If this happens, it is believed that the child catches
diarrhea, slims and eventually this may lead to death. This situation is what is referred
to as ishila; where children suffer for the sins of their parents. To remedy this
situation, amanyasi (special creepers plants) are prepared by one of the elders and the
two parents are advised to take and then warned not to engage in sexual misbehavior
t
or the child may die.
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2.16 Existence of Evil
The Abawanga's understanding of evil, just as seen in the case of sin, revolves around
the belief of its existence. Apart from seeing sin as ontological, Kachisa claims that
the Abawanga see sin in its consequences. He says,
Omundu omukholi owetsimbi areeranga obwonooni mwita/a lie nende kala
mu/uhyia the person, who commits sin, brings evil in their home and the wider
clan."
Wekesa, a prominent elder among the Abashikwa, a sub-clan of the Abawanga who
lives at Emakokhwe village along Nzoia River, supports this thought by saying that
evil is as a result of sin committed by the people. It is this sin that brings peculiar
diseases such as,
Eshipoli, o/uyingwa, o/umbe okhuu/a khu olufu .Schizophrenia,
paranoia and untreatable illnesses that eventually lead to death.
Sin also brings about unexplained drought, floods and earthquakes. Thus, in
describing sin, the Abawanga tend to look at the outcome and how this affects the
equilibrium of society and relationships, which, therefore, produces evil. Natural
calamities such as those named earlier, are said to be the product of sin and as such
regarded as evil. Looked at from this perspective, this research submits that, it is evil
that atonement seeks to wipe out and not sin. Unlike sin which may be ontological,
evil covers large geographical area, and affects many people. Mass atonement is
therefore, recommended; and nababa is one of those prescribed atonements for evil.
Okhuupa nababa- a whole clan or clans beat metal objects at night running towards
the nearby river, chanting some words like,
O/uumbe /ukhumu/uure nende omuyeka omubi nende efishieno mutsie
munyanza Wasting diseases and infirmities, bad wind and spirits go to the
lake!
According to Webele, one of the informants of this study, atonement removes the evil
that may have come about as a result of sin which brings in the idea of sin as
72
dwelling,not only in the people but in the environment as well. This study therefore
establishesthe universality of sin as part of the Wanga's perception of sin. This being
thecase then, atonement has to take on a universal perspective.
This research found out that the Wanga cultural atonement is not only concerned
about the people, but also the environment. Although Niebuhr's theory deals with
cultures, it does not deal with the atonement of the environment. Here, the penal
substitution theory, which was advanced by the reformation theologians, such as
Lurtherand John Calvin in the 16th century, may give the way forward. In this theory,
God's mercy which encompasses both the humankind and the environment replaces
His wrath, after the infinite sacrifice of Jesus (Wolfhart 2000: 403-434; Garrett 1995:
33-44). According to this theory, the Abawanga plus their environment and anything
that may appertain to them, are affected by this evil and should be atoned for.,
Atonement is thus, seen as covering, not only humanity, but all things that appertain
,
to humankind. Moreover, sin and the evil spirits are only dealt with at the cross of
Christ and as such, these two should not be sent to the lake.
2.17 Describing Evil
According to Unger (1988,382), evil is divided in two categories, moral evil and non
- moral evil. Moral evil results in the transgression of the moral law or disobedience
r
to the will of God. This evil proceeds directly from human sin. Unger continues to say
that it is the failure of rational and free human beings to conform in character and
conduct to the will of God. None - moral evil, which Unger refers to as natural evil is
disorder in the physical world. For example, human suffering produced by physical or
73
onticevils can be said to be none- moral evil. These disorders includefamines, floods
and earthquakes. From this perspective, this study gathers that, evil distorts reality
takesaway the 'good'; from the creature. Ondera, one of the informants to this study
agreeswith Unger when she uses one of the Wanga wise sayings,
Tsimbi tsibulaanga obwonooni nabo bwonooni okhufwa, Kafwanabusa
shingatsikhwi.Shichila tsikhwi tsibulaanga likoshe. Sin gives birth to evil
and evil leads to death,just like firewoodproducesash.
WhatOndera is saying is that evil comes about as a result of sin. This study therefore
establishes that evil is the practical manifestation of sin. Looking at these
manifestations, Poling (1996: 110) sees evil as the abuse of power that destroys
people and nature. He further argues that evil is organized by economic, institutions
and ideologies forces, but mystified by appeals to necessity and truth. He believes that
evil is sanctioned by religion, but masked by claims to virtue, love and justice.
Whatever Polling calls virtue, love and justice is what this study sees as reality which
evil distorts and takes way from humankind and thus producing the suffering that
people undergo.
2.17.1 Evil against the Universe
As a result of sin committed by the Wanga people, the universe is adversely affected.
To Wanga, the universe includes the earth, forests, rocks and rivers, while the sky
forms the upper part of the universe. The space between the sky and the earth is called
olwanga lweshialo, Andanje who is one of the informants of this study, claims that,
according to the Wanga, the universe is the major place, where the actions of the
living dead take place; they live, function and have their being in this realm. At times,
the living have committed sin, resulting in the destruction of some of the above
74
mentioned geographical features. The results are calamities such as unexplained
death,drought, earth quakes and floods. The evil that occurs depends on the type and
magnitudeof sin committed. In such an event, then the atonement that is prescribed
does not only cleanse the environment but it also has to do with appeasing the
ancestor.This study singles out rain making ritual as one of such a type of atonement.
2.17.2 The Rain Making Ritual
Rainmaking ritual is one of the cleansing ceremonies held to appease the living dead
for the evil that may have beset both the universe and the cosmos, causing famine and
drought. According to Wandere, an elder from Ekero sub-location, the rain making
ritual is performed in the eshiembekkho (national forest) found in the present day
MatunguDistrict.
All the Wanga clans are informed of the atonement day by the ruling Nabongo at that
time. Nabongo does this in his capacity as the Wanga king; because the situation
affects the whole of his kingdom. Each clan is required to select a specified number of
elders, in most cases dictated by Nabongo and his council of elders. They are to
assemble at the designated place on the day decided by Nabongo in consultation with
his council of elders. Andanje another informant to this study explains, that though, in
most cases, the national forest is the most preferred place, the reigning Nabongo is at
liberty to choose any officially recognized forest, (because every clan had their own
eshiembekho; these are the forests that the reigning Nabongo could choose from.) so
long as it will be convenient for the people.
75
Onthe appointed day when the ritual is to be conducted, Wandere says that, the elders
setout their journey to the forest at night led by the senior elder, selected by Nabongo.
Andanje, one of the informants of this study, warns that, just in case someone who is
notqualified to enter this forest comes alongside the elders, he shall become blind. On
inquiry from Wandere, this research establishes that this has never happened. The
e
implication for this research is that the Wanga are trying to pass across the message of
the sacredness of the forests. They too are stressing the importance of this atonement
to the Wanga, since it does not only involve the living but the living dead as well. The
seriousness of this covenant demands that whoever breaks it must be prepared to face
serious consequences such as death.
The lead elder has to have some qualifications. He must be omufumu or omulakusi
(seer -.lrforth teller), he must be married, must have at least a son or must have had a
son. He must also be a medicine man and a respected elder of one ofthe Wanga clans.
Finally, he must be at least seventy years of age; which is determined by following the
circumcision age sets Makila (1975: 64-72).
Having been identified, this elder leads other elders into the (eshieinbekho) forest
which is home to fierce animals such as lions, leopards and snakes. Andanje tells this
researcher that these animals are at times domesticated; for special purposes. The lead
elder utters some words that pacify these animals so that they become harmless. He
admits that he does not know the words uttered; because he has only attended this
atonement once in his life time, (So far no other person interviewed ~ttended such a
function).
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Thereis a special club called omwirima, which every elder has to carry; and it is used
eitherfor cursing or blessing. It is also used to help stop bad omen from befalling a
community; and casting spells away from the community. In the eshiembekho, the
eldersoffer a white sheep to Were and request for rain. They also leave a live white
goatand white chicken for the living dead. They gather amanyasi from the forest that
theywill give to the elders for all the people to drink. The amanyasi is also smeared
on the omwirima, which the elders lick as they take an oath never to reveal anything
discussedwhile in the forest, before drinking raw blood in association ..with the living
dead.
On returning from the forest, the elders strangle a chicken, roast and eat it before
going back to their respective homes. The feathers and bones that remain are burnt
and the ashes scattered in the eshiembekho. On their way home, no one is allowed to
talk or greet anyone until the following morning. Heavy rain is expected after this
ceremony.
Having looked at the rain making ceremony, it is important to note that specificities
are part of the Wanga atonement rituals. This then proves Neighbuhr's argument of
removing specific elements within culture that are not gospelled and only leave the
gospelled. Some of the things in this specific ritual that are not gospelled include the
strangling of the chicken and the omwirima which is used for casting spells. Christ,
therefore, has to come in as the reformer of the Wanga culture. The reformation
should, therefore, seek to remove the ungospelled elements and replace them with the
gospelled ones, based on the bible.
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2.18 Guilt
,
According to Tenney (1982: 852 - 853), guilt is understood both as a moral or legal
concept and as a feeling. As a moral or legal concept, guilt refers to the breaking of
some laws or commandment or some accepted code or standard of value. One does
not have to acknowledge culpability to the adjudged guilty in this sense. On the other
hand, guilt as a feeling refers to the sense of distress, such as reproach, self-blame,
remorse and anxiety. This feeling stimulates remedial and expiatory action. This study
is not concerned with the legal aspect of guilt but the feeling aspect which stimulates
the remedial and expiatory action.
Traditionally, the Wanga community believed in shaming the person who may have
sinned by breaking the .aid - down taboos and morals. As stated above, these morals
and taboos are the standards of value to the Wanga community. Okusimba, an
informant of this study from Mulukhuna says that, the shaming include, composing a
song that is sung during circumcision or any other event, so that everyone knows what
the person might have done. At times it could be a public embarrassment, whereby the
elders or the appointed people would hatch a plan so that when the concerned person
comes, he/she would be publicly ridiculed or denied participation in a public function.,
It would then be known that the concerned person has sinned and needs to be atoned
for before participating in the said community action.
Okusimba goes ahead and informs this study that eshisinyo, (guilt) cannot be left to
go without atonement; because it goes down to generations. He insists that one cannot
be guilty unless he or she has sinned; a feeling that is only removed by atonement.
•
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Orondaanother informant from Elukoye, expresses guilt as isoni. This according to
her is a strong feeing of shame. This feeling is so strong that at times it may spur
personaldoubt and to some extent bring in personal rejection.
Fromwhat Okusimba and Oronda have said, guilt is perceived as the conviction of sin
that the Wanga have; which may be at a personal or community level: To this study,
thisguilt is good and necessary, because it raises the awareness of sin and the need for
atonement. It speaks of the consciences that are alive. The study also establishes that
guilt is important in that it reinforces and gives motivation for the keeping of the
Wangamoral and taboos. If this feeing is not experienced, then people will break the
moral laws and taboos at will. Guilt also establishes the place of atonement among the
Wanga people; it is only when one feels guilty that one can seek for atonement
services.
Although Okusimba and Oronda are of the view that guilt should be atoned for,
Nabakolwe's focus group contends that guilt is removed by the passage of time;
mainly through the passing of many generations. They say that guilt is not very
serious and does not require elaborate rituals; at times the clan elders are able to deal
with it secretly. One example that the Nabakolwe's focus group gave to this study is
that, a husband is not supposed to kiss his pregnant wife. If this happens, then the said
husband would have broken one of the Wanga taboos and as such atonement is to be
carried out. In such a case time is given, so that the child to be born becomes the
determining factor. This is because they believe that the child will be abnormal; if the
child is normal, then the kiss did not have an effect.
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It is apparent from the two informants above that guilt is a condition brought about by
-sin. Although the two groups don't agree on the mode of the removal of guilt, what
however comes out explicitly is that guilt must be dealt with, either by way of
atonement or natural healing, which takes time. This then brings in the question of
whether the Wanga cultural atonement is a once for all activity or a progressive
activity.
2.19 Necessity of Atonement in Wanga Culture
In an effort to understand the concept of the atonement in traditional -Wanga thought
and practice, one cannot ignore the necessity of atonement in this community. This is
because the meaning and essence of the concept of atonement among the Abawanga
is embedded in its function. The worr' omusango according to Omusuula means,
making an agreement. He expresses it as;
Okhusaanga khu likhuwa nohomba eshikho/e nabu/ebe. Coming to an
agreeing on anything within people's conversation 'or agreeing to an
action to be taken.
He claims that, this agreement has to do with adding to another power; which means
appeasing the greater powers, be they living or living dead. Omusango is not about
one particular individual, but families and communities. As such atonement has to do
with making treaties and covenants that spell out terms of relationships between the
living, the living dead and the spirit world.
The Wanga people viewed atonement as a mediation between the living and the living
dead. The researcher establishes in this study that, the sacrificial victims have two
lives. Whereas these animal victims exist in the living world, their lives are very much,
80
valuedin the living dead's world also. What this speaks to the research is that the
Wanganever die but they just change form, from this earthly body to another body.
Otherwisethey would not be able to eat and drink this blood that is, offered to the
livingdead as libation! This act shows that the departed share the feelings with their
kin,who are still alive. They are not at peace seeing the norms and taboos being
brokenby their living kin; because 'these living dead' understand the consequences of
this action for their living kin. In this way, then, mediation is essential, so that the
livingis in good terms with the living dead.
Looking further into the future, atonement is seen as a form of deterrent for the
calamities that can befall the people, or a clan. The said atonement according to
Omusikoyo, who is one of the research informants from Elukhuna, deterrent
atonement, covers all stakeholders and distance ; . not a hindrance. Whether one is
present at the time of the atonement act or not does not matter; Omusikoyo thinks that
wider consequences are possible if this is not followed to the letter. For example, a
Wanga living in London would be associated by an offered sacrifice performed in
Matungu Forest in Kenya; and thereby be involved in its consequences.
2.19.1 Cleansing of Circumcision Knife
A good example of a ritual that shows the necessity of atonement is the circumcision
knife cleansing ritual. This ritual according to Luseno, is called 'okhwosia oluchembe,
meaning, 'to clean the circumcision knife.' In the Wanga community, this specific
circumcision ritual is performed before the circumcision exercise begins. According
to Luseno, this atonement is purely an act geared towards asking for protection during
the circumcision exercise so that no bad omen befalls the boys.
81
Duringthe performance of this ritual, all the circumcisers of the concerned villages
gather in a designated place, everyone must have all the knives that they will use
duringthe circumcision exercise. All elders are supposed to attend; they are to arrive
in groups based on their circumcision age set. Circumcision age set is what
determinesboth chronological and wisdom age; as well as when one can be allowed
to participate in some specific practices of the community, like this one Wekesa
describes. Wekesa explains that, there are twelve 'circumcision ages sets, though he
could only remember four of them, abamaina, abakinyikeu, abassawa and
abachuma.' Though Wekesa could only remember four, Wagner (373-375) and
Makila (2003, 116), mention the remaining eight as, kikwameti, kananachi, nyange,
kolongolo, ebakale ndalo, likubali and angaya. Every circumcision age set takes
about six years. Wekesa explains that, in general, one is considered old enough to
participate in Wanga ceremonial rituals after witnessing ,_, least four circumcisions
periods. Each circumcision period takes about ten years. This study therefore
t
establishes that it is very rare for a person to be able to experience a full circle of
,
circumcision, because this takes about one hundred and twenty years, thus the last
person who may have experienced the first circumcision period may probably not be
living.
Wekesa goes ahead and says that; after everyone has arrived, traditional beer which
would have been prepared beforehand is served, but no one is allowed to drink before
the Omufumu/Omuchesi (seer); who must himself be a circumciser. Each circumciser
surrenders one of his knives to this Omufumu who gathers them together; gaggles the
traditional brew and then spit it on the knives. He then utters the following words,
82
Abakuukabefwe, nende ebisoni biefwe, kano nako nakenywe. Mulalola obubi
nombaokhusinyishila eshishebo shino tawe. Mulekhuule abaana bano benjile
murumbieshisiche mulembe. Our grand fathers and all our forefathers, do not
be angry at this circumcision, we plead with you that you may allow this young
men to be safely circumcised.
The omufumu, while uttering these words, invokes the name of the circumcision age
set of that particular circumcision period, for example abachuuma. After this, the
elders and the circumcisers have a big feast, which then marks the beginning of the
circumcision ceremony.
From the above description, this research establishes that the Wanga people view
atonement as an a priori act. Otherwise, how could they have know~ of the coming
calamity should the circumcision go on without the blessings from the living dead?
Atonement, therefore, in their mind is an anticipated thought, a priori learning.
2.20 Classifications of Blood in Wanga Culture
Although plants are used as sacrificial elements; animal sacrifices are the most
prevalent in the Wanga culture. It is believed that, it is only by blood that sin, evil and
t
guilt are taken away. According to Nabakolwe's focus group ofK.holera sub-location,
the Abawanga believe that life is within the blood of people or an animal. This
animal's blood life is regarded as the equivalent of the human life that is being atoned
for. Nabakolwe's focus group says that, it is mandatory for every Muwanga to treat
blood with respect, as one may not know what or which type of blood one is dealing
with; hence care must be taken. On this blood classification, Masinde says that, blood
in the Wanga community is classified into three categories; amalasire, amatsayi and
amabaanga.
83
Amalasire is the general blood that flows through an animal. However, some specific
people are referred to as having amalasire. According to Nabakolwe's focus group,
all night runners have am alas ire . This group says,
Omundu omulosi abetsanga nende amalasire. Ne ifwe amalasire kefwe
shikali akobulosi tawe. A personwhobewitchesothershas amlasire; our
blood is not the bloodof witchcraft. -
It must be noted that what the Nabakolwe's focus group is talking of is not blood but
the night running action that is associated with the person who owns this blood. The
life of this person, which is expressed by his / her blood, is not exemplary; he/she
misuses his/her blood by way of witchcraft. This is to mean that; amlasire is not an
honoured blood, it flows through the person who performs undesired acts such as
sorcery and witchcraft. Such people are not highly regarded in the Wanga community.
,
Amalasire is therefore, not of high value as observed by the Nabakolwe's focus
group.
Olwanda, one of the informants of this research from Eluche sub-location says that,
Amalasire too, is blood from cattle that is edible, either raw or cooked. Blood is eaten,
especially during drought and in situations of less food. It is also eaten during oathing,
as a way of binding two people or communities. According to Olwanda, blood is at
times eaten to bind the living and the living dead in special ceremonies such as
circumcision and marriage. In such situations, obligations for the covenants are laid
down, with dire consequences for anyone who breaks them.
This study establishes that the amalasire is very important in that it is through
amalasire that a covenant is established. This blood binds people to a specific
function within the Wanga community. Thus the keeping of state secrets is enhanced.
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Thiskind of blood is also used in casting out demonic spells among the Abawanga.
Thisis because it is animal blood that is used in the atonement rituals. Amalasire too
distinguishes people of bad character from people of good character. Amabanga on
the other hand, is a polite way of expressing the starting of life in a womb; that is,
referringto the unborn. According to Masinde, one of the informants from Lubinu, if
someonesays that,
omukhasi oyo yatilile amabanga. Thatwomanhas blood.
What the person would be saying is that, the woman is expectant. Omukamani from
Ekhaimba adds on what Masinde said by saying,
!salache yomusiani wenywe yalekha hano, kho mwitse mubukule amabanga
kenywe. Your boy's bloodhas been foundhere, so come and take your blood.
What Omukamani is saying is that a certain boy made the respondent's girl pregnant
and so the family of the boy should come for their child. From what Omukamani is
saying, this research establishes that the Abawanga are a patriarchal community and
children belong to the father. Therefore, if a man makes an unmarried woman,
pregnant, his or her family must take full responsibility for the child. This is clear
,
evidence that the Wanga community view amabanga as having life; that the life of a
person is in his or her blood.
On the account of the sacredness of life amabanga is also sacred, because it involves
life, and for that matter, "new life." Masinde comments that, this is the word used in
the new Luhya bible translation in the nativity stories of the gospels of Luke 1-2;
Matthew 2-3 and John 1-2, to show that Mary was expecting baby Jesus. This word
ralso means menstrual flow of blood in women. As such, this blood can not be used for
sacrificing because it carries life that is not yet actualised.
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Amatsayi is sacrificial blood; which is carefully removed from an animal earmarked
fora sacrifice. This is done by way of strangling, so that all blood is siphoned from it,
or by carefully slaughtering the animal. Apart from this, blood from circumcision
candidatesis also called amatsayi. Thus the Wanga expression,
Amtsayi aka abafulu katatsile hasi okhusasania oluhyia lwefwe nende
abakuuka. The bloodof those circumciseddroppeddown to unite us with
our grand fathers.
After circumcision, the blood of the abafulu (immediately circumcised boys) is to be
kept for three day before being disposed in a secret place. This is so because it is
regarded as sacrificial blood. This gives the reason why the blood of-Jesus Christ is
referred to as amatsayi, among the Abawanga. Thus the characteristics of the Wanga
amatsayi, qualify the biblical translation of the atoning blood of Jesus Christ, for it too
cleanses humanity from all sin, evil and guilt.
2.21 Passing the Concept of Atonement on
The practice of any given concept, in any community, depends on how such concept
is passed on from one generation to another. Originality of thought and practice will,
naturally depend on how it is taught to the succeeding generations; the Abawanga are
,
no exception. It is important that selective vetting of whoever teaches such important
community doctrines be made and specific qualifications be required of them, so that
the quality of the concept is retained. The most important, however, is how they
teach; teaching methods as a vehicle of passing on this information is vital. These
methods function at micro and macro levels.
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2.22.1 Micro-Teaching Methods
Micro-level teaching methods have to do with person to person and family to family
(
teachings; where a father or mother passes on family information to the son or the
daughter. Either of the parents sits down with their children and teaches them the
concept of atonement. Omurunga an informant from Township sub-location suggests
that this type of teaching was done in a secluded place. It could be in the forest, where
the medicine-person goes to look for medicinal plants (amanyasi), in the kitchen
where women have most of their chores performed. It could also be by the river side
where women go to fetch water or men go to water the cattle. Here, the parents
engage children at a personal level; the passing on of the said information is very
intimate and important.
The other option is where both parents sit down with their children and teach them
atonement, according to their family. These types of atonements are specific ones as
they have to do with the said family only. Accordin~ to Mungoni, a traditionalist from
Munganga sub-location, parents are to instruct their children on the amachina
akelitaala (family stone altar), so that the family altar is maintained. If this does not
happen, then, the said family will start experiencing strange happens that may cause
harm to its members. Family secrets are passed on through this way also. These
(
secrets may include some sins that may need atonement in future, either deterring
,
some spells or wanting to revenge for something that may have happened before these
children were born.
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Another way in which micro-teaching took place is observation, either participant or
non-participant observation. Wangulu, an informant from Emayoni sub-location,
informs this research that every morning a Muwanga father gets up, he is to visit the
family altar and utter a blessing for the family. The father also beseeches Were to
bless and protect the family from the attacks of the enemies. The first born son is
always to accompany the father; at whose death he is to take over the responsibility as
a family priest.
The next method used, at a micro-level, is participation in family atonement exercises.
Wangulu, an informant to this research, who comes from Mulukhuna says that, it is
the duty of the parents to send their children to atonement rituals and especially those
that have to do with the said family. Nababa is a good example. Wangulu informs this
researcher of what is uttered during nababa,
Olumbe lwiranga abandu olulali nolunyasi noho omusaala tawe, olumbe
lweshiranda, nende lwokhwisero lutsie munyanza. Eshifwabi nende
oluswa fikholomoshe nifitsia munyaza. Orushieno nende efinanyenze
fiosi fitsie munyanza.Illnesses, deformities and diseases that are
untreatable, those that don't have yet known medicines; those that make
people stay in their sick beds for a long time should be taken to the lake.
All forms of immoral behavior should follow and go to the lake and
finally the evil spirits should also go to the lake and stay there
never to disturb the people any longer.
Every parent must send their children out to join other families in chasing the above
mentioned and particularly the evil spirits, by way of nab ab a to go in the sea. By
participating in this ritual, children come to know of this atonement practice.
This research established that the Wanga community regards the lake a~ a place where
bad spirits which are responsible for evil and immoral behaviors live. These are
therefore, supposed to be dealt with in the lake. In the biblical atonement, evil is dealt
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with at the cross of Jesus. It must also be noted that evil can not be sent to the lake
because there are people who live and work in the lake; Christ Jesus loves these
people and would not like to see them attacked by the evil spirits brought in by those
who live on the land.
People were also taught about atonement at the micro-level by way of sayings or what
can be referred to as speech teaching mechanism. Here, Wanga proverbs, stories and
riddles are used to teach people who may not be aware of the importance of
atonement. Wawire, an informant from Khalaba, gives examples of such literature,
Eyoluswa beraanga eyene. The cowthat does things that are not good is the one
thatis slaughtered.
Although the reference is to a cow, this is just a figure of speech to mean a person
who does inhuman actions. Such a person engages themselves in abominable things
such as incest. According to Wawire, if one is found to have committed incest, there
is no atonement for such a person. If the elders are convinced that indeed the person
committed such a sin, a hunting plan is hatched. This is not an ordinary hunting
expedition! In this plan the culprit is convinced to come along with other young men
,
for the hunting exercise. The young men are under oath and strict instructions to kill
the culprit in the hunting field. Once they reach the hunting field, the culprit is
strategically positioned and killed. The girl is equally killed by way of poison by the
elderly women. Wawire goes ahead to explain that if these two are not eliminated,
then bad omen will befall the Wanga community. Such sin can not be atoned for.
Following the story of Wawire, this research submits that in the Wanga community
there are some sins that can not be atoned for. This brings in the death penalty in the
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Wangalegal system; because such a victim must be done away with. This takes away
notonly the sinner but the sin also.
2.22.2 Macro-Teaching Methods
At the macro-level, there are formalized ways of teaching to young and old people
about atonement. Special sessions are arranged, especially for the young. After
circumcision, boys are taught various aspects of Wanga life, one of which is
atonement. Not only does this occur during circumcision time but at adolescent age
also. Here both boys and girls are formally taught about atonement. The boys are
taught by the male elders and the girls are taught by female elders. These teachings,
according to Anangwe, one of the informants of this research, from Emakhwale, took
place at specific sessions, for the boys it could be in the forest; while they undergo
healing, after circumcision, while for the girls it is held in the sleeping quarters. At
times, this can take place in special meetings called eshikhasio.
Atonement can also be taught by way of public naming and shaming; mainly through
songs. This is done particularly during circumcision season. One of the examples of
these is the following song;
Osindikha busa abene khwamanya khwabikha omundu. Oyoo Ni nanu
oyoo Nikhaanda. Yakhola ariena yanyasia eliani, liani shi? Likondi. Do
not speak about it, we know ourselves;someonemessed up with relish.
Who is this? It is Khaanda!What did he do? He had sex with an animal!
Whichone? The sheep!
From the above song, the young ones and those who do not know, would start
inquiring of what can be done to save Khaanda; and then, teaching about atonement
begins from such a conversation.
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People are also taught about atonement during functions such as omwiimo (memorial
services). During this function, Owokhusens omusee is called in to teach the people.
Owokhusena omusee is sometimes referred to as Owokhuswala omusee. This is a
person who knows, the family, clan, Wanga history, literature and culture; and who is
able to teach by way of prose without much difficulty.
Such a person as, described above is called in, to teach about the."importance of
atonement among the Abawanga. This person teaches by way of recitation of different
proses. Anangwe says that the elders pre-arrange the appearing of this teacher on
stage so that it would seem that he has appeared almost from nowhere, done the
recitation and disappeared without trace.
The other way of teaching is by way of observation, active or non- active; where
everyone participates in the atonement ritual. Such rituals are the nababa and the
okhufuwa collective atonement rituals; where everyone actively participates. Through
such rituals people came to know of the importance of atonement. There are others
where, some people are told only to observe and not to actively participate; such as
the cosmic forms of atonement described before.
2.23 The Qualifications of the Wanga Atoner
Atonement being such an important doctrine in the Wanga community requires that
only outstanding men and women be considered for the job of an atoner. According to
Omusula, an informant from Elukaka village, these qualifications are divided into
three: individual, family and the wide community qualifications.
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2.23.1 Individual Qualifications
Marriage is very important in the Wanga community; as one is never allowed to
participate, leave alone lead, in any traditional activity of the community without it.
Karakacha, one of the elders of abamuniafu clan, of the Wanga people from Elubari
village is very vocal over marriage; he says that, it is only after marriage that one is
considered an adult in this community. That is to say, children cannot lead people in
atonement functions! He also says that, the first individualised atonement Okhwinjisia
omukhasi (welcoming the wife) takes place after marriage; whereby, the husband by
the guidance of a chosen officiator gives amanyasi to his new wife, as a way of
initiation into the new family. The wife in return offers her husban~ porridge. It is
believed that the amanyasi offers protection to this new member of the family, while
porridge speaks of sustainability. This is the first atonement act for this new family.
2.23.2 Societal Qualifications
Atonement officiators should be people without blemish in the society, living
exemplary lives. These people must be strict followers of societal norms and taboos.
"
This means that they must, as a matter of fact, have their own family shrines that can
seen by the community. One example given by Khisa, one of the informants of this
research from Khabukoshe village says,
Okhuula oseene omwimo kwa kuuka kho osene omwimo kwa papa
nohomba kwa omundu wundi. One must have performed a memorial
service for one's grand father fust, before doing one for the father or
any other person.
KENYATTA IJNIVFRSITY IIRR~
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If one did not perform the memorial service of one's grand father as mentioned by
Khisa, then, it is a taboo to perfume or be allowed to participate in any of such
services.
For one to be allowed to lead in the atonement rituals, it must be established that the
individual is a God fearer. Both Omusula and Washiali (informants te this research),
agree that anyone who qualifies as an atoner must have a family altar made of special
stones in his home from where Were talks to him. The making of the family altar is
referred to as,
Okhuraaka amachina okhurula khushikulu shia Masaba. Amachina
kataru, ka Kuuka.Papa nende abalibao. The shrin= is made up of
three stones dedicated to the grand father, the father and those who
will live after then.
If the planting of the stones has not happened then, one cannot be allowed to lead
others in a ritual that one has not undergone. The amachina planting exercise gives
proof that one is a God fearer and that he/she is now able to know Hie plans of God
for the day.
These people must also be experts in their field of operations. Omurunga, a Church
elder from Mumias, confirms to this. study that one can not be allowed to practice
medicine if one does not have a proof of training from the elders who are themselves
experts in the field of medicine. At times it is believed that a person can inherit from
their parent; a kind of 'lineage theory.' Here Omurunga says that the gods are
responsible for such a phenomenon. It is said in this case, the person got filled with
traditional clan spirit that enters fellow clan member so that they are able to perform
the said specialised duties such as the practicing of medicine;
omusambwa kweikholo kamutila. The spirit of the clan caughthim.
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Technicalknowledge is the most affected in this 'god' theory that involves specialists;
suchas artisans, circumcisers, farmers and intelligent hunters.
2.24 Sacrificial Places
Among the Abawanga, the place where atonement rituals take place matters a great
deal.The efficacy and the working of the rituals are, in most cases, determined by the
t
place where this particular ritual takes place. For personal and family rituals, the
concerned family chooses the place where atonement is to be done. Chitechi and
Anangwe (Wanga traditionalists) informed this study that, three special stones,
collected from Mount Masaba (Mt. Elgon), are planted in every traditional Muwanga
home. They should be planted on the east of the main house. It is on these stones that
tr , husband offers prayers and libations every morning; that atonement rituals, in
most cases, will take place. At times, this can also take place either in the house or in
front of the house of the affected place, such as the place where the suicide was
,"
committed. The other place is the forest, or by the riverside. This type of ritual must
be of community interest for it to take place in public places. Whatever the case,
atonement is only done at designated places.
2.25 Wanga Atonement and Niebuhr's Christ and Culture Theory
Looking keenly at the necessity of atonement, among the Wanga people, reveals that
something foreign has interfered with the people's culture. It has gripped the society
so much that they cannot, on their own, free themselves from it; they need another
higher and equally foreign power to free them from this foreign thing that has
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unbalanced them. What this research has understood from this phenomenon is that,
sin, evil and guilt have infiltrated the Wanga culture and as such some of the things
that form the Wanga culture are rendered as bad. Niebuhr would thus say that, only
this bad sinful, evil and guilt culture is worth removing and not the whole culture.
That is, only the bad actions produced by these bad people, in a partially bad society,
that produces evil, sin and guilt need atonement, and not the whole culture.
From what this research has observed above, somewhere along the line, sin, evil and
guilt have entered and corrupted the Wanga culture. Christ, therefore, seeks to correct
the corruption that might have crept into culture and restore its original state. The
Wanga atonement should, therefore, seek to bring back what was initially corrupted
by sin, evil and guilt. By doing so, Wanga atonement would become restorative in
nature, just ~s the biblical atonement is.
In the New Testament, atonement must be viewed as a restorative agent that brings
together God and the Wanga people; by way of Christ's sacrificial life and death.
Through Christ's atoning death, the atonement that results in restored relationships is
not a human achievement but the work of God within humanity. Having looked at the
Wanga religio-cultural symbols of atonement, which involves blood, just like Christ
poured his blood for humanity; it may be observed that God has remotely prepared the
Wanga people through this culture.
Among the Wanga people, atonement removes sin, evil and guilt, which are anti-
Christ by nature. These acts that produce sin, evil and guilt, in the Wanga culture are
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theelements that need to be redeemed by Christ (Neighbuhr 1975: 47). These are the
actionsthat this study argues that the Abawanga cannot get themselves out of.
Theeshinokhonokho (repetitive nature of evil events and general curse) concept of the
Wanga community is the fitting explanation of the history of sin a~d its effect on
humanity. That is, the sin which was committed by the grand parent is committed by
the father and subsequently the son; this can be equated to the biblical 'Adamic' sin.
The Adamic sin affects the people not only on who they are, but also on what they
are; this is because of their cultural affiliation with Adam. Culture, therefore, becomes
sinful, not by intent or design, but by human nature. It is from this original sin that
Christ saves the Wanga. Here is where guilt is categorized; this being the case then,
the Wanga atonement rituals, which are part of their culture, have some sinful
elements and need r Jemption by Christ. A good example is, where killers (offenders)
would be killed instead of being forgiven.
Concerning Neighbuhr's thought, Christ of culture theory, the Wanga culture is
generally good (Neighbuhr 1975: 87). This is evident in the way the rituals of
atonement are carried out in this culture; it is by way of blood, which is the way of the
bible too! The biblical meaning of atonement is thus already embedded within the
Wanga culture. Now that Wanga culture is good, Holy Scriptures need to
constructively interact with this good Wanga culture.
Among the Wanga people, there are several elements of atonement which include
bloody and none - bloody ones. The rituals too have several processes, and if not
appropriately followed then the efficacy of the said atonement is put to question. This
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being the case then, Wanga atonement has to look up to Christ for the perfect
atonement (Neibuhr 1975: 118). In this case, biblical atonement becomes a standard
for all cultures to follow; and the Wanga culture is no exception! Hence Wanga
practice of atonement needs to be elevated to Christ's atonement for it to be truly
Wanga and truly Christian.
Christ and culture in paradox paints a picture of a Wanga culture that is in conflict
with Christ. Here, some elements in culture and all their ingredients have nothing to
do with Christ (Neibuhr 1975: 149-150). A good example is the namwima processes
of atonement; all that is said and performed in the namwima contradict Christ. As
such, all these elements of culture need to be redeemed. Wanga atonement practices
and rituals need to be looked at closely and be reconsidered in the light of the gospel
teachings.
2.26 Summary of Wanga Atonement Process
It was generally agreed by all the respondents that atonement is on,e of the rituals
practiced among the Wanga people. Atonement comes in as a result of sin, evil and
guilt. The practice of the concept of atonement recognizes the existence of sin in this
community. Therefore, atonement becomes one of the ways of dealing with sin.
Atonement in the Wanga community is divided into two categories, major and minor
atonement. These atonements are guided by the level of the sin committed, the place
norms and values that are responsible for guiding this community. Atonement is also
"
where sin was committed and the magnitude of sin committed based on the Wanga
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guided by the structure of evil; which is classified as, personal, religious and social.
Based on these, then a specified atonement is prescribed.
The respondents underscored the importance of atonement by claiming that, no one
was supposed to atone for anyone's sin if they are not from the Wanga community.
That, atoners had to have prescribed qualifications set by the Wanga people, without
which, the efficacy, validity and authenticity of the said atonement is put to question.
As such, much care is taken in matters of selecting people who are to teach the young
Abawanga or those who join the Wanga community by either default or marriage the
concept of atonement. In all these, atonement becomes a unifying factor among these
people.
2.27 Conclusion
Sin, evil and guilt are the three things that are responsible for bad relationships among
the Wanga community. These do not only spoil relationships among the living but
with the living dead as well; which is addressed through atonement. What this speaks
to this research is that without the three elements above, atonement has no use; it
becomes a parasitic concept.
Atonement is very important for the peaceful co-existence of both the natural and the
supernatural world. It brings together people and spirits, who would otherwise be
potential enemies. Atonement, therefore, is the bridge for both the living and the
living dead to reach out to each other. It plays a mediatory role that unites the natural
and the supernatural. Atonement can be said to be the place where justice meets
mercy. Here the offender, repents and restitutes to the offended and in return, the
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offender is accepted while the offended receives justice. Atonement in this case
restoresthe balance of nature; bringing back the situation that prevailed before, so that
lifeharmoniously continues.
In view of what this research found out, the Wanga traditional concept of atonement
rotates around the Wanga culture and as such, the practice of atopement is also
culturally - imbedded. Therefore, the cultural aspect of the concept of atonement
proves the researcher's premise; the Abawanga had their own ways, of instilling into
their community the concept of atonement, which to a large extent controlled their
lives.
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CHAPTER THREE: BIBLICAL UNDERSTANDING OF ATONEMENT
3.1 Introduction
In chapter two, the researcher investigated the concept of atonement, in its thought
and practice among the Wanga people. In this chapter, the main concern is, to survey
the biblical understanding of the nature and process of atonement. This then, links the
Wanga perception of atonement and the biblical perception of the same. This is the
chapter that determines what is gospelled and what is not, in both the Wanga and the
Christian perception of atonement. As such, it is in this chapter that the foundation of
inculturation is determined.
For any attempt at inculturating atonement among Wang> to be successful, a detailed
biblical understanding of atonement should be done. It is only through such study that
a meaningful translation of the concept of atonement can be carried out from the
biblical perspective into the Wanga perspective; producing an authentically
acceptable Wanga Christian atonement theology. For this reason, the objective of this
chapter is to look at the biblical understanding of the nature and process of atonement.
To attain this objective, this study looked at the five biblical categories of atonement;
which include obedience, sacrifice, reconciliation, propitiation and redemption. As for
the process of atonement, this study looked at how this was carried out in !he Old
Testament and how it relates to the New Testament. The extent of atonement is also
important, for it enabled the study to establish the coverage of atonement in relation to
the said process. This is because, in the Old Testament, the process was, by and large
determined by the extent.
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3.2 The Nature of Atonement
According to Wall ace (1981: 67 - 70), atonement is concerned with the ways which
according to the scripture, characterizes Christ's vicarious undertakings and
accomplishments. Murrey (1969: 34) argues that these undertakings and
accomplishments that Wallace talks about are embodied in five major categories.
These are obedience, sacrifice, propitiation, reconciliation and redemption. He singles
obedience out, as the most basic and inclusive of these five categories. This study
submits that, obedience is the motivation behind the four other categories mentioned
by Murrey. Without this, the vicarious undertakings and accomplishments of Christ
,
would not have been possible. The nature of atonement also includes its extent;
because the five mentioned categories have specific realms of operation.
3.3 Obedience in the Bible
Douglas et-al (1993: 852) look at biblical obedience as God's demand that His
revelations be taken as a rule for humanity's whole life. In God's promulgation of the
Old Testament, the emphasis was on obedience, as a requirement, if people were to
enjoy God's favour. Even though Douglas et-al talk of obedience being a rule
requirement for people to enjoy God's favour, this research also notes that obedience,
in the Old Testament, was given as a gift to humankind in order that they may enjoy
God's favour. According to Anderson (1979: 216 - 225), both Jeremiah 31:33; 32:40
and Ezekiel 36:26 talk of God doing good to the people, with whom He has
established a covenant. The Lord promises to inspire humankind to fear and respect
Him so that they will not turn away from Him in future. Anderson goes ahead to say
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that this fear and respect is motivational, based on the future position of humankind.
That is, humankind will be placed in a position of favour before God. This study
establishes therefore that, this time obedience is given not as a rule requirement but as
an act of grace. The life of obedience must therefore, be a life lived in imitating God
inHis holiness and Christ in His humility.
Based on Douglas et-al's (1993: 852) definition of obedience, Mozley (1962: 74)
cites Isaiah 52:13; 53:12 as the most appropriate passage in scripture that provides
more instruction on the topic of atonement, in terms of obedience. He says that, it is in
the capacity of servanthood that Jesus Christ, the person in view, is introduced; and it
is in the same capacity he executes his expiatory function. Carson (1994: 663 - 664)
says that, this obedience is expressed by way of pouring out the life of the servant for
the sake of humankind as found in Isaiah 53: 1-11. Commenting c.. the same
scriptural passage, Nsiku (2006: 845) says, that the title servant derives its meaning
from the fact that Jesus is the father's servant, not the servant of the people (Isaiah
52:13). A careful scrutiny of Nsiku's argument shows that Nsiku establishes the
source and direction of Jesus Christ's servanthood and not the servant's function.
What Nsiku seems to be saying is that Jesus Christ's servanthood stems from God and
not people; which implies subjection to and fulfilment of the father's and not the
people's will.
In support of the above scholars, Erickson (2005: 792) submits that, the concept
servant defines Jesus Christ's commitment and obedience in the execution of His
atonement duties; as an obedient servant to His master, who is the Lord. In the New
Testament, Jesus Christ confirms what the Old Testament foretold about Him in terms
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of His obedience to the father: "I came down from heaven, not to do my own will,
but the will of him that sent me (John 6:38)." Looking at obedience, as a demand of
Christ's atoning work, Barnes (1960: 134) quotes Philippians 2:7-8; in this scripture
St. Paul claims that though Jesus was God, He made Himself of no reputation and
took upon Him the form of a servant. Barnes therefore equates Paul's argument to
Isaiah 52: 13-53, where the servant is portrayed as suffering. According to him, these
two scriptural passages represent the climactic event of Jesus' commitment; through
death on the cross, as an act of obedience.
Based on the above discussion, this research submits that, the view of obedience must
not be looked at quantitatively. This submission comes out of the conviction that
obedience did not and does not consist simply in the sum total of formal acts of
obedience. It is important however to note that obedience springs fro'. the
dispositional complex of motive, intention, direction and purpose. Since the Lord was
truly human and fulfilled the father's will in human nature, humankind must
appreciate the progression in knowledge, understanding, resolution and will; which
t
was necessary and was expressed in the discharging of the father's will, in its
increasing demands upon Christ, until these demands reached their climax upon death
on the cross. According to Gaebelein (2009: 49), this explains the word in Hebrews
5:8, 'He learned obedience from the things which He suffered; at no point was He
disobedient.
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3.4 Sacrifice
According to Murrey (1969: 35), there is abundant evidence in the New Testament to
show that Christ's giving of himself is to be construed in terms of sacrificial offering.
He derives this claim from Pauline epistles, particularly, 1Corinthians 5:1-7 and Eph.
5:2. In these scriptures, St. Paul says that Jesus Christ became the paschal lamb that
was sacrificed for humankind. Accordingly then, it is not only the express statements
mentioned from these scriptural passages which support the thesis, but also references
that can only be interpreted in terms of the altar of sacrifice, like Hebrews l3: 10-l3.
In this scripture, the bible talks of Jesus Christ as the one who was sacrificed outside
the camp; meaning, out of the Jewish holy city of Jerusalem.
According to Erickson (2005: 822), the notion of sacrifice (which touches on Christ
Jesus) spoken of by St. Paul in the New Testament is derived from the Old Testament.
The allusion to the sacrificial ritual, of the Levitical economy, makes it apparent that,
the latter provided the type in terms of which the sacrifice of Christ was to be
interpreted. Consequently, this sacrifice was necessary to atone for the sin, which
inherently deserved punishment. The Old Testament sacrifices were thus expiatory of
guilt; which is particularly true of the sin offerings; in line with some of the New
Testament passages, like Hebrews l3: 10-l3 which is mentioned above. In line with
expiatory sacrifice, Bemes (1962: 258 - 265), says that the idea of expiation is the
removal of the liability accruing from sin by way of sacrifice. This research submits
that sacrifice, therefore, becomes the provision whereby this liability is removed. It is
the substitutive endurance of penalty and transference of liability from the sinner to
the sacrificial victim.
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In support of the above argument by Erickson and Barnes, Matthews (1993,305) says
that the Old Testament sacrifices were truly typological of the sacrifice Of Christ.
Isaiah 53: 10 expressly applies to the self sacrifice of the servant; which was
figuratively represented by the trespass offering. In New Testament passages, as
indicated before, the Levitical offerings provided the analogy after which Christ's
sacrifice is to be understood; but of more significance is the fact that the sacrifice of
Christ is the archetype after which they were patterned. They were patterns of the
things in the heavens and only figures of the true (Heb 9:23, 24) Christ's offering is
the heavenly example. This is the additional confirmation that what was signified in
shadow, by the ritual offerings, namely expiation, was transcendently and really true
in the sacrifice of Christ.
This study, in support of the above scholars, submits that the Old Testament
sacrificial system was a fore shadow of Jesus Christ's' perfect sacrifice, which is later
revealed in the New Testament. Here, then, the foreshadow portrays the outline of the
reality. It is, however, this truth that the sacrifice of Christ is the heavenly reality, that
insures the efficacy, finality and perfection of Christ's sacrifice in contrast to the
obvious shortcomings of the levitical offerings (Hebrews 9:9 -28). Heb.lO:14 states,
'by one offering he hath perfected for ever them that are sanctified.' This being the
case then, Christ's sacrifice must have eternal effect. This is manifested in Niebuhr's
(1975: 46 - 48) theory of Christ above culture. It must be understood that in this
particular theory, Christ has to be above all culture for Him to offer a sacrifice that
has eternal efficacy, which includes all cultures and yet above all of them.
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3.5 Propitiation
The language of propitiation is also applied to the work of Jesus Christ, in the New
Testament (1 John 2:2; 4:10). In this scripture, St. John portrays Jesus Christ as the
propitiator of the sins of the world. According to Mozley (1962, 36-40), plausible
attempts have been made to interpret propitiation in terms of expiation and thus avoid
the importance of propitiation. He says that, the erroneous belief of these attempts has
been successfully demonstrated by scholarly and painstaking study of the biblical
data. The reason for the attempt to relieve the work of Christ, of strictly propitiatory
character is obvious. To propitiate means to pacify, to conciliate, to make propitious;
which presupposes that the person propitiated is angry and needs to be pacified. If
Christ propitiates, it must be God who is to be propitiated. Battrick (1981, 920),
agrees with Mzley, when he submits that propitiation does not speak of an angry God
but instead speaks of the removal of sin by way of sacrifice. He therefore argues that
the propitiation should be understood as expiation; thus bring in the idea of God
reconciling the world through Jesus Christ's life and sacrificial death.
This study also, submits that, one cannot think of God as needing to be pacified or
made propitious by the blood of Christ. If the atonement springs from the love of the
father and is the provision of His love, as has been shown above; it is not a
contradiction to maintain that Jesus Christ conciliated by that which is the expression
of His love? The expression of God's love finds life and being in Christ Jesus who
was the lamb of expiation. This is what expiates for the universal sin of humanity. If
invincible love is antecedent, then no place remains for the pacifying of wrath!
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This study supports Unger and White's (1993: 107 - 108) admission that, there is
deplorable confusion in this line of reasoning; to love and to be propitious is not
convertible terms. Even in the human sphere, the unique object of love may at the
same time be the unique object of wrath and displeasure. It is the denial of God's
holiness in relation to sin, as the contradiction of what God is and what God demands,
not to recognize that sin must evoke God's wrath. Just as sins belong to persons, so
the wrath rests upon the persons who are the agents of sin. Grudem (2005,562) adding
to what the above two scholars have said, observes that, those who God loved with
invincible love were the children of wrath, as Saint Paul expressly says in Eph 2:3. In
this particular scriptural passage, Paul says that by nature humankind were, children
of wrath. It is to this fact that the propitiation made by Christ is directed to those who,
by nature, deserved God's punishment. Those who God loved were the children of
wrath! It is this truth that enhances the marvel of his love.
The implication for this study is that, the doctrine of the propitiation is, that God
loved the objects of His wrath so much that he gave His own son to the end that He,
by His blood, should make provision for the removal of God's wrath. It was Christ's
to deal with the wrath so that those loved .would no longer be the objects of wrath.
Love would achieve its aim of making the children of wrath the children of God's
pleasure. It is in this perspective that atonement is dispensed with the necessity and
.'
glory of propitiation.
According to Murrey (1969: 35), the disposition to deny or even underrate the
doctrine of propitiation betrays a bias that is prejudicial to the atonement as such. He
submits that, atonement means that Christ bore people's sins and in bearing sins, He
bore its judgment as well. According to Romans 5:12; 6:23, death in itself is the
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judgment of God upon sin. In this scripture, St. Paul observes that the wages of sin is
death. He goes ahead and asserts that, Christ died for no other reasons, other than
death which is the remuneration of sin and that is the epitome of the judgment of God
which drew God's wrath upon humankind. If what Murrey asserts is anything to go
by, then, Jesus Christ in place of humanity met the whole judgment of God. He must
have endured that which constitutes the essence of this judgment.
Commenting on Murrey's thought of propitiation, Barnes (1969: 222) wonders, about
the superficial notion that the vicarious endurance of wrath is incompatible with the
immutable love of God to Christ! Barnes answers himself, by confirming that, the
father loved the son with the unchangeable and infinite love. He says that, the
discharge of the father's will in the extremities of Gethsemane's agony and the
abandonment of Calvary elicited the supreme delight of the father (In 10:17). In
concluding his argument he reckons that, love and wrath are not contradictory; love
(
and hatred are. It is only that because Jesus was the son, loved immutably as such and
loved increasingly in his messianic capacity as he progressively fulfilled the demands
of the father's commission, that he could bear the full stroke of judicial wrath. This is
inscribed on the most mysterious utterance that ever ascended from earth to heaven,
"my God my God, why hast thou forsaken me; Matt. 27:46?
The above argument creates another puzzle; God in the nature of humanity forsaken
by God! Here is the wonder of the father's love and ofthe sons love too. How pitiable
is the short-sightedness that blinds humanity to its grandeur and that .fails to see the
necessity and glory of propitiation. St. John wrote, "Herein is love, not that we loved
God, but that he loved us and sent His son a propitiation for our sins" (1 Jn 4: 10).
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Christ is truly the propitiation for the sins of humanity, because He ..propitiated the
wrath which was humanity's damnation. The idea of the propitiation of sin, in this
study, brings in the government theory of atonement advanced by Grotius (1583 -
1645). According to Ryrie (1998: 309), God's government demanded the death of
Christ to show God's displeasure with sin. Based on the judicial system, God
accepted Christ's suffering as a substitute for the penalty of sin. Thus the justice of
God was satisfied by the death of Jesus Christ.
In the quest for solving the above puzzle, this research submits that God, sent Jesus
not only to die but to live as an example and to die as a sacrifice in place of humanity
and as such the act of propitiation is not only in death as both Grotius and Ryrie
would want to put it, but, in life and death Jesus Christ's work of propitiation is
manifested. If this was not the case, then God is to be seen as a personality who takes
pleasure in His son's suffering so that He is gratified; and the people propitiated.
3.6 Reconciliation
According to Grudem (2005: 712), sacrifice has in view the exigency arising from the
wrath of God, so reconciliation is concerned with humanity's alienation from God and
the need of having that alienation redressed. Ronald (1981: 18) reveals that, in the
scripture the actual terms used with reference to the reconciliation, which Christ
achieved on the cross, are to the effect that, humanity is reconciled to God and that
God reconciles humankind to Himself. Never is it expressly stated that God is
reconciled to humanity. It has often been stated, therefore, that the cross of Christ, in
so far as it contemplated reconciliation, did not terminate upon God to the removal of
109
God's alienation from humanity; but simply and solely upon people themselves, to the
removal of their alienation from God. In other words it is not that which God has
against humanity that is dealt with in the reconciliation but only with humanity's
hostility against God. Wallace (1981, 19-26), sees it strange, that scholars should be
so persistent with what is, to say the least, so superficial an interpretat~on of the usage
ofthe scripture, in reference to the term in question. He concludes by saying that, it is
not to be denied that the reconciliation is concerned with humanity's hostility against
God. Reconciliation deals with sin and the evil preceding it; which is hostility towards
God.
Pushing further on the concept of reconciliation, Thiessen (1979, 238) takes the
example of Matthew 5:24, "Be reconciled to thy brother" and he argues that in this
t
passage, the use of the word 'reconcile' should caution scholars against a common
inference. In this instance the person bringing his gift to the altar is reminded that his
brother has something against him. It is this grievance on the part of the other person
that is seen as interrupting his act of worship. It is the grievance and, in that sense,
'the against' of the other, that the worshiper must take into account. More so, it is the
removal of that grievance that, of 'that against', that the reconciliation which Christ is
required to effect contemplates. He is to do all that is necessary to remove the
alienation in the mind and attitude of the other.
Based on the above arguments, the researcher submits that, the situation requiring
reconciliation is the frame of mind or the attitude of the other and what the
reconciliation must affect is the change of mind on the part of, the person called the
110
brother. Thus, people are pointed in a very different direction from that which might
have been expected from the mere formula, 'be reconciled.'
Although it is the 'against' of the brother that is in this view requires a change, the
extortion, as in terms of being reconciled to God, can well mean that what the
reconciliation has in view is God's alienation from humankind. Ladd (1974: 428 -
432) gives another example that points in the same direction as Thiessen (1979: 236)
in Romans 11: 15 'For if the casting away of them is the reconciling of the world,
what shall the receiving of them be, but life from the dead?' The casting away is that
of Israel; and the reconciling is that of the gentile nations. The casting away is
contrasted with the reconciliation and the meaning of the latter is to be discovered
from this contrasted with the receiving, that is, the receiving of Israel back again. The
casting away can be nothing other than the rejection of Israel, from the divine favour;
and blessing from which for a time they had been excluded. It is apparent that in both
words the thought is focused upon the relation of Israel to God's favour and the
blessings found in salvation.
This study submits that, reconciliation, being in contrast with casting away, must
mean the reception of the gentiles into the favour of God and the blessing from the
gospel; it is the relation to God's favour that is expressed. Hence it is upon the change
in the disposition of God and the change in the resulting relationship of God to the
gentiles that this thought is focused in the word reconciliation. According to this
study, the above demonstrates that the term can be used with reference to a change
that takes place in God's mind and relation with reference to humanity. Humankind
should thus be prepared for the appreciation of the teaching of the scripture on the
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reconciliation accomplished by Christ in his death. Any proper assessment of the,
nature and liabilities of sin shows that sin separated humanity from the favour and
,
fellowship of God. It elicits, not only the wrath of God, but also in its complement, sin
alienates people from God. The alienation is the result of humanity's estrangement
from God. The latter is sinful and constitutes humanity's sin but the former is holy as
is God's wrath (Spencer 1950, 465-470). It is that holy alienation that reconciliation
contemplates and is directed to its removal. This is the gospel of the reconciliation,
and what a gap there would be in the atonement if it did not provide for this
requirement of humankind's sinful state. If reconciliation consists in the change that
t
takes place in the heart of humanity; from hate to penitence and love, then
reconciliation must be something inward; it is a change in the subjective disposition
attitude of humankind.
According to Douglas et-al (1993: 1012), thinking of the concept of reconciliation, at
times becomes challenging; especially adjusting the teaching of the two most relevant
passages to this conception Rom 5:8-11 and 1Cor 5:18-21. According to these
scriptural passages, it is the greatness of God's own love towards humanity that is
being accented. This love is demonstrated by two considerations. One, that Christ
died for humanity; and two, that Jesus Christ died for the sins of humankind while
they were yet sinners. In Douglas et-al's thought, the attention is directed to what God
did when people were still in their sinful state. This verse further communicates the
essence of what follows in the next three verses. For the clause 'Christ died for us (vs-
8)' is expanded in verse 10 in the words 'we were reconciled to God through the death
of His son."
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3.7 Redemption
No category is inscribed more deeply upon the consciousness of the church of Christ
than that of redemption. No song of the saints is more characteristic than the praise of
"
redemption by Jesus' blood: "Thou wast slain, and hast redeemed us to God by thy
blood out of every kindred, and tongue, and people, and nation" (Rev. 5:9).
In Garett's (2000: 317 - 321) thought, redemption sees the atonement from its own
distinctive aspect. Sacrifice views the atonement from the perspective of guilt,
propitiation from that of wrath and reconciliation from that of alienation. Redemption
has in view the bondage to which sin has consigned humanity; and it views the work
of Jesus Christ, not simply as deliverance from bondage, but in terms of ransom.
Garrett Joes ahead and claims that, the word of God settles this necessity; "The Son
of man came not to be ministered unto, but to minister, and to give his life as ransom
for many" Matt. 20:28.
Building on Garett's argument, Berkhof (1984, 385-394), speaks of three propositions
that lie on the face of this declaration. One, the work Jesus came to do was one of
ransom. Two, the giving of Christ's life was the ransom price. Three, the ransom price
was substitutionary in character and design. In his argument, Berkhof refers to the
following scriptural passages, Eph. 1:7, Col. 1:14, 1 Tim. 2:6, ru-2: 14. In these
passages Jesus Christ's death is seen as a ransom; St. Paul says that, In Jesus Christ,
humankind have been redeemed and have been forgiven of their sins. In Berkhof's
thought, the death of Christ was a ransom paid to satisfy any claim Satan had against
humanity; a theory that was first advanced by Origen (AD 185 - 2540). Grenz (1994:
113
450 - 451) however, comments that Satan was deceived; and claims that the bible
does not say anything about, to whom a ransom was paid.
A clear analysis of the arguments and the language in the texts above shows and
describes redemption as the act of securing release by the payment of a price; and it is
this concept that is applied expressly to the laying down of Jesus Christ's life. The
new song of the redeemed is, "Thou was slain, and hast redeemed us, to God by thy
blood Rev. 5:9." One cannot doubt that, when Paul says, "Ye were bought with a
price, in 1 Cor. 6:20; 7:23." This study observes that, the price being talked of here is
none other than the priceless blood of Christ.
3.7.1 Redemption from Sin
Deliverance, or salvation from sin, is basic in the saving action of Jesus Christ. It is
sufficient to be reminded that this is the meaning of the name 'Jesus' (Matt. 1:21).
The title 'Savior' is that by which Christ is frequently identified: He is the Lord and
savior Jesus Christ. The saving action comprehends much more than is expressly
specified in the term redemption. In the researcher's view, all of the five categories,
obedience, sacrifice, reconciliation, propitiation and redemption; in which the
atonement is defined sustain a direct relation to sin and its liabilities. Apart from
express statements to this effect, people should have to understand that, if redemption
contemplates humanity's bondage and secures release by ransom, the bondage must
have in view, that which is not only, arising from sin, but the express intimations that
must also be appreciated. Christ Jesus, Paul states, "gave Himself for humankind, that
He might redeem people from all iniquity, and purify for Himself a, people for His
114
own possession, zealous of good works" ( Titus 2:14). Rahner (1978: 282 - 283),
thinks that, though the relation to humanity's sins is not as expressly stated, it is
equally implied when redemption through Jesus' blood is defined as "the forgiveness
of our trespasses" in Eph. 1:7. Similarly, Bowie et-al (1985: 693 - 699) claim that, it
is the reference to 'transgression' in Hebrews 9:15; that is, Jesus Christ's death was
for the redemption under the first covenant.
What all these say to this study, is that sin is overt and as such, this research submits
that, even where sin is not mentioned, it is nevertheless present. The assumed liability
therefore, makes redemption necessary and gives character to it, as seen in Rom. 3:24.
This reference to sin finds its Old Testament counterpart in Psalm 13q: 7-8, that with
the Lord is "plenteous redemption" and that "He shall redeem Israel from all the
iniquities."
According to Spencer (1950: 469 - 470), the bondage which sin entails for humanity
is threefold; guilt, defilement, and power. All three aspects come within the scope of
the redemption work by Jesus Christ. It would not be feasible to dissociate any of
these aspects from the passages which reflect on Jesus Christ's redemptive,
accomplishment; but it may be as well that, the redemptive thought is more
particularly focused on one aspect in some passages and on another in other passages.
He gives Rom 3:24, as an example; he says that, by reason of the context, it is no
doubt that this passage talks of the provision of sin as guilt. Spencer goes ahead and
claims that the same is true ofEph. 1:7. However, in Titus 2:14 sin is probably seen as
guilt and defilement that is contemplated.
ll5
Now that the aspect of sin as power is so frequently neglected, it is necessary to
devote more attention to this feature of the biblical teaching, This aspect, according to
Keener (1993: 428), was uppermost in the mind of Zacharias when he said: "he hath
visited and wrought redemption for his people" (Luke 1:68). In the succeeding verses
Keener says that, the references to the "horn of salvation and to salvation from our
enemies and from the hand of all who hate us" vss. 69, 71, indicate that the earliest
New Testament expression of the redemptive hope is construed in terms of
deliverance was understood in terms of redemption Luke 2:38. Keener goes on by
arguing that, though redemption applied to Abraham and though Jacob likewise could
use the language of redemption, as seen in Gen. 48: 16; yet it is the exodus from Egypt
that constitutes par excellence the Old Testament redemption.
Looking at the names of God, tl..s study submits that God Himself has no name more
abounding with significance for the consolation of His people than that of redeemer,
(Jer. 50:34). It is the eloquence of the richness of the messianic promise that the
redeemer will come to Zion as Isa. 59:20 says. Keener (1993: 430) shads more light
on what this study has submitted by saying that, it is the Old Testament witness that
provides the background for the New Testament faith, expressed in Luke 1:68; 2:38.
In this passage St. Luke presents Jesus Christ as the redeemer that was being waited
for by the nation of Israel. It should not be a surprise, therefore, that in the New
Testament the death of Jesus Christ should be represented as having direct bearing
upon the archenemy of the people of God; and upon the power of sin itself. Keener
concludes by describing sin, as power, brings people into captivity, Satan as the
prince of darkness and god of this world who wields his suzerainty and brings people
into bondage; thus needing a redeemer, God.
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Although redemptive terms are not expressly used in connection with the destruction
executed upon Satan, this research submits that, people are required to apply to the
language of release seen in Heb. 2: 1S, as redemptive significance. Compared to the
redemptive work by Moses from Egypt, the redemptive work in the New Testament is
Jesus Christ's work. The former was an act of judgment against all the gods of Egypt
as portrayed in Ex. 12:12, while the latter is an act of judgment upon Satan as St. John
says in Jn 12:31. If the former is construed as redemption, so must the latter be.
r
Furthermore, people cannot dissociate the deception of Satan, as the god of this world
who blinds the minds of them that do not believe (2 Cor. 4:4), from the vain manner
oflife from which the precious blood of Christ's redemptive accomplishment.
This study states also that, people cannot dissociate the power of sin from the embrace
of the redemption spoken of expressly in .•everal of the passages already cited. But
when the power of sin is particularly reflected on the consideration most relevant to
deliverance, the truth is that those for whom Christ died are also represented as having
t
died in Him and with Him, 2 Cor. 5:14-15; Eph. 2:1-7. Of basic importance in this
connection is the fact that Christ in His vicarious undertakings 'may never be
conceived apart from those on whose behalf He fulfilled these commitments. When
Jesus Christ died to sin once for all, (Rom. 6:10), humankind was united to Him in the
virtue and efficacy of His death. Those in Him also died to sin as St. Paul claims in
Col. 2:20; and as such they also died to the power of sin. It would be artificial to
construe this precise aspect of humanity's relation to the death of Jesus Christ; and of
their deliverance from the power of sin in the terms of redemption.
--
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3.7.2 Redemption from the Curse of the Law
According to Goppelt (1983: 1950 - 1951), the curse of the law does not mean that
the law is a curse. It is probably from this understanding that Goppelt supports St.
Paul's argument that the Jewish law is holy, just and good (Rom. 7:13); but, it must
be understood that Jewish law exacts penalty for every infraction of its demands.
According to Galatians 3:10, the curse of the Jewish law is, the curse, it pronounces
upon those who transgress. In the words of Douglas et-al (1993: 103), the law's penal
sanction is as inviolable as its demands; to this sanction as it bears upon people,
redemption is directed. "Jesus Christ hath redeemed us from the curse of the law,
being made a curse for us, Gal. 3:13." It reminds people that the cost was not merely
the death of Jesus Christ and the shedding of His blood but these in the circumstance
ofGolgotha's shame-Jesus Christ was "made a CUL.; for us."
To this research, to be unmoved before the spectacle is to be insensitive to the
sanctions of holiness, the marvels of love, and the wonder of angels. It is because
humanity is ransomed from the curse of the law that humankind are represented as
having died to the law, (Rom. 7:6, Gal. 2:19), as put to death to the law (Rom. 7:4)
and as discharged from the law (Rom. 7:6). People are released from the bondage of
condemnation and are free to be justified apart from the law. Again Douglas et-al
(1993: 103) say that, the relationship between redemption from sin in its guilt,
defilement, and power and redemption from the curse of the law is intimate. For the
strength of sin is the law (1 Cor. 15:65). In Galatians 4:5 it is redemption from the
bondage of the ceremonial law that is specifically in view. It was by being made
under this law that Christ redeemed those who were under the law. Christ secured this
118
release because He himself fulfilled all the truth that was symbolically and typically
set forth in the provisions of the Levitical economy. These provisions were but
shadows of the good things to come, and when that which they foreshadowed
appeared, there was no need or place for the shadows themselves. Reflecting on the
,
redemptive work, Goppelt (1983, 194) concludes that, this redemption has the fullest
significance for all. By the faith of Jesus all without distinction enter into the full
privilege of sons (John 1:12-13), without the necessity of the disciplinary tutelage
ministered by the Mosaic rites and ceremonies. This is the apex of privilege and
blessing secured by Christ's redemption, through which humanity has received the
adoption.
3.8 The Biblical Nature of Atonement in View of Various Theories
One of the theories that the Roman Catholic Church subscribes to, is the satisfaction
,
theory, which was advanced by St. Anselm in the 11thCentury. According to Tylor
(1955: 301 - 304), and Erickson (2005: 815), this theory states that Jesus appeased
God by becoming a human sacrifice, thus satisfying God's demand for the removal of
sin. Commenting on Anselm's theory, Mylne (1998: 205) says that, the work of
Christ, viewed in terms of sacrifice, thrusts into the foreground, the high priestly
office of Christ as the savior. It is the prerogative of the priest to offer sacrifice and
only in the exercise of Christ's prerogative, a great high priest of the Priestly
,
profession did Jesus offer himself. "He was called of God a high priest after the order
of Melchizedek" (Heb. 5:10). Here the uniqueness of Christ's sacrifice is further
demonstrated; because He offered Himself as a sacrifice for sin. He acted as both
priest and offering (Heb 7:27; 8:3 9) and thus purged the sins of humanity. Barlow
(1974: 213 - 218), in support of Mylne, says that the transcendent perfection,
119
efficacy, and finality of Christ's sacrifice reside in the transcendent character of the
offering and the dignity of his priesthood. Commenting on the Roman Catholic's
understanding of the holy communion, Erickson (2005: 798 - 818), says that, at the
celebration of the Holy mass it is believed that immediately the priest consecrates
bread and wine, they become indeed the body and blood of Jesus Christ. According to
Grudem (2005: 568 - 582), this puts Christ in the priestly office, able to sacrifice for
the sin of humanity; thus satisfying God's demand for the removal of sin. According
to Erickson (2005: 798 - 818), the Roman Catholics also subscribe to the ransom
theory, advanced by Origen in the 3rd Century. In this theory, it is alleged that God
deceitfully pays off Satan with a bribe.
From the above discussion, this study establishes that, deliverance or salvation from
sin is basic in the saving action of Jesus Christ; in essence, it is the .neaning of the
name 'Jesus' according to Matt. 1:21. The title 'Saviour,' as explained by Grudem
(2005: 568-582), is the title, by which Christ is frequently identified in the scriptures;
He is the Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ. Grudem goes ahead to claim that all of the
five categories in which the atonement is defined sustain a direct relation to sin and its
liabilities. Going by what Grudem says, this study submits that, redemption
contemplates humanity's bondage and secures release by way of ransom; the bondage
must have in view that being a sinner; that is, humanity must be bailed out of the
realm of sin, yet humanity are not able to remove themselves from this realm. Barlow
(1974: 217 - 218), this research agrees with Barlow by saying that, this is where
redemption must be contemplated. However, he adds that, express intimations must
also be appreciated. For example he says that, Christ Jesus gave Himself for,
humankind, that He might redeem humanity from all iniquity, and purify for Himself
120
a people for God's own possession, zealous of good works, Titus 2:14. In looking at
what Barlow is saying this study observes that, though the relation to humanity's sins
is not as expressly stated, it is equally implied when redemption through Jesus
Christ's' blood is defined as "the forgiveness of our trespasses" in Eph. 1:7 and Col.
1:14. Similarly, it is the reference, 'to transgression' in Hebrews 9:15; Jesus Christ's
death was for the redemption under the first covenant.
Since the reference to sin is overt in the passages above, this research establishes that,
in others where sin is not mentioned, it is, nevertheless, the assumed liability; making
redemption necessary and giving character to it, just as it is mentioned in Rom. 3:24,
and 1 Tim. 2:6. Based on the above stated facts, one point that this research leaves
unanswered is, "to whom was this redemption proceeds paid?" The question may look
simple from the face value, but it is of a serious consequences. Put the way orudem
(2005: 580 - 582) and Erickson (2005: 801 - 818) would like people to believe, that,
indeed a ransom was paid; thus mildly suggesting that this ransom was paid to Satan,
one would ask, "Is Satan so powerful and influential that he would require a ransom
to release the people of God?" Redemption being a market language, then the value of
Christ's blood and human life must then be put to question. That is, 'of what value, in
terms of monetary expectations is Jesus Christ's blood?' Here then, the' blood of Jesus
Christ would be expected to foot a bill of specific amount so that sins of humanity can
be forgiven. This will in essence justify the indulgencies of the 15th and is" Centuries
(Renwick 1996: 109).
Having looked at the Roman Catholic stand on the concept of atonement, it is
important that, the stand of other Christian sects be known, particularly the
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conservatives. According to Grenz (1994: 452 - 458), the conservatives and some of
the mainstream protestant churches, such as the Presbyterian Church subscribe to the
penal substitution theory. It was advanced and preferred by the reformation
theologians, like Martin Lurther and John Calvin in the 16th century. Wolfhart (2000:
403 - 434) and Garrett (1995: 33 - 44), state that, in this theory; God's mercy
replaces His wrath after the infinite sacrifice of Jesus. In the biblical, understanding,
this could simply mean propitiation. The language of propitiation, as discussed before,
applies to the work of Christ in the New Testament, Heb 2:17. According to
Schleierrnacher (1976, 462-464), to propitiate means, to pacify, conciliate or make
propitious; it presupposes that the person propitiated is angry and needs to be pacified.
If Christ propitiated for the sin of humanity, then, it must be God who was to be
pacified. Pacification then, comes out strongly in this case, because, propitiation
speaks of a sinful people in the hands of a wrathful God. In between these two parties,
.'
stands the pacifier who is Jesus Christ, who stands in as a substitution.
According to Thiessen (1979: 235 - 240) and Schleierrnacher (1976: 451 - 466), the
above churches too subscribe to the ransom theory; which they perceive to be
propitiatory as well. Whether substitution or ransom, what it says to this research is
that these churches subscribe to what can be said as either propitiatory substitution or
propitiatory ransom that pacify God's wrath. Christ therefore becomes an object of
substitution that stands between God and humanity as a ransom.
Grenz (1994: 443 - 458) observes that there are liberal Christians and 'post-
Christians' also who subscribe to the moral theory; sometimes referred to as the non-
violent theory. In this theory, Jesus' death is an example for the rest of humanity to
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emulate. Grenz goes ahead and observes that, being a moral act, atonement comes
from the arbitrary choice of God. This theory was advanced by Abelard, a feminist
theologian in the 12th Century. There is also acceptance theory advanced by Don
Scotus, in the 13thCentury; in which, Jesus voluntarily allows Himself to be executed.
According to these two, Abelard and Scotus, the atonement act of Jesus Christ,
defeated the power of evil and released humanity from its sin. In the light of these
two post-Christian theories, what comes close to them in terms of the nature of
atonement is obedience. It must be understood that obedience is a voluntary action
with a non-violent function. It is buoyed by the attitude of servanthood, which is an
act of morality. As discussed above, Paul's witness is to the same effect as that of the
Old Testament and of Jesus Christ Himself (PhiI2:7-8).
3.9 Niebuhr's Theory and the Elements of Atonement
Having looked at the five categories of atonement (obedience, sacrifice, propitiation,
reconciliation and redemption), Niebuhr's theory of Christ against sinful elements in
culture is observed. This study that establishes that Jewish culture in the bible shows
some elements that are sinful. As such, someone has to redeem it by way of removing
these sinful elements (Niebuhr 1975: 47). Christ, in this case, becomes the redeemer
per-excellence.
The original sin affects people on who they are, as well as what they are, because of
their racial identity. Culture, is an important aspect of humankind and as such it
becomes sinful, not by intent or design, but by human nature. It is from this original
sin that Christ, in His expiatory sacrifice on the cross, redeems people. 'This being the
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case then, the Old Testament atonement rituals, which were part of the Jewish culture
in the bible, had some sinful elements that needed redemption by Christ.
The Christ above culture theory suggests that all cultures look up to Jesus Christ as an
example (Niebuhr 1975: 118). In this case then, the Jewish culture had to look up to
Christ for the work of atonement; because it had been affected by original sin
(Romans 3:23-24) in its totality; and, as such, needed a purification. Apparently, all
had sinned, and none would be able to lift people from where they had fallen. Hence
the Jewish practice of atonement needed to be elevated to Christ's atonement for it to
be seen as having been purified from the dirt brought about by the entry of sin. This
also explains why the Christ and culture in paradox theory paints a picture of a,
culture, which is in conflict with Christ. Here, some elements in culture and all their
,
ingredients have nothing to do with Christ (Niebuhr 1975: 149-150). Christ,
therefore, came in to offer Himself as a sacrifice so that this Jewish culture is purified
once for all.
3.10 Summary of the Nature of Atonement
The five categories of atonement in the bible include obedience, sacrifice,
.'propitiation, reconciliation and redemption. According to this study, all these
categories lead to one truth; through Jesus Christ reconciliation is effected between
God and humankind. This is to say that, though the object of atonement is humanity,
the subject is Jesus Christ. However the entire effort put in by Jesus Christ in the
reconciliation act is to achieve only one thing, 'a better relationship between God and
humanity.'
KENYATTA UN/VE .,IT/'j'\'":,\ v_ .• I. I ,,' 1-l'
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In accomplishing the said reconciliation, through the atonement, Christ suffered and
died as a substitute in the place of a sinful humanity. The said suffering however, has
to be understood vicariously. Not only was Christ a substitute, but Christ's suffering
was, according to what this research discusses above, as substituted suffering and not
the literal penalty of the law. That this substitution consisted essentially in Christ's
blood; that is, the sacrifice of Jesus Christ's own life. Finally, through Christ's
sacrifice, humanity has received rationale for salvation. That is, h~manity is only
saved on the account of what Christ did on the cross, which translated to the
atonement of sin; and this is the reason for the salvation of humankind.
3.11 The Process of Atonement in the Old Testament
The process of atonement is embedded in both its nature and extent, because
atonement is a legal concept. The atonement process specifics must, therefore, satisfy,
the legal purposes for it to be considered as legal in thought and practice. Time, space,
the object, the officiator and the subjects are the major elements that come out
prominently in the biblical understanding of atonement. To perfectly follow the
Jewish concept of atonement, Mayrick (1950: 139) submits that the Day of
Atonement ("~9:;J0; - Yom Kippur) was observed on the tenth day of the seventh
month (Tishri) of the Jewish calendar. On this day, all work was forbidden and strict
fast was enjoined on all people. Mayrick goes on and says that, to prepare for the
sacrifice of the day, the high priest had to put off his official robes. He dressed in a
,
simple white garment for the day's function. Three animals were brought, an ox and
two goats. The high priest offered a bullock as sin offering for himself and the
institution of priesthood. After filling the sensor with live coal from the altar, the high
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epriest then, entered the holy of holies, Here, he placed incense on the coals, which
produced and sent forth a cloud of smoke over the mercy seat; which served as a
covering of the ark of covenant. The high priest took some of the blood of the bullock
and sprinkled it on the mercy seat and on the ground in front of the Ark of the
Covenant. In this way, atonement was made for the priesthood.
In the next phase of atonement, Davidson et-al (1965: 148 - 149) say that, the high
priest sacrificed a he-goat as a sin offering for the people. Some of the blood was
taken into the holy of holies, where some of it was sprinkled in the holy of holies, in a
manner in which the sin offering for the priest had been sprinkled, (Lev 16: 11-15).
This, it was believed, was for the purification of the altar and the holy place. After
purifying the holy place and the altar of burnt offering with mingled blood of the
bullock and the he-goat (Lev 16: 18-19), the high priest took a second goat, he laid his
hand upon its head and confessed over it the sins of Israel. This goat, commonly
called scape-goat (escape-goat) was then driven into the desert, where it symbolically
carried away the sins of the people. The carcasses of the two burnt offerings, the
bullock and the he-goat were taken outside the city and burnt. The day was concluded
with additional sacrifices such as thanksgiving sacrifice.
3.12 The Process of Atonement in the New Testament
In the New Testament, the process of atonement is merely an interpretation of the Old
Testament process of the same. According to Keener (1993: 665 - 668), the
interpretation centres around one personality; Jesus Christ. The atonement process is,
therefore, a reflection of the Old Testament, modelled on Jesus Christ; who is the
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fulfilment of the Old Testament. The letter to the Hebrews in is seen as the equivalent
of Leviticus. Thus, it is the main focus of the comparison in matters of the atonement
process.
Mylne (1998: 202 - 206) submits that, as the high priest entered the holy of holies
with blood of his sacrificial victim (Lev 9:1-12); so did Jesus Christ enter heaven to
appear before God, His father, on behalf of the people. Apart from the above, the high
priest had to offer sin offering for himself and the people every year. This annual
repetition of sacrifice served as a reminder; because the perfect atonement had not yet
been provided. Consequently, Jesus Christ, through His own blood, affected eternal
redemption for the people (Hebrews 9- 12).
Writing from the Old Testament perspective, Lane (1973: 259 - 270) says that the
sacrifices could only affect the purification of the flesh; and that is why the .Jews
ceremonially cleansed the sinner. However, this cleansing could not bring about
inward cleansing; but Christ's atonement cleanses both the flesh and the heart.
In view of the above then, this study submits that, the believer need not stand far off
from the holy of holies, as the Jews did; but can, through Jesus Christ, approach the
very throne of grace for help in times of need. This is because, this study underscores
the importance of Hebrews 13: 11-12, which reminds the Christians that, just as the
flesh (meat) of the sin offering of the Day of Atonement burnt outside the camp of
Israel, in like manner, Jesus Christ was crucified outside of the city gate of Jerusalem,
that He might redeem people from sin.
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3.13 Summary of the Process of Atonement in the Bible
According to Adeyemo et-aI (2006: 1499 - 1501), the high priest only made
atonement for the iniquities of the people of Israel; and all their transgressions. Christ
made the atonement for all people of the world and of all ages and history. In the Old.
Testament, atonement was first made for the priest because the mediator between
people and God had to be ceremonially clean. Adeyemo et - al claim that, Christ did
not need this cleansing because He is already clean, for He is part of the God head.
The sanctuary was also cleansed for it too, was ceremonially defiled by the presence
and ministry of humankind, who, by nature, are sinful. Christ entered the sanctuary of
heaven itself, which does not need to be cleansed; for it is the dwelling of God and it
is holy already. What this says to the people of God is that, what was dirty within
people, and around people, was made clean by the atonement done by Christ.
3.14 The Extent of Atonement in the Bible
Berkhof (1984: 390 - 394) thinks that, if atonement accomplished all that is implied
in the categories by which it is defined, and if it secures and insures the
consummating redemption, then its design must be co-extensive with its ultimate
result. He in fact, wonders aloud, in matters of the failure of some people and the
predicament of such people's future. If some fail of eternal salvation, as the scripture
plainly teaches in the gospel of St. John 1:12, if they will not enjoy the final
redemption; they cannot be embraced in Jesus Christ who procured and secured it.
Commenting on Berkhofs wonderings, Taylor (1955: 61 - 70)' says that the
atonement is so defined, in terms of efficacious accomplishment, that it must have the
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same extent as salvation, bestowed and consummated. Unless there is a belief in the
final restoration of all humankind, one cannot have an unlimited atortement. On the
premise that some perish eternally, he says that one is shut up ,to one of two
alternatives; either a limited efficacy or a limited extent. Having looked at atonement
in both the New and the Old Testaments, this study establishes that though there is
unlimited atonement for all people, there is also a limited atonement for individuals.
This is because the life and sacrificial death of Jesus Christ is both universal and
individual; and as such will depend on how the universe, groups of people and
individuals respond to the said atonement.
3.15 Exegetical Analysis of Atonement
According to Meyrick (1950: 87), the restriction which applies to the extent of the
atonement is borne out not only by the evidence pertaining to the nature of the
atonement; but also by the passages, which define its design. Meyrick goes on to says
that, nothing should be more obvious than the fact that Jesus Christ came into the
world to save. Meyrick goes ahead and states that Jesus Christ did not come to make
salvation merely possible nor make human beings salvable; if that be it, then, such a
notion would contradict the express declarations of Jesus and of other inspired
witnesses such as found in Luke 2:11; 19:10 and John 3:17; 39. Davidson (1965: 42-
43), on the other hand, says that, the word of the angel to Joseph, "Thou shalt call his
name Jesus, for he shall save his people from their sins" (Matt. 1:21), implies the
assurance of salvation and not a mere possibility. According to Davidson, this
certainty must, therefore, be understood by the act of salvation performed, namely, by
way of the atonement. Davidson agrees with the gospel of St. John 3:16, which is so
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often appealed to in support of universal atonement. Here, St. John points to this same
assurance and security, by claiming that the purpose of giving the only-begotten Son
is that, "whosoever believeth in him should not perish, but have everlasting life."
According to this study, the issue of importance that these two scholars are discussing
here is that, Jesus Christ makes infallible and secure the salvation of all who believe.
When St. Paul says that "Christ also loved the church, and gave himself for it" (Eph.
5:25), this research sees this action as alluding to Jesus Christ's sacrificial offering. In
vv 26-27 St. Paul also states the design; that is, "That He might sanctify and cleanse
it... that He might present it to himself a glorious church."
Schleiermacher (1976: 642 - 464), is convinced that, Jesus Christ's design of
atonement, will certainly be fulfilled, and so the love and the giving of Himself will
achieve their object, in the glorifying of that to which they were directed. However
Schleiermacher believes that it is impossible to universalize the reference of the
sacrifice of Jesus Christ alluded to above by Davidson and Meyrick. According to
him, atonement is severely limited to those who finally will be holy and without
blemish. He bases his argument on Romans 8:24-34, where references to the death of
Christ and its implications are discussed. However, looking at this argument, this
study observes that, atonement is in this view delivering Jesus Christ up for all
humanity; particularly, vs. 32 of Romans 8:24-34 which is mentioned by
Schleirmacher and in the clause, "Christ Jesus is the one who died" (vs. 34).
Commenting on Schleiermacher's argument, Keener (1993: 668) says that, it is
impossible to place these references to the intent and effect of the death of Jesus
Christ outside what seems clearly established by the context and defined in terms of
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those predestined to be conformed to the image of God's son (vs. 29), the elect (vs.
33), and those embraced in the love of God which is in Christ Jesus (vs. 39). Besides,
the delivering up (vs. 32) is that which insures the free bestowal of all things, the "all
things" specified in the context as the blessings of salvation culminating in
glorification.
3.16 Summary of the Nature, Extent, and Process of Atonement
Having looked at the biblical understanding of the nature, process and extent of
atonement, this research agrees with Bames (1962: 219) that, atonement did not
change the nature of God. It does not make God any different from what He has been
before atonement was made. It has not been held and cannot be held, that God was, by
W;~j of atonement; severe, stern and unforgiving before atonement was made; and that
now God has become mild and forgiving because of the death of Jesus Christ. If this
was true, then, what it would have meant is that, earlier on God was not disposed to
show mercy. It is only by way of atonement that, He has now been bought over; so
that He now shows mercy to humanity. Pushed further, this research submits that, it
would, in essence, mean that at least Jesus Christ's atonement has influenced God; or
has exerted pressure, as to make God willing to do what He would not have done
before atonement was made.
This research observes that, there has been misunderstanding especially in the five
categories of obedience, sacrifice, propitiation, reconciliation and redemption as the
following poem, which the researcher found on the streets of Nairobi shows:
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"Thy hands, dear Jesus, were not armed
With a revenging rod;
No hard commission to perform,
The vengeance of a God.
But all was mercy, all was mild,
And wrath forsook the throne,
When Christ on the kind errand came
And brought salvation down (Anonymous)."
What the above poem shows is that, God was such an angry creature, positioned
somewhere wielding a big stick and ready to strike at human beings; until Christ came
and appeased Him by way of atonement. However, this study notes that God is
unchangeable. In Him there are no variables, 'He is the same yesterday today and
t
forever more' (Heb 13: 8). His nature is the same, His attributes are the same, the
principles ('I" His administration are the same, His justice is the same -and His love is
the same; all things are the same under all circumstances. This research therefore
notes that, it is, important to understand that, it pleased God to have the atonement as
the way of restoring His relationship with humanity. In this way then, the five
categories discussed in the nature of atonement, then, comfortably apply.
The research also submits that, in regard to the extent of atonement, or the question of
whom it was made; whether it is available for all or is, by its own nature or by
intention and purpose, limited to a part of humankind; whether it was designed to
refer to humankind or to the elect, this research notes that, atonement is not intended
for any other fallen being except for the salvation of the fallen humankind. In fact, the
extent spoken of in this discussion is both a priori and a posteriori. It is a priori
because, even the unborn have been catered for by the atonement. It is also a
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posteriori because those who lived before were also catered for; humanity is therefore
equal before God in all matters including atonement.
This study also establishes that, the nature and the extent, determines the process of
atonement. From the discussion generated from this subject, both the Old Testament
symbolism and the New Testament symbolism find their representation in Jesus
Christ. The process has, therefore, to follow the way of obedience to the instructions
-given by God. This is because atonement is a method preferred by God in bringing
about forgiveness and thus, it has to be carried out by way of obedience.
3.17 Conclusion
The five categorie of atonement; that is, obedience, sacrifice, propitiation,
redemption and reconciliation are in essence five different facets of the same truth.
All of these facets address the restoration of broken relationships, either between
individuals, individuals and God, and individuals and the larger community. This
therefore, speaks of atonement as affecting humankind in three aspects of life. The
concept of atonement also reveals that, apart from destroying relationships, sin
separates, it must therefore, be dealt with; but this involves a very high price, that is,
the shedding of blood. This, also, raises the question of the importance of life!
Anyway, by the life and death of Jesus Christ, the offenders have been judged and the
offended vindicated, thus, restoring the relationship that had been initially destroyed.
Atonement was and is an important concept in the practice of the Christian faith. This
concept reveals the extent of love the Lord has for His people. This is not a costless
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love; it cost the life and death of His beloved son Jesus Christ so that people may
restore the right relationship that initially was lost. This then, brings up a new thinking
concerning the life and death of Jesus Christ in the Christian theology. The question
that one is left wondering with is, 'the theology of the cross!' Was it a must that
Christ had to die so that people may receive forgiveness? If so, then why death, by
way ofthe cross?
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CHAPTER FOUR: THE WANGA CHRISTIAN UNDERSTANDING OF
ATONEMENT
4.1 Introduction
This chapter explores the meaning of atonement, as understood .by the Wanga
Christians. This study also undertakes to know the place of atonement, in the
Christian understanding and the interpretation of atonement among the different
Christian denominations. All these require the understanding of the atoner in the mind
of the Abawanga, so as to relate the atonement act later in chapter five. This is in line
with objective three namely, to assess the impact of the Euro-American Christian
teaching of the concept of atonement in the Wanga community.
4.2 Christian Understanding of Atonement
Okutoyi, an Anglican layman from the Diocese of Mumias understands atonement as
an important agreement, or covenant, involving the shedding of blood. He further
says that the blood that is shed is from a third party and that it is from a specified
sacrificial victim, who is Christ Jesus. What these two people, or parties (the offender
and the offended), are required to do, is to consent to what is done by this third party.
This then brings about as mediated agreement; which is reached by the said, third
party. Okutoyi comments that,
Omusango kurulananga nende khukhusanga okhufuchilisania
mbu toto, obwononi buliho nebulano kenyekha bwosibwe-
Atonement has its foundation in agreement; the agreement is a
confession of evil, which requires cleansing (Eshitabu
Shiokhulaama 1982, 245)
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On his part, Okwemba a Roman Catholic faithful, understands atonement as. an
appeasing relation to a high divinity; that is appeasing God. According to him, Christ
appeased God on behalf of humanity. Inganga, a Kenya Assemblies of God (K.A.G)
Pastor, seems to agree with Okwemba's description. He says that Christ's act of
atonement appeased God's wrath; which would have been directed to mankind.
Looking at various theories that inform Christian thinking on atonement, these two,
Okwemba and Inganga, justify the satisfaction theory; which was advanced by St.
Anselm in the 11th Century. This theory states that Jesus appeased God by being a
ritual human sacrifice; thus satisfying God's demand for the removal of human sin.
Here then, what the two are saying is that Christ the sacrificial element satisfied
God's demand on behalf of humankind (Erickson 2005: 798 - 818; Grudem 2005:
568 - 582). Although Okwemba and Inganga seem to suggest that Christian churches
subscribe to the satisfactory theory, Okutoyi r .ems to suggest that Christ played a
mediatory role; thus suggesting that God's mercy replaces His wrath, after the infinite
sacrifice of Jesus Christ. This brings in the penal substitution theory, as a theory of
choice for Christians (Wolfhart 2000: 403 - 434; Garrett 1995: 33 - 44).
In view of what the respondents have said, and the theories seen above, this research
concludes that atonement is a mediated activity. What these theories are dealing with
is the question of how and why atonement was done, but not whether it was done at
all. According to this research, atonement is a tool that is used to remove sin and evil
within the society, thus bringing people together; the offender and the offended, in
what this study would then refer to as reconciliation. He further avers that, this tool
was used by God through Christ Jesus. At the same time atonement is a process that is
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put in place to deal with the question of sin and evil. Atonement as a process leads to
purification, while atonement as an act, purges sin and evil.
Mutumishi, a Pentecostal Evangelical Fellowship of Africa (PEFA) preacher, brings
in the idea of grace in the definition of atonement; which he understands as an act of
grace, by which God reconciles and draws to himself a people who were otherwise
separated from him. Although Weimi, an Anglican priest from the Diocese of
Mumias, agrees with Mutumishi's understanding of atonement, he brings in the
Wanga perspective of Omusango. He submits that atonement is taken from the
concept of appeasing and as such it is faith based. He, therefore,' proposes that
atonement must be understood as actual grace, a confessed belief in Christ Jesus; who
lived, died and rose again from the dead. This brings in the idea that atonement is
found in the life death and resurrection of Christ Jest". Here then, God's wrath
replaced His mercy in Christ's vicarious death (Erickson 2005: 798-818). Having
looked at the atonement act, this study submits that, it is an act of wrath, yet its fruit is
mercy. That is, by the vicarious life, death and resurrection of Jesus Christ, sinners are
viewed as though they are sinless. This then, brings in the purpose of the life, death
and resurrection of Jesus Christ; which is to bring mercy to humankind.,
Swati, a Roman Catholic (RC) priest, brings in a historical perspective in his
understanding of atonement. He says that Jesus Christ was the lamb that was slain
from the very foundations of the world. He complements Weimi's understanding by
claiming that the life of Christ is a living atonement. His work is an act of atonement
while his death is a cleansing atonement. His resurrection and his going to heaven,
perfects the atonement of a believer. He concludes by saying that atonement finds its
true meaning in Christ who is a live; thus atonement is meant for the continuous
137
cleansing of humankind. Here then, atonement is not only for one generation but it
cuts across all generations, from the time of the Old Testament to the New Testament
times. Christian atonement is also holistic, focusing not only on the death but no the
whole life of Jesus Christ, the atoner per excellence.
Looking at what both the clergy and the laity are saying, atonement can be understood
as a link between the divine world and the natural world. It is an act that makes what
is non-Christian to be Christian, an act that is geared towards appeasing the supreme
God; who, otherwise, would rain His wrath on the sinful people. It is the duty of the
sinful humanity to confess, agree and conform to the ways of the atoner. This can be
found in what Weimi is calling "active grace ... accepted by faith." This being the
case then, Christian atonement has to be looked at through the glasses of the ransom
t
theory that was advanced by Origen in the 3rd Century. In this theory, God deceitfully
pays off Satan with a bribe (Erickson 2005: 798 - 818; Grudem 2005: 568 - 582).
This ransom is what today links humanity to God because the former owner (Satan) of
humanity received the pay and let humanity off: Thus making it possible for people to
freely relate to God.
As much as this study looks at the Christian atonement described by the respondents
as being redemptive, there is also a thought of much grace and mercy coming in
particularly from Weimi who informs this study that, Christian atonement subscribes
to the penal substitution theory. This theory was advanced by the reformation
theologians such as Lurther and John Calvin in the 16th century; whereby, God's
mercy replaces His wrath after the infinite sacrifice of Jesus (Wolfhart 2000: 403 -
434; Garrett 1995: 33 - 44). What this says to this research is that the basis of
138
Christian atonement is mercy and grace. Atonement, thus, is extended to people who
in the initial place do not merit it; and as such it is by God's favor that it is extended
to them. To this research then, Swati's description brings a rich understanding of
atonement; which must be seen as a planned event. It is a plan by God that saves the
world; which is effected by Jesus Christ. What this means then, is that atonement is
God's favor towards humankind.
A careful scrutiny of all these understandings, however, shows the differences that are
there among different Christian faiths. For example, Mutumishi and Inganga represent
a Pentecostal understanding of atonement; which only points to the cross as the
manifestation of the work of atonement. Weimi and Swati, on the other hand,
represent the mainstream churches' point of view; which does not only look at the
cross but to the whole life, death, and resurrection of Jesus Christ, as '.de work of
atonement. To this study, these views have a significant impact on the congregation;
because each one of these groups teaches the concept of atonement based on their
persuasion. In this regard then, the biblical interpretation of atonement' may to a large
extent depend on which persuasion one is coming from.
4.3 Christian Symbolism of Atonement
Atonement like any other concept is expressed in symbols among the Wanga
Christians. Thus this research sought to understand the symbols that are used in
churches, and Christian families to explain atonement. These symbols, too, were wide
and varied, depending on the specific Christian denominations one belonged to.
139
Mutumishi (PEFA) says that, the most profound symbolism of atonement is the Holy
Communion; a position shared by all the clergy and laity interviewed in this research.
However, the representation of the Holy Communion symbolism differs from one
denomination to another. According to Mutumishi and Inganga (K.A.G), ordinary
bread and ribena (an ordinary healthy drink) would do; whereas to the Roman
Catholics and the Anglicans, it must be waivers and wine.
Although the above may be a question of interpretations (which is not the concernt of
this research), it shows the impact of inculturation, of the concept of atonement on the
Wanga Christian community. The Roman Catholics and the Anglicans take on the
conservative aspect of the holy mass; while the Pentecostal prefer using what is
available. To illustrate the above from the RCIAC perspective, this study refers to the
RC liturgy;
Mushiro shia yakhobwamo yabukula omukate nakhuupira orio,
nakhuha oluyali... nibamalire okhulia yabukula eshikombe
eshialimwo ivini mana nakhuupira orio naboola ari, bukule kuno
mulie nikwo omubili kwanje, bukule ivini munywe niko amtsayi
kanje- On the night that he was betrayed, he took the bread and gave
you thanks and glorified you and gave them saying ... this is my body
... after they had eaten he took the cup that had wine and gave you
thanks and gave them saying, take this and drink, this is my blood ...
To illustrate the concept of conservatism, Swati, a RC priest insists that once the
Priest blesses the Holy Communion elements during mass they become real body and
blood of Jesus Christ. Barton and Muddiman (2008: 973 - 974), Spence and Exell
(1950: 195 - 197) and Foster's (1974: 249) exposition of the gospel of John 6: 28-40
agrees with Swati's position. They claim that, it is Jesus Christ who is the real bread
and wine; thus the bread and wine serve at the Holy Communion mass is real the body
and blood of Jesus Chrsit. They go ahead to claims that, if Jesus Christ would have
140
wanted the holy communion elements to be regarded as symbols, then he wouldn't
have claimed that the said bread was indeed His body and wine His blood; rather he
would have come out clearly and said, 'these are symbols of my blood and body.'
Based on these claims, this research submits that, for the R.C., and the A.C., it is not
just anything that goes for Holy Communion; it has to be real wine and real bread.
These are the elements that Jesus Christ used in the administration of the Holy
Communion. It is also these elements that after blessing from the priest changes into
the real body and blood of Jesus Christ. This research also notes that, the priest takes
the place of Jesus Christ as he pronounces the blessing of the Holy Communion
elements; he is the representation of Jesus Christ, the atoner per excellence.
The other symbolism that the respondents talked about is baptism. According to 1s010,
a pastor with Pentecostal Evangelical Fellowship of Africa (PEFA), baptism is an act,
of obedience that shows that a Christian has found peace with his/her maker. Andoni,
an R.C Priest confesses that, baptism is one of the sacraments that bring Christians
closer to God. It symbolizes the death and resurrection of Christ for any Christian
who passes through it. Kwelinda, an A.C. priest, says that, baptism is an outside sign
for the inward faith which is founded on Christ Jesus the chief atoner.
What these mean to this study is that, Wanga Christians must be baptized, for them to
qualify as atonement candidates. Thus the act of baptism, to this research's
r
understanding is a pre-requisite to atonement; and as such one cannot be a true
Christian without the symbol of baptism. The impact of this symbol to the Wanga
Christians is the obedience it brings with it. That is, every Wanga who decides to
follow Christ must be obedient to Christ's instructions.
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Another symbol which Christians talk of is the laying on of hands, by the ordained
personnel. Both Andoni and Swati say that the laying on of hands is done by a
consecrated person. In this case, it must be the Bishop; for the purpose of blessing and
welcoming the person, who has studied church catechism into full membership of the
R.C. and A.C. churches. In case of any inconveniences, the Bishop may delegate
these powers to a specific priest in his SeelDiocese, but this is just for that day only.
Andoni and Swati say that this act unites Christians, just as atonement unites people
. together in Christendom. Weimi, Okutoyi and Kwelinda agree with these sentiments.
According to both the Roman Catholic and Anglican tradition, it must be the Bishop;
he may come from another See/Diocese, in case of the sickness or any other
inconvenience of the Bishop of the affected diocese. If none is found, then, the event
is postponed to a convenient date. To Mutumishi, Isolo and Khapele (Pentecostals),
the laying on of hands is a Christian symbolism that signifies peace and solidarity of
believers. It is also used as a means of healing the sick. The impartation of the Holy
Spirit is also done by the laying on of hands. They claim that this exercise can be done
by the elders of the church; who may not necessarily be ordained. All respondents,
however, agreed that during the ordination or commissioning of new ordinates, laying
on of hands is used as a means of blessing and sending off, of the newly
commissioned clergy.
To this study, what this means is that, Christians have agreed that the laying on of
hands is a symbolism of appeasing, thus seeking divine involvement in the affairs of
humanity. The act also brings the Christian fraternity together as one people, just as
atonement is meant to bring them to unity with God. Hence, the laying on of hands,
distinguishes individual Christians from any other persons.
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Concerning the particular people who are mandated to perform this duty; the
researcher gathers that, they too are set apart. Whether they are ordained or not, at
r
least they bear a title in both sides of the divide. In general, laying on of hands is a
,
process that is used to distinguish specific groups of people to receive specific favors
so that they may perform specific duties, or receive what is lacking, such as good
health. Atonement therefore, distinguishes a Wanga Christian from any other Wanga;
for the receiving of the said favors.
Symbolism speaks of separation: The Wanga Christians are, thus, separated from their
kin who may be traditional Wanga. It sets them apart as a "specific" people, and not
the ordinary Wanga. It is thus, a creation of a new people, 'Abawanga' that are
Christians. Based on the meaning of Christian atonement, that was provided before
there are definitely, by now two communities. There is a community of the Wanga
who, by virtue of being Christians, have been atoned for; and another Wanga
community who being, non - Christians have not been atoned for. The implication of
this is the division of the Wanga community into the Christian and non - Christian
communities. Sarah, on of the 'tukutendereza' sisters confirms this by saying that,
Esie, mumabanga keshialo shino, ndibulwa mubakolwe. Nebutswa
sheshilinji owa eshialo shino tawe shichila ndebulwe mumatsayi ka
Kristo ndakulwa nende amatsayi kashila obukusu bwosi. I am born
from the Abakolwe people by the blood of this world. However, I
am no longer of this world because I have been born by the blood
of Christ. I am bought by the blood beyond any price.
4.4 Jesus Christ the Atoner
The notion of the original sin (cf2.3; 2.4; 2.5) defiled humanity; thus bringing in the
notion of salvation which necessitates atonement. This study therefore underscores
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the importance of the atoner in the Christian atonement ritual. This is because the
efficacy and authenticity of atonement depends on the atoner. This research therefore
sought to know the Christian qualifications of the atoner.
According to Kizito, a RC priest, who has served in Musanda for over ten years, Jesus
Christ shares both the divine and the natural characteristics because He is both human
and divine. In Phil 2:6-11, St. Paul talks of Jesus Christ as having the nature of God,
yet in Heb 7:11-17, the writer speaks of Him as having been born in the tribe of
Judah. As humankind, Jesus Christ understands, shares and identifies with people.
As God, he measures up to the divine requirements; and as such, He is the ideal
atoner.
Mutunishi; affirms this position by quoting Mark 10: 45. He asserts that, it is only
Jesus Christ who was able to deal with the issue of the payment of the' ransom. He is,
therefore, qualified to purchase human beings from the world of the devil, Isolo says
that, as God, Christ participated in the creation of humankind; He knows where sin
has destroyed, and is able to repair. The repairing part is what Isolo calls the
atonement act.
Now that Jesus Christ is divine, he knows how to deal with both Satan and
humankind. The researcher submits that, Jesus Christ is able to keep those who have
been atoned; because He knows both sin and righteous, and can control them. In this,
way Jesus Christ is able to keep the atoned from sinning again.
KENYATTA UNJ 117
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Swati brings in the idea of heavenly management and argues that, it is only Jesus who
was sent by God. That means that from heaven no one has the atoning mandate apart
from Jesus Christ. This research agrees with Swati because, no one else has been
mentioned in the Bible as an atoner sent by God except Jesus Christ. He is therefore,
the only way to God, a gateway to heaven John (14: 6-14).
Okutoy} talks ofthe motivation of atonement. He says that Jesus Christ is the only one
who has the rewards that come with the atonement act. He promises heaven for the
atoned; thus bringing a big motivation for humankind who is to be atoned. Masinde
on the other hand, brings in the spiritual aspect by calaiming that Jesus Christ had the
blood that human beings were given for their atonement. He proves his argument by
quoting John 1; 29. In this scripture John the Baptist claims that Christ is the Lamb of
God that takes away the sins of humanity. He therefore should increase as John
decreases.
This study agrees with both Okutoyi and Masinde in their claims of motivation and
blood as the element of atonement. This is because in the previous chapter there were
many kinds of atoners but in the Christian atonement Jesus Christ is the only atoner.
Apart from being the atoner, he also supplies the blood, the element of atonement. He
is therefore better than all the atoners mentioned in the previous chapter. Concerning
the motivation, Christ as the principal atoner promises some benefits for those who
will accept his atonement. One of these benefits is life in heaven.
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4.4.1 Jesus Christ the Intercessor
In view of what has been observed above, the researcher is of the opinion that
Jesus Christ takes on a specific role of intercession. He mediates between the
sinner and God, the natural and the divine; an idea that is well captured in both the
Anglican and the Roman Catholic liturgy.
Omundu naba niyonon alikhuwa khulinende omusambishi,
omwenoyo neshisalisilio khulwa obwononi bwefwe. If a person
sins in anything, we have an intercessor who is between the
person and God the father. (Eshitabo shiokhulaama. 1982, 240;
Shitabu Shietsisaala 1989. 73-76).
What these two liturgies are clair-ing is that Christ is the only one worthy of
cleansing people from evil and sin. Thus, they show the position of Christ as the
atoner per excellence. Inganga strongly believes that Jesus Christ stands in between
people (particularly sinners) and God. Weimi thinks of this act pictorially: He says
that,
Amabanga ka Kristo Yesu kebeena khumusalaba Kashinganga
omwononi okhurula khuburuma bwa nyasaye-The blood of Jesus
Christ stops the wrath of God from human beings.
On his part, Okwemba says that Christ intercedes for the people. What this means to
the researcher is that humanity is always in sin, and needs someone to stand in
between a sinful people and a God who is wrathful and always ready to punish.
Consequently, God is ready to punish the sinner and yet Christ comes in between so
that sinners are not punished. Hence Jesus Christ can be understood as the stopper of
God's wrath, by way of standing in between God and the sinful people. The act of
atonement, in this case, becomes the mediation act, while the atonement elements
become the bridge that unites people and God.
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A clear assessment of what these respondents are saying brings in Niebuhr's theory
of a culture that has been infiltrated by sin; so that Jesus Christ comes in to take away
the sinful elements that have infiltrated this culture. This study submits that these
sinful elements have been brought into this culture by sinful people; Jesus Christ
therefore, takes the position of standing in between the angry God and sinful people,
so that God does not pour His wrath on these sinful people. He does this by pleading
with people not to sin; while at the same time, pleading with God not to punish.
Concerning the above, there is another school of thought, among the Roman Catholic
faithfuls. Swati comments that the role of holy Mary cannot be ignored in matters of
intercession: because without Mary, Jesus Christ would not have been born. She
therefore deserves mention for her intervention role, on behalf of humanity as it
happened at the wedding in Canna of Galilee (Jhn 2:1-11). This could be the reason
why the Roman Catholic Church put such prayers as part of their liturgy;
Maria omutakatifu akhusayiranga Khu Kristo Yesu omwanawe,
shichilayetsula inema- holy Mary intercedes on our behalf to Jesus
Christ her son because she is full of mercy.
Whereas in the R.C. fraternity, Mary seems to eo-intercede with Christ, in the
Pentecostal circles the angels are thought of as interceding for people through Jesus
Christ; Mutumishi's claims that the angels are there to guard us and also to take our
prayers to God strengthen the Pentecostal position. Despite Mutumish's claim, this
study established that all Christian denominations believe in angels as mediators at
one point. According to Williams (1992: 120), angels are mediators i~ all aspects of
Christian life. What this research submits therefore, is that, Christ is not the only one
who intercedes for the believer; there are other channels, which include Mary, the
mother of Jesus Christ and the angels. The concept of intercession, as part of
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atonement, brings in a bigger impact on the Christian understanding and the
perception of atonement. Based on both these claims, this study came up with Figure
4.1, which makes the understanding of these claims clearer.
Figure 4.1 The Process of Atonement
Father
Son Holy Spirit
/
Mary, Angels
& Saints Saints-:
Roman Catholic
Anglican Church
Pentecostal
Church
148
Apart from interceding to God, Jesus Christ is in essence, seen as God by Christians.
Okwemba is convinced that Christ is part of the triune God. He comments:
IfweKhusubililanga obutaru bwa Nyasaye.Nyasaye sefwe.,
Nyasaye omwana nende Nyasaye roho omlafu. Nyayase
omwana niye Yesus Kristo- We believe in the triune God.
God the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit
Inyangala confirms what Okwemba is saying; when she told the researcher that the
sign of the cross by the R.C represented the triune God. She says that,
Ifwe Abaroma Katholika khwanziranga khubweni kho khutile
khumwoyo, omukhono mukhasi oumukhono musatatsa,
nekhumalilikha khumwoyo khandi. Kano kamanyia obutaru bwa
Nyasaye- We of the Roman Catholics show the sign of the cross by
first pointing on the face, on the chest and then end up at the heart
again. This shows the triune God.
What these respondents are saying is that Jesus Christ is indeed God; and as God, He
has the powers to remove evil, thus atoning for humanity. Although this position is
debatable, it has a bigger impact on the Christendom. The idea brings in the issue of
the economy of salvation. According to Berkhof (1974: 89), there are certain
personality attributes by which the three persons are distinguished. He calls them
opera ad intra; because they are works within the divine being which do not terminate
on the creature. He claims that these operations are not performed by three persons
jointly and are incommunicable. He therefore concludes that, in the economical order,
creation is ascribed to the father, redemption to the son and sanctification to the Holy,
Spirit. Barackman (1984: 243) agrees with Berkhof when he claims that, it is the son
,
who effected atonement by the nature of His position in the Godhead. To this study,
therefore, this order in the divine operation points back to the essential order in God
and forms the basis for what Berkhof generally calls the economic trinity. This is
what this study illustrates with the figure 4.1. Here, though Jesus Christ is God, He is
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also the mediator between humanbeings and the Godhead. He is therefore qualified as
an atoner to the Wanga, for He is both God and the mediator.
From what the respondents are saying and the claim of both Berkhof and Barakman, it
is clear that Jesus Christ is the middle person in matters of atonement. Here then,
Christ must take the position of a sacrificial victim so that God's mercy overshadows
wrath.
Based on the above argument, this study holds the view that, atonement can not be
effective without the sacrificial victim. The efficacy, authenticity, the claim and
impact of atonement cannot be felt without the sacrificial victim; who, in this case,
must be someone with full knowledge and wisdom of the two realms- that is, the
realm of numankind and the realm of God. According to Swati, Jesus Christ is the
Lamb without blemish (sacrificial victim) who had lived in heaven for a long time;,
and who was willing to live on earth as well. Hence God saw it fit to be sacrificed for
,
the removal of the sin of humanity. In both the RC and AC liturgy, the above is
attributed to, especially during the celebration of the Easter Vigil Mass. In the AC, the
prayer below is sung antiphonally;
Leshe khulitsenekho lisaabo, okhuba Kristo yesu, niye likondi
liefwe lia khaale, yekhoolile ...omusanga Khulwa efwe" Let us
partake of the Holy Communion because Christ Jesus the Lamb of
old has made Himself a ritualistic sacrifice, (Eshitabu
shiokhulaama 1982, 280).
Swati's claim, of a blameless sacrificial victim brings in the argument of the sinless
Jesus Christ taking on the sin of humanity. This takes this researcher to the
qualifications of Jesus Christ, discussed before; accordingly then, for, Christ to pacify
God's wrath he needed to be sinless. However, the argument that raise out of this
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research concerning this issue is "how can a sinless God, accept the sinner's sin, yet
his eyes are so pure to behold sin?" Inganga claims that the sacrificial victim knew no
sin, so that His sinlessness would be imputed to the sinner. He says:
Kristo, kata niyatemwa nende tsimbi shiyayonoonakhwo tawe.
Eshifune shiene mbu, efwe khwali abonooni, khunyoole
oburayonoana bwibwe-Though tempted Christ did not sin so that
we who are sinners may receive his sinlessness.
What this study is hearing from the above claim is that God needed a sinless
sacrificial victim to cleanse the sinner; God could only hear a plea from the sinless on
behalf of the sinful. Khapere, a church elder with Pentecostal Evangelical Fellowship
Africa Church, says that Christ stands in between human beings and God. Masinde,
an A.C. priest agrees with him by claiming that it is only Christ who mediates
between the sinner and God. Though Andoni, an RC priest agrees with the two, he
adds that, there are other prayers that Christians need to ask through the holy Mary,
the mother of Jesus Christ; so that she can intercede for humanity to Jesus Christ her
son (see figure 1.0 above). Though there may be these differences between R.C. and
the Protestant Christians, the research sees this as a question of semantics. Whether it
is through Mary, the angels as mentioned in figure 1.1 above or straight to Jesus, it is
still Jesus who is above both the angels and Mary. This research places Christ above
humanity and angels. Jesus Christ therefore, becomes the actual mediator.
4.5 The Scope of Christian Atonement
In Okutoyi's thought, Jesus Christ's atonement is all inclusive. He claims that Christ
died on behalf of the "son of Adam," meaning Christ's atonement is universal. Kizito,
who has served for many years as an R.C. priest in Mumias, has this explanation,
151
Okhwibulwa khwa yesu, khawali okhwa okhureera obusaasami
mubaandu shichila yeblwa abaandu nibali halala. Obulamu
bubwe bwali eshilolero Shia omulembe Kwa abaandu, ne
okhufwa khukhwe khumusalaba kharera obuhambani mubaandu
nende nyasaye.Mubulamushibwe Kristo nomusambishi wefwe-
The birth of Christ brought together people of different levels
to one level. The life of Christ was an example of the peoples'
peace. His death on the cross brought unity between people and
their God. The resurrected Jesus Christ, therefore, intercedes for
all people.
lfthe word 'Adamic', as used by Okutoyi, should take on a group dynamic, then Jesus
Christ atonement affects the Wanga, as a people, but not as individuals. Christian
atonement, therefore, impacts on the Wanga as a nation and not persons. Here then,
the Wanga culture must be looked at as having been invaded by sinful elements and
that gives the cause for its atonement. Jesus Christ, therefore, comes in to correct the
situation by way of atonement (Neibuhr 1975:118). Looking at what Jesus Christ
does, this study submits .nat, the Wanga, by themselves, are unable. to remove the
sinful elements that have invaded their culture, hence needing the help of Jesus Christ.
lfthe concept of the original sin (cf2.3; 2.4; 2.5) is what is seen as the invading sinful
element, then, in this case, biblical atonement becomes a standard for all cultures to
follow; and the Wanga culture is no exception. Hence the Wanga practice of
atonement needs to be elevated to Jesus Christ's atonement, for it to be truly Wanga
and truly Christian.
Now that Okutoyi, in the above argument, is looking at the Wanga people as having
sinned as a nation, then the Wanga Christian culture is in conflict with Jesus Christ's
teaching (Neibuhr 1975: 149-150). For the Wanga Christian atonement to attain
Christ's approval, then, atonement practices and rituals need to be looked at closely;
and be reconsidered in the light of the gospel teachings. This particular atonement
152
needs reform. The gospel teaching, therefore, seeks to correct the corruption that
might have crept into culture and restore the original state of the Wanga national
culture. The Wanga Christian atonement should, therefore, seek to bring back what
was initially corrupted by the 'Adamic' sin that Weimi mentions. In this way, Wanga
atonement will be corrective in nature, just as the biblical atonement is.
In relation to what the informants have said, and the interaction with the theories of
atonement, a clear interpretation of what is being said is that Christ's atonement
covers the whole world. Going by the above explanation then, atonement impacts on
the Wanga, just like any other people on planet earth; every Wanga then, has equal
access to Jesus Christ's atonement, as described in the biblical teaching.
Although the RC and the AC informants agree on the universal atonement of Christ,
the Pentecostal Christians disagree with the RC's and the AC's on matters of the
application of the said atonement. Mutumishi says,
Naihabwene, Kristo yakhufila, nebutswa amundu omwene, aboole
nende Omwanakwe, ebulafu mbu Kristo ni nomuhonia. Nenda
okhusubira mumwoyo kwe mbu Nyasaye yamulamusia okhurula
mukhufwa. Habweneyaho, omundu oyo alahonibwa. It is true
that Christ died for humanity, but anyone who wants to be a
believer must confess that Christ is the Lord and believe in his/her
heart that God raised Him from death. Such person shall be called
saved.
Thus, for one to believe, individual initiative is required. The implication here is at the
individual and not group level; because authenticity and effectiveness are felt at an
individual level. What the Pentecostals are saying is that Christianity is more of an
individual enterprise than it is a eo - oporate one. Hence it is only after one has
fulfilled the condition that he or she can join other like - minded people to form the
153
family of Christians. After a careful scrutiny of both stands, this research states that
both of them are right. They should know that Christianity is both corporate and
individual, and as such the atonement must affect Christians at both levels. At the
individual level, the gospelled self must rightly relate to God, yet at the corporate
level the gospelled selves must relate rightly with each other and God. Atonement, in
this case, comes in to bring these two aspects into one; so that God receives the
atonement as if coming from one house occupied by many individuals.
To understand the impact of atonement further, the researcher sought to know if non-
Christians were impacted by Christ's atonement. Kisito, Swati and Masinde who
represented the RC and AC agreed that non-Christians also bear the image and
likeness of God and as such Christ's atonement included them. However, they gave a
condition that they must accept the Lordshi; of Jesus Christ. Apart from the claim of
these two, this research proves the universality of Christian atonement based on the
notion of the universality of sin (cf 2.3; 3.2). The universality of atonement is also
based on the fact that, it is only one person Jesus Christ, who effects the Christian
atonement, (Phil2: 1-11).
4.6 Summary
To the Christians, atonement means the cleansing of sin and counting the sinners as
though they were sinless. Christ is the only one qualified to atone for the sin
committed because He is sinless. Christians also understand atonement as an act of
mediation between God and His people. This mediation has been necessitated by the
corrupt humankind; the corruption that has severed relationships between them and
154
God. Jesus Christ, therefore, comes in by the act of atonement so that human beings.
may be in talking terms with God once more.
t
The concept of atonement is understood differently by each Christian denominations
based on their different interpretations of the Bible. However, as much as they differ
in their interpretation of the atonement act, they all agree on one mediator who is
Christ Jesus. Different Christian denominations pass through some 'pre-mediatoship',
as represented in figure 1.1; but eventually, Jesus Christ Jesus is the ultimate
mediator, before they finally reach out to God. Jesus Christ therefore, unites all the
Christian denominations as the final mediator; thereby making His mediatorship
universal. He is the meeting point of all Christianity, as explained in figure 1.2.
155
Figure 4.2: Gospelled Atonement
Son ~ T"'""" __ ~Holy Spirit
\
Roman Catholic
Anglican Church Church
The Universal Church
156
From the preceding figure, the universal Church represents the gospelled atonement;
since Jesus Christ is the unifying factor in the atonement process. This is so because
even if the RC and the AC went through Mary the mother of Jesus Christ and the
angels, while the Pentecostals went through the angels only, they both meet to Jesus
Christ before reaching out to God.
In this figure also, the Christian fraternity admits that atonement is important and that
for it to be effected, a mediator is needed. This study submits that, the need for a
mediator hints at the inadequacy of human beings to mediate for themselves. That is,,
on their own, they cannot reach out to God because of sin and evil, which have not
,
been atoned for. This, therefore, asserts the place of Jesus Christ as an atoner per
excellence, as discussed in chapter one.
Atonement is also seen as an act of intercession: Jesus Christ the sacrificial victim is
the one who intercedes on behalf of the believer. This is so because all atonement
needs, having passed though other pre-mediator, must pass through him before
reaching God. He is the reception centre, as shown in figure 1.2. Thus, He is better
placed to intercede for all Christians of all persuasions.
4.7 Conclusion
Having looked at the Christian view of atonement, it is emerging that atonement is the
only concept that unite humanity and God. The act of atonement therefore presents
Jesus Christ as the unifier of God and humanity. Atonement brings in the equality of
humankind, whereby all people of all races and all times are equal before Jesus Christ,
157
the atoner. Atonement is a universal phenomenon as much as it is individual; it does
not segregate based on religion or race. It is, therefore, an all inclusive act; that is,
Jesus Christ died on behalf of the "children of Adam," meaning, Christ's atonement is
universal.
Atonement brings all humankind to only one objective; that is, to please God. In this
·case then, Christ's atonement enables people to be able to reach God; and also God
reaches out to humanity. Here then, the atoner becomes the reconciler, bringing these
two together. The result of this reconciliation act becomes the peace that is now
enjoyed between God and humankind.
Christians also see atonement as a tool that unites humanity, by way of identification
t
and subsequent removal of sin committed against each other. In the atonement ri' ral,
the offended is vindicated, while the offender is pardoned. Thus, the atonement act
signifies a new beginning of relationships for both parties. The vindication, the
pardoning, and the new relationship bring in new identity by which the offender and
the offended are identified. That is, they share new life and have to have a new name-
the children of Jesus Christ; hence Christians.
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CHAPTER FIVE: INCULTURATING BIBLICAL ATONEMENT AMONG
THEABAWANGA
5.1· Introduction
In chapter four, this study explored the meaning of atonement, as understood by the
Wanga Christians. This chapter therefore, deals with the importance of inculturating
the concept of biblical atonement into the Wanga culture.
For genuine inculturation to take place, it is important that relationships between the
Jewish and the Wanga cultures are established. The former will be soureed from the
Old Testament; while the latter will be sourced from the Wanga people. This study
suggests that the common denominator of both cultures be used as a ladder in the
realization of authentic inculturation. In doing this, then, the middle ground is the
gospel part that seems to be ignored by a number of churches that minister among the
Abawanga. Bellagamba (1994, 51) underscores this important phenomenon, by
claiming that though in missions, the receiving community appreciates the sending
community, they reserve the right and freedom to respond to that faith in ways that
are culturally meaningful to it. What this seems to suggest is that, what is common in
both cultures is shared; leaving out what is not common thus making the word
'appreciation' meaningful to the receiving culture. Inculturation constitutes finding
the common ground between the scripture and the Wanga culture. This means that
there are certain cultural aspects that are not compatible with the teaching of scripture
(cf 2.12.1, 2.12.2, 2.17.2). Such aspects should not be considered in the inculturation
process.
KENYATT tJNI\lFR~ITY IIR A Y
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5.2 Relating the Jewish and the Wanga Atonement
The biblical process of atonement was instructional; just like when inl.eviticus 16:1-
34 specific instructions were given to Aaron, the high priest, of what was expected of
him on the Day of Atonement. He was not to put on the sacred tunic on this day; he
has to find the right animals for sacrifice; and he was to assume certain positions
when performing these sacrifices. There were also specific ceremonial washings that
were prescribed, for the man who released the scapegoat (Leviticus 16: 32-34).
Where the above instructions were not followed to the letter, the consequences were
dire, which even included death, as listed in Leviticus 16: 1-2. The fulfillrnent of this
atonement action, as found in the New Testament (Hebrews 9: 11), is also full of
specificities. "Christ in acting as the high priest went through the greater and more
perfect tabernacle that is not man made, that is to say, not a part of this creation.
Christ did not enter by means of the blood of goats and bulls but by His own blood"
(Hebrews 9:11-12). According to Christian (1978, 184-186), Christ did not need to
cleanse himself by means of sacrificing for the sins he may have committed, as an
ordinary high priest would do, because he was perfect.
5.2.1 Atonement Regulations
Karakacha observed that atonement, among the Abawanga has specific regulations to
be strictly followed. But in case the given instructions are not adhered to, then, the
effectiveness of atonement is compromised. In this regard, Nabakolwe's focus group
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claimed that instructions formed part of the atonement process; and as such, they must
be strictly adhered to.
Nolalonda amalchirisio aka Omuchesi, omusaala nohomba
olunyaasi shilutii/anga tawe - if one does not strictly follow the
instruction from the atoner then the prescribed medication cannot work.
Wekesa gives circumcision as an example of one of the atonement rituals, whose
instructions have to be keenly observed. The officiator, who, in most cases, is chosen
by the family, slaughters a white sheep in the namwima and pours some blood from
the sacrifice to the four sides of the grave. He then mixes a special concoction, called
manyasi, for the candidate and the people present to drink. After that, he utters the
following words;
Kuuka Mungoni, eshiayo shino neshihanwa shishio. Ewe kuuka,
olalola obubi nohomba okhusinyishila eshishebo eshia omwana uno
tawe. Mulekhuule yenjile murumbi obulayi - Grand father
Mungoni, this animal belongs to you as a gift from us for the
circumcision of this, your child. Do not be angry but release this
child so that he may undergo circumcision safely.
From what has been observed in the Jewish and Wanga cultures, instructions
occupied a very important place in the atonement process. Now that the instructions
and processes are highly regarded this research, concludes that, the instructions and
processes formed part of the atonement ritual in both cultures. As such, the
instructions and processes are to be taken at the same level with the actual atonement
ritual. Breaking any of these instructions is equal to breaking the whole atonement
exercise. This means that the efficacy, authenticity and acceptability of the atonement
ritual are jeopardised.
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5.2.2 Ritual Leadership
Leadership is another element that relates positively in both the Jewish and the Wanga
cultures. The process involved the ritual leaders; who, in the Jewish culture, was a
specific person - the high priest. Moses gave specific orders that sacrifices were to be
offered, by sons of Aaron, the priests. However, for the atonement sacrifice, it had to
be the high priest himself (Lev 1: 3-17; 16: 1- 34). In the Wanga culture also,
atonement rituals had specified leadership, depending on the type of atonement and
the community needs. A good example is the okhufuwa, a sacrifice talked of by the
Nashikawa focus group. Here, the emphasis is on family leadership; it is the family
that has the responsibility of finding a suitable ritual leader. If still alive, the father,
who is the head of the family, is endowed with the responsibility of looking for the
officiator. This must be an individual with the desired qualifications (cf 2.12; 2.12.1;
2.12.2) that will enable him or her to appropriately perform the desired duties.
5.2.3 Sacrificial Elements
In both cultures sacrificial elements are involved; in the Jewish culture, these
elements were animals; specifically, the he-goat and the bullock. Of much importance
were the characteristics desired of these two animals. Earlier on, Karakacha, an
informant from the Wanga community, had claimed that the elements are to be young,
preferably male, not lame and spotless.
In the Wanga culture, sacrificial elements involve much blood: they mostly include,"
animals like cows, sheep, and goats. Some birds, such as chicken and quails (isindu)
are also used as sacrificial elements. There is a general understanding among all the
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Wanga people, that the animal to be sacrificed has to meet certain qualities. The
sacrificial victim should be of one color, preferably black or white. Omukoko informs
this study that, according to the Abawanga,
Ingombe ya opili shiimalaanga omusango tawe - spotted ox
can not finish the sacrifice.
To this study, Omukoko's speech above reflects the fullness of life, as the ultimate
purpose ofthe atonement act. Hence atonement is an anticipation ofthe ideal, in terms
of personal and societal life. That is to say that atonement forms the deformed, and
brings about the newness of life, to both the offender and the offended.
Atonement, in both the Jewish and the Wanga cultures, was performed in specified
places, duly prepared for the exercise. For example, Andanje's explanation, in chapter
two, (cf 2.11) shows that atonement takes place either at the exact place where sin or
evil might have happened, or where the community believes that a solution is found.
In the Jewish culture particularly, atonement was performed in the tabernacle and
specifically the sanctuary area (Lev. 1:3). After the construction of the temple,
atonement was done in the sanctuary; this is because the temple was constructed to
reflect the tent of the meeting in the wilderness (Exodus 25: 10-37). Swati says that,
in the same way, confession is done in a specific place, called confessionary within
the Catholic Church.
5.2.4 The Atonement Process
Atonement process, in both the Jewish and the Wanga cultures, involved members of
the said communities. If anyone may have been found within these communities, who
did not belong to the community by birth, the naturalization of the said member took
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place with immediate effect, so that dismembering was avoided. This means that all
persons captured, during warfare and children born out of wedlock, had to be
naturalized. Among the Israelites, the Lord commanded that atonement was to be the
lasting ordinance for them and all those who lived within them (Lev. 16: 29-30).
Among the Abawanga, Webele and Anangwe agree that if one has to take part in the
Wanga atonement, one has to be a community member. They are requ!red to step into
the obuse (chyme) of the goat slaughtered before the actual atonement took place.
Here then, everybody is regarded to be a member of the Wanga community, with
rights and privileges bestowed.
What this means to suggest is that, atonement must only involve the offender and the
offended. Anyone outside this circle is not to be involved. This happens either at
community or individual level. To the researcher then, none is to share in the sin or
t
evil of someone else. Everyone or every society must be responsible for their own sin;
and this represents atonement as particular, linear and selectively focused to either the
individual or the society. It is only the sinner or the evil that is to be cleansed in the
atonement act and not the offended or one sinned against.
5.2.5 Natural and Supernatural Intervention
The process of atonement had both the supernatural and the natural interventions in
r
. both cultures. In the Jewish culture, the Lord Yahweh is supernatural. Leviticus
16:1ff, describes the person who commands Moses as inhabiting from-the clouds. The
person identifies himself as God, thus bringing in the aspect of supernaturalism.
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In the Wanga culture, the supernatural played a very important role in the atonement
process, to an extent that ancestors were given preferential treatment, like appeasing.
Waseka's focus group gives okhufuwa as an example of an appeasement sacrifice.
Okhufuwa is giving a gift to the living dead (abakuuka); aimed at seeking special
favors. Such favors include deterring specific calamities, such as injuries during
circumcision; or restraining the floods, or even strange sicknesses, from attacking the
people.
Anangwe, who confides in this researcher that he was once a mufumu, says that the
supernatural plays a very profound role in the atonement process. The living dead, he
says, "prescribe the type of atonement they require." In this case, then, the process is
purely supernatural. He gives the example of slaughtering a black cow (ingombe
imali) for the atonement of the sins of the Wanga nation. The individual atonement,
which in this sense may be prescriptive based on the abakuuka's (the living dead)
wishes will for sure adhere to the supernatural processes.
From the above description, atonement in both cultures is the act of both the
supernatural and the natural world; it concerns both the living and the living dead.
The atoner, therefore, must be a person who is conversant with both worlds. This is
because, in the researcher's view, this person is bringing together these two worlds by
creating harmony between them. Here then, reconciliation, as a meaning of
atonement, finds its place. This is because atonement, as an act, brings together not
only people but the two worlds that had been drawn apart, by the sin or evil of the
people. Atonement is a place where the purity of the supernatural meets the impurity
165
of the natural; thereby cleansing what would otherwise have been unclean. Here,
people are regarded as righteous; even though they were initially not righteous.
t
5.3 Contrasting the Jewish and Wanga Atonement Practices
In the Wanga culture, atonement is done both during daytime and also at night. The
appropriate example is the drought/rain atonement, which is done at night. The reason
given is that, Wanga secrets have to be kept, for the sake of Wanga state security.
This is a matter that involves the head of state (Nabongo); and as such, the issues
involved must be kept as the Wanga top secrets. In the Wanga culture, therefore, state
t
security becomes state secret. What this study concludes from this position is that,
national atonements were secretive by nature, since they involved the head of state.
Atonement, in the Wanga community, carried not only the cleansing act, but in it was
classified national information. In the Jewish culture, however, the atonement act was
done in day time; hence there were no classified information. Here everything was
laid bare for all and sundry to see and partake.
5.3.1 The Timing of Atonement Rituals
In the Wanga culture, atonement could be performed in different places, like in the
forest or cemetry (eshiembekho), and the stone altar (khumachina ka okhuraaka);
which were not far from home, or even within the homestead. This is because
atonement depended on the kind of sin committed, the place the sin was committed,
and the gravity presumed. Wasiche, too, confirmed this when he talked of atonement
that takes place from the suicide spot.
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In the bible, atonement was performed only in the tent of meeting: where the
sanctuary and the holy of holies were. Given the sacredness of the atonement
exercise, what seems to be implied is that to the Wanga people, all places are holy;
depending on what one is doing and the purpose of the atonement. To the Jewish
people though, only one place was holy; and that was the temple. This,was where the
sacred exercise had to take place; thus atonement of every kind was done from here.
Looked at keenly, one can deduce that in the bible, sin is collected together and dealt
with in one specific place; while among the Abawanga sin must be dealt with on the
as - is, where- it- is, basis.
5.3.2 Leadership and Sacrificial Elements
In both cultures, leadership played a very important role in matters of atonement.
Unlike in the bible, where only one leader was recognized, among the Abawanga,
leadership depended on certain factors. Omusuula (cf2.24; 2.2.4.; 2.24.2) gave a very
elaborate description of the people who are qualified to preside over atonement rituals
in the Wanga land. They include omufumu, omulakusi, omuchesi and omuliuli
(prophet, seer, wiseman and exorcist). However, within the family set up, the head of
the family, who was not necessarily the husband, but the oldest living male in the
family, was (and still is) allowed to conduct an atonement ceremony.
Sacrificial elements were blood and plant related, in the Wanga culture; whereas in
the bible it was purely blood. As described in the Book of Leviticus (chapter 16),
there was no atonement without the shedding of blood; for this particular case, blood
from the bullock, the he-goat or the lamb. Within the Wanga culture, plant life
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complements blood, in issues of atonement. The manyasi that Andanje, Wakhungu,
and Omusula talked about (cf 2.2.4), in such atonement rituals as bringing children
born out of wedlock home; the eshiembekho ritual and the eating of new food, are in
essence complementing the blood letting sacrifices.
5.3.3 Atonement and Sanctioning Process
The biblical, atonement was sanctioned and initiated by the God of Israel. From
chapters 1 to 16 of the Book of Leviticus, the only person giving orders on how
everything else should be done is God. In the Wanga culture, though, both the living
and the living dead give orders and instructions on how they want atonement done. A
good example is the atonement for the dying, which Wasike described to the
reset cher. He said that the living dead (abakuuka) called for the dying man to
sacrifice so that he may be received well in the world of the living dead (emakombe).
In Israel, neither the angels nor heaven dwellers could sanction for atonement of any
kind. It is God who gave the instructions.
The atonement processes also varied based on the Wanga clans that' were involved.
During the process of atonement, some instructions were given, based on gender, age
and status. The best example is the cleansing of the circumcision knife. According to
Luseno, only the males who were forty years old and above, were allowed to attend.
Wekesa further says that no one was allowed into the namwima, except the
circumcision candidates and their family members. In this particular case,
dismembering is based on familial relationships. The traditional beer prepared after
the welcoming of the emisambwa (spirits) is drunk only by the clan elders, who must
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be male. Here also the selection is 'skewed'; based on the clan criteria, which leaves
out the 'unwanted.' Though there is some element of selection in the Jewish culture,
it is only based on gender, but not age; and that men and women were allocated
specific places in the temple or the tent of meeting. In the Wanga culture, one was
expected to be totally absent; if not needed in any of the mentioned atonements.
5.4 Atonement Theories Versus Wanga and Jewish Atonement
Having looked at the relationship between the natural and the supernatural, the
researcher concluded that in both the Jewish and the Wanga cultures, there is a sense
in which the prescribed ritual sacrifices appease the supernatural. Thus, Anselm's
theory, though not known by the Wanga people, was practised i~ their cultural
atonement. ~de theory states that Jesus appeased God, by being a ritual human
sacrifice; thus satisfying God's demand for the removal of human sin. In comparing
both cultures, what seems to come out is that, the main purpose of sacrificial elements
was appeasing the supernatural; thus satisfying the supernatural demand for the
removal of sin (Erickson 2005: 798-818).
In both the Jewish and the Wanga cultures, there is a kind of punishment that should
be expected, after sin has been committed. However, at the sacrificingof the elements
mentioned above, this wrath is averted. Thus, one can deduce that, God's mercy
replaces His wrath after the sacrifice is offered (Wolfhart 2000: 403 - 434; Garrett
1995: 33 - 44). Thus, the sacrificial elements must be regarded as wrath carriers with
regard to the matters of atonement. The elements, too, become the bridge on which
the supernatural meets the natural in the peace making effort.
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A clear understanding ofthe Wanga atonement demonstrates that the exercise covered
specific people; and none of them was exempted from the atonement practice, as long
as one was in the said category. The atonement, therefore, affected all people
involved; whether one was present or far away, it did not matter. Based on the
purpose of atonement, which was the removal of sin for all; the position of the Wanga
community is that, all have sinned and need atonement. This resonates with Neibuhr
(1975: 45), on his claim that all culture (including Wanga culture) is sinful and needs
an overhaul. Among the Abawanga, one needs to look at the history of sin and its
effect on the community. Thus, sin is not by design or intent, but by nature.
Subsequently, the Wanga culture is, by nature, sinful. The bible, which has been
adapted by the Wanga Christians, would thus demand that Christ saves the Wanga
culture from sin.
Based on the above observations, Christ is seen as the reformer of cultures, by way of
,
atonement in the bible; while the sacrificial elements wash away sinful elements in
the Wanga culture (Neibuhr 1975: 194). It should not be forgotten also that,
atonement was to clear individual sins, in the both the Jewish and the Wanga cultures.
Thus, what Neibuhr seems to suggest is that, not all elements in any given culture are
sinful.
5.5 Summary
This study has found out that in both the Jewish and Wanga cultures, instructions
occupied a very important place in the atonement process. Through instructions,
which were given under specific leadership, both the offender and the offended were
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able to reconcile. Thus the atonement process involved the ritual leaders; in the
Jewish and the Wanga cultures. The said leadership was carefully selected, so that the
person in leadership place was specific, and had desired qualifications. In the Wanga
culture such person could be the head of the family, omufomu, omulakusi or Nabongo.
This study noted that Nabongo, apart from being the head of state, was the head of his
family. In the bible it was the high priest who performed atonement duties.
In both cultures, the sacrificial elements required were mainly animals, particularly an,
ox and either a sheep or a goat; which signified the necessity of blood letting in the
atonement rituals. Atonement, in both the Jewish and the Wanga culture, was
performed in specified places, duly prepared for the exercise. In the bible, it was done
in the temple; while in the Wanga culture, it was done in designated places.
Although in varying degree, supernatural and natural participation was involved in
both cultures. The instructions were received from the divine world to be acted upon
in the natural world. In this regard, it was Yahweh who gave the atonement
instructions to the Jews, while the ancestors instructed the Abawanga.
5.6 Conclusion
Relating the atonement rituals, in both communities, reveals that atonement is a
human need that must be fulfilled for the wellbeing of every community. The need
arises as a result of a conflict that happens between individuals; and, to some extent,
between groups of people. Based on the findings of this research, it can be assumed
that atonement constitutes part of the justice system in any given society.
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The practice of atonement, in both cultures, points to the fact of the universality of sin
and evil. There would be no need of atonement if sin and evil are not evident within
any given society. Thus, by the act of atonement, these two cultures are not only
dealing with the product of sin but also acknowledging the need of peaceful co-
existence. Apart from acknowledging and dealing with the results of sin and evil,
atonement recognizes the personal and corporate responsibility for the sin committed.
Thus, by atonement, people confess their inability to deal with sin, and that they
require another power to help them wipe out the effects of sin.
By looking at the instructions, the elements and processes of atonement, in both the
Jewish and Wanga cultures; one concludes that God has supernaturally put
mechanism within the universe, to deal with conflict and conflict related issues. One
of these mechanisms is the atonement r:.llals; which operate in both the supernatural
and the natural realms. Hence both realms are brought to the same level of
understanding by the one act of atonement. This then, restores the communication that
may have been broken by the sinful acts of mankind.
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CHAPTER SIX: IMPORTANCE OF INCULTURATING ATONEMENT
6.1 Introduction
This chapter looks at the last objective, which is to show the importance of
inculturating the biblical concept of atonement into the Wanga culture. The
significance of inculturation is that the thought and practice of atonement can be seen
as part of the life of the Abawanga, who practice the Christian faith. During the
process of inculturation the scripture interacts with the Wanga culture; producing a
faithful who is truly Christian, and at the same time authentically Wanga. Here, the
common denominators of both cultures are used as a ladder in realizing authentic
inculturation. This study concurs with Bellagamba (1994: 53 - 55) when he says that
missionaries must let the evangelized cultures provide the raw material that meets
with scripture to provide the gospel truth for the said cultures. It requires, therefore,
that similarities and disimilarities, in matters of atonement be used as- starting points
in the inculturation process particularly on the concept of atonement among the
Abawanga. This ensures that the principal meaning of the concept of atonement is
kept; leading to its effectiveness within the Wanga community.
As seen from the previous chapters, the concept of atonement is fairly extensive. In
this chapter, therefore, this study has selected specific themes that strongly came out
in the previous chapters for discussion. These include, sin and evil, in relation to
atonement and the ritual of atonement; and translation of the bible, as part of
inculturation. Other themes that this chapter deals with are inculturation of the atoner,
symbolism in inculturation, relating mulembe (greetings) to atonement, and the ritual
meal of sacrifice.
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6.2 Sin and Evil in Relation to Atonement
As mentioned earlier (cf 2.3), there cannot be atonement without sin and evil; both of
which call for the atonement ritual. Even though this research does not deal with sin
and evil, it is important that any attempt at inculturating the concept of atonement
does not completely overlook the place of sin and evil. After interacting with the
respondents, in chapter two, this study concluded that sin among the Abawanga is
classified into two realms. These are sins of commission (doing what one is not
supposed to do) and sins of omission (cf 2.14); that is, failing to do what one is
expected (cf 2.9). To wipe out the evil that results from the two types of sins,
described here, Oronda says that omulukha or omusango (atonement ritual) has to
take place. In both scenarios, Wekesa described sin, among the Abawanga, as falling
short of the Wanga cultural and religious expectations. '.hat is understood as, not
measuring up to the expected standards ofWanga religio-cultural righteousness.
This shows that a certain standard of expectations exists among the Abawanga. It is
expected that every Muwanga (singular) should aim at meeting, this expected
standard. This is a mark of moral excellence that every Wanga person should aim at:
failure to which, results in sin. According to Anger (1988: 258), if sin is to be
understood in the New Testament perspective, it can be equated to the Greek
terminology, 'uJ!upnu' (hamartia) which means, missing a mark. Apnpnn is found
from the archer's world, whereby, the archer aims at a specific mark. If he misses it,
then it is regarded as sinful; that is, the archer has not measured up to the required
standard. From its Helenistic background, the New Testament adopted the word
uIlUP'ttU to mean sin. If a Christian commits sin, it is equated to missing the mark of
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righteousness. Sin to a Christian, therefore, is the act of breaking the standard of
righteousness, set by God.
It follows that, the Christian and Wanga understanding of sin are similar, and can be
,
understood as the act of missing the set goal; which is the standard of life. Those
interested in inculturation must find a concept that, in the Wanga culture, corresponds
with missing the Wanga cultural standard; which in this case is the equivalent of
missing a goal that is set for Wanga cultural righteousness. The goal is harmony and
peaceful eo - existence between the living and the living dead (cf2.8, 2.10, 2.12.1). It
could also be expressed as the balance between the natural and the super - natural.
According to Oronda's discussion group the person who fulfills the said righteousness
is refered to as, omundu omulunjifu or omundu omukololofu the straight person. This
group further informs this research that,
Omundu omulunjufu nomundu ouchendanga nushiloongole
shia Abawanga - The staright person is one who walks within the
Wanga traditions.
This study therefore establishes that, omulunjifu - is a person who follows the Wanga
traditions and practices; thus, fulfilling the set goal of righteousness that is demanded
by the Abawanga. It is only after this goal is missed that atonement ritual is prescribed
for the persons or groups who have not consciously or unconsciously attained this
standard mark.
This research establishes that the word okhwosia - to cleanse is the descriptive
adjective that will mean atonement; so that the above understanding is seen as
restorative. This is because this word must also mean, returning the offender to the
standard goal. This must be, by making the offender aware of the standard goal that
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was missed, by the offense committed. In making the offender go through the
atonement process, the society is, in essence, returning the offender back to the
required standard of the Wanga religio - culture; leading to intergration; into the
community.
To understand this standard measure, Anangwe informed this study that the two
words used among the Abawanga are tsimbi (at times rendered as obubi) and obulayi
(plural). According to Swati, tsimbi/obubi is a descriptive word that means below
standard; tsimbi also is a noun referring to doing something bad; whereas obulayi
means above the standard. It is also a noun referring to doing something good. Used
either way, tsimbi connotes undesired expectations; while obulayi connotes desired
expectations among the Abawanga. For example,
Omwana oyo yakhoola obubi niyara inyungu ya mama, omwana
oyo yakhoola obulayi nalonjiera mama wuwe inyungu. That child
acted badly when he/she broke her mother's pot, that child did a
good thing when she molded a pot for her mother.
Whereas sin, is looked at as missing the standard measure evil, according the
respondents (2.2,), is the result of sin. Wekesa says that, after one person or a specific
group has sinned, by failing to meet the standard, famine and drought are the resultant
evil. This result of sin affects everyone, regardless of whether one was party to the sin
committed or not. The concept - evil, unlike sin, becomes universal and inclusive:
and as such, it requires a national atonement ritual.
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6.3 The Ritual of Atonement
In an effort to show the importance of inculturating the concept of atonement, both
the scriptural and the Wanga cultural meanings of this concept are important. As
mentioned earlier, the Wanga people understand atonement as an act that restores
harmony and tranquility in their Wanga nation. They see atonement ritual as an act of
reconciliation, meant to heal broken relationship between God and the people. It is an
act of appeasement, intended to bring down the wrath of God; and bring the
omulembe (hermony) between the natural and the super - natural. Thus, atonement
returns the order of things as they initially were, before the standard goal was missed;
and gives them an opportunity of becoming a better people.
Based on the perception of sin, discussed above, the Christian understanding of
atonement is not different from the Abawanga understanding of the same. For
example, in chapter four; of this study, it was noted that Christians see atonement as
an act of appeasement. According to Swati, this is an act of obukosia - grace; and as
such atonement has its roots in God. In chapter two, this study discovered that the
Abawanga also view atonement as a moment of reconcilliation; and as such the
concept of atonement is perceived as a progression.
Having looked at the Abawanga and the Christian understanding of atonement, it is
important that words translated to mean atonement reflect these two understandings.
This is because, what is clear in both the Christian and the Abawanga understanding
of atonement is that, it gives people their identity. This identity is based on the
meaning of atonement; which determines its function among the Abawanga and in the
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bible. It is also important to note that, atonement defines the relationship of both the
natural and the super - natural. It is only after the atonement has been performed that
this severed relationship is restored (cf 2.27). Inculturating the concept of atonement
is, therefore, important because it determines the day to day life of the Abawanga;
hence shaping their destiny, in terms of identity.
6.4 Pre- liminaries to Inculturation
This research submits that it is easier and fair to have people hear Christ Jesus
speaking in their own language; because it is only through the peoples' language that
concepts such as atonement are properly articulated. Exegetical analysis of the word
of God produces vital elements that are critical to the process 'of translation.
Inculturation, therefore, entails a number of things; which inc!ude language,
interpretation, and exegesis of the word. For example, Ndegwa (2007, 41-46) explains
that inculturation is a place where culture meets scripture. This study, therefore,
establishes that as a result of this meeting, ethnotheology of a given people is arrived
at; thus resulting in the gospel message.
6.4.1 Bible Translation
Swati supports the above view by claiming the following;
Nowenya abaandu okhurumbula akali mumioyo
chiabwe oboola alusungo lwabwe. Halali amapaaro
akarumbulwa mumunwa kabolungwa mulusikoyo - If
you want to know what is in peoples'heart, speak their
language. But for verbalized thinking speak in English.
178
He goes ahead and points out that, if a song, or a hymn, is sung in English, the
participation is usually dull and lukewarm; thus not to the maximum. However, when
the same song, or hymn, is sung in local language, the mood changes, and there is
maximum participation; thus creating understanding of the song. This points out to
the fact that, the meaning of any given concept is carried, in the language of the
people. In view of this, the research submits that atonement, as a concept, is well
understood if expressed in Lu-Wanga, than any other language; the meaning is much
more internalized. Based on what Swati has said, this study, also submits, that, such
meaning is an owned meaning. It is the peoples' meaning, and as such, it is an applied
meaning; because it resonates to their day to day life style.
By translating the scripture into the Lu- Wanga, the Abawanga have had access to it.
The scripture, therefore, interacts with the Wanga culture much more easily;
producing an authentic gospel message. In essence, the act of translation may be
deemed as inculturation of Jesus Christ Himself, so that he actually speaks to the
Abawanga in their language. In this way, the association of the Abawanga to Christ
Jesus is more pronounced.
6.4.2 Inculturation of the Atoner
As observed in chapter two (cf 2.24), not everyone is allowed to take lead in the
atonement ritual exercise. There are specific qualifications that allow one to act as an
atoner. These include a person being either from the side of the offender or the
offended; or one who relates positively to both sides. The atoner could also be
seconded or recommended by a person of high integrity. Either way, the atoner must
KENYATTA Ul~lV
179
have some kind of association to both the offender and the offended. In this way the
atoner is aware of the offense and its magnitude. By way of association also, the
researcher infers that the atoner should be aware of the kind of, punishment and/or
retribution involved in the offense committed.
One important qualification of Jesus Christ is that, he came from heaven and as such
he understands both the people (the natural) and God (the divine). By virtue of his
life on earth, he understands what it is to be human and by his life in heaven he
understands God. Consequently the inculturation of the person of the atoner in the
Christian realm should include a personality, who has the understanding of both the
divine and the natural realms. Just like Jesus Christ, the presiding priest should not
only be conversant with the scripture but he should also be familiar with the Wanga
cultural understanding of atonement. In this way, the priest will be able to get the
gospel message within the Wanga culture and articulate it to the people. This is so,
because the scripture he knows will interact with the culture he knows, producing the
gospel truth: something new that no ear has heard or eye has seen. Thus, this research
submits that, the priest, who acts in the name of Jesus Christ, can officiate at
atonement. In this way, then, it is Jesus Christ who is doing it, fot the Christian
Wanga.
6.4.3 Representations and Symbolisms
According to Wasiche, symbolism is one of the ways of communication, among the
Abawanga. He says that, the Abawanga's respect for Nabonga's symbol is almost
equal to the respect given to Nabongo himself. Douglas-et-al (1982: 1142) on the
other hand claim that a symbol is a representation of the actual. Based on the above,
r
180
Wekesa's focus group discussion (cf 2.11) is authenticated in their argument that,
atonement plays a major role, as a way of communication, among the Abawanga.
Okutoyi and Okwemba, who are pentecostals (cf 4.3; 6.8), agree with Namwiru's
focus group; by claiming that in the Christian understanding of atonement, symbolism
is also used. They point to the elements of the Holy Communion, which they claim,
are only symbols and representation of the body and blood of Jesus Christ. According
to them, these symbols send a message of Jesus Christ's atonement to the Wanga
Christians.
Although Okwemba and Okutoyi claim that Holy Communion elements are symbolic,
Andoni, a Catholic Priest, disagrees with them; and asserts that immediately the bread
and wine are blessed, they become actual body and blood of Jesus Christ. This,
according to Andoni, brings in realism and not symbolism. Though this study
acknowledges the theological differences that may emerge between these two groups
the Catholics and the Evangelical - in terms of the Holy Communion administration;
what is clear is that there is representation of atonement elements in the form - actual
or symbolic body and blood of Jesus Christ.
Symbolism is acceptable in both the Jewish and the Wanga cultures and can be
comfortably applied in both cases. This is because the Old Testament was written in
Jewish culture; and as such it is expressed in Jewish symbolism. Andoni supports this
by claiming that, in the cleansing ritual, water is used as a cleansing agent. According
to him, this happens after the people of God or consecrated utensils have been defiled,
or during the dedication of the church building by the Bishops. In the Old Testament,
this is observed in Leviticus chapters 10, 11, and 12.
181
According to Hartley (1992: 126 - 140), water cleansing is a symbolism that
emphasizes the purity of life expected of the people of God
Based on the information above, this study submits that symbols are representations
of reality. If these symbols can be used, so that people are able to experience reality,
then inculturation should take such forms. For example, the use of water (cf 4.3), by
way of sprinkling on the offender and the offended will act as a means of cleansing
the offense. This means that symbolism as a means of uniting the Abawanga, binds
them more than the Euro-American way; which is taught rationally without any
concrete manifestation. To this research, symbolism, in the teaching of atonement,
among the Abawanga, shows that the Abawanga are, to a great extent, concrete
thinkers; and as such, they should be approached in a concrete rather than abstract
way.
6.4.4 The Ritual Meal of Sacrifice
As observed in chapter two (cf 2.19.1), food is an important ingredient in the
atonement rituals; because it serves as a link between the offender and the offended. It
is also a source of fellowship, between the living and the living dead. According to
Andoni, the ritual meal of sacrifice is a sign of communion and as such, food brings
people together, in trust and fellowship. Andoni goes ahead and claims that in all
Wanga atonement rituals, elders would not leave until both the offender and the
offended provide a meal; which is eaten, either at the place where the offense took
place, or at any other designated place.
182
Thus, the ritual meal of sacrifice signifies a new beginning and new life because it is,
only people with a new life that can eat together. In' the eating of the meal, is the
exchanging of the new life. That is to say, that the offender and the offended share a
new life, as they share the meal. In the Christain context, by participating in the Holy
Communion, Jesus Christ, shares His own life with human beings, who are the
offenders; thus bringing in the newness of life. Hence Jesus Christ, who is the
offended, by the sins of the people, begins new life with the offenders. Jesus Christ
imparts in people his life that has entirely met the set standards; so that people live
their lives in Jesus Christ. Here then the word atonement must include the element of
Jesus Christ, the atoner per excellence, living His life in the people. The importance
of inculturation, in this sense, is the life of Christ; expressed in and by the people.
6.4.5 Relating Mulembe to Atonement
The starting point of inculturating atonement, among the Abawanga, should always be
the greetings (mulembe). Mulembe is a general greeting for all people at all times; and
also indicates peace and order in the community. According to Swati, mulembe binds
the Wanga people together; because it diffuses tension that may have existed before
the two quarrelling people or groups. The mulembe concept also inquires of the order
of the community, in terms of serenity and tranquility. Swati says that the Wanga
people exchange greetings, even in times of enmity and mistrust: making, mulembe a
mild form of atonement.
Based on the above explanations, this study concludes that, the mulembe concept
signifies the willingness of engagement, even between enemies. Here, the offender
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and the offended are willing to open up and discuss their differences. Mulembe is,
therefore, a directional concept, pointing towards peace and order, of what has been
previously disordered, by the offense committed. At the community level, the
researcher submits that mulembe is an administrative concept; looking into the order
of the community, and the day to day functions. Mulembe, therefore, is the ideal of
the desired atonement and should be used in all spheres of Christian life.
6.5 The Ritual of Nababa
Having looked at other ways in which inculturation can be beneficial, this study
attempted to inculturate the ritual of naluba. This is because nababa sets the
precedence to all other things that are happening to the Wanga society. Once evil
spirits have been sent away by performing the ritual of nababa, good things set in.
t
Once again women start getting children, cows start multiplying, the rains that may
have been delayed by the spirit of nababa begin and unexplained d~aths within the
Wanga community stops. Many other good things are experienced by the society. The
serenity and tranquility spoken of earlier (cf 6.4.3, 6.4.5) sets in. In view of these, this
study sees nababa as a starting point of inculturation in matters of atonement.
In this way also, Christianity will be a faith that does not only speak to the Abawanga,
but it will also be a faith that is lived by them. Note also that, the Abawanga, like any
other African community, need to identify themselves with the faith that speaks to
them, using their own symbols and understanding (Marc-Ela 1989: 144). This faith,
therefore, must be embodied in the Wanga identity, giving it a Christian
understanding.
By inculturating Christianity, the Abawanga seek to use symbols that are familiar to
them and talk to their reality, in expressing their faith. In all the aton~ment rituals
observed in this study, there are symbols attached to specific truth that the Abawanga
seek to communicate (cf 2.12.1,2.12.2,2.17.1,2.17.2 and 2.19). This might be the
KEN /r~TTAUNIVC- ~C'IT I ..-. .'
184
reason why Mbiti (1987: 136) argues that Africans never worshiped nature but the
force behind nature; which in Mbiti's argument was God. It is in this spirit that this
study revisits the issue of nababa among the Abawanga. Nababa is the spirit behind
environmental degradation and drought. The resultant evil is what this study
theologizes, in the hope that the church can be able to see the significance of water
which is the outside sign for the inward faith in the 'ritualistic' cleansing.
According to Waluke, nababa is the spirit that brings about evil in \yangaland. This
spirit is neither female nor male; no one knows its gender! It is claimed that nababa
brings with it omuyeka omubi - bad wind. It is this wind that causes drought, resulting
in crop failure; and drying up of vegetation leaving people and animals without food.
This means that wild animals, especially leopards, come out of the forest and attack
domestic animals. There is also prevalence of drought related diseases, coupled with
malnutrition; thus leading to a high number of deaths being recorded at this time.
During this time also, seasonal rivers dry up. Apart from affecting nature nababa,
takes on a social dimension manifesting itself in quarrels, conflicts and wars. All these
bring about untold misery upon the people.
6.5.1 Chasing Nababa Away
After experiencing such a wide imbalance, in the natural and social sectors of the
Wanga community, cleansing of this evil, and sending away the nababa spirit
becomes necessary.
185
According to Omusula,
Omusaala okwa okhuyiniaho obutoobela buno, ne okhuupa nababa.
Amatepe nende ebifulia bikhupwa, ne abaandu nibayila nababa
munyanza ya Yalulwe - The medicine for removing this evil is beating
nababa. Empty jericans and pans are beaten producing loudest noise
as nababa is sent to Lake Yalulwe - Lake Victoria.
The local chieflleader calls all the people because of the evil that is stated above; and
makes an announcement of when the ritual of nababa will take place. This calling
takes place only when the nababa phenomenon has been noticed. In this meeting, the
chief together with elders (cf 2.17.2) inform the people on how this function will be
organized. This is because the chasing away of nababa, and its associated evil, is,
purely a community affair, in which every person must participate. In this ritual,
everybody will have to be prepared with objects that will make the loudest sound
which frighten nababa making it run away. According to Waluke, the louder the
sound, the faster nababa runs and disappears into the water mass. Omusula says that,
people believe that once it dives into the water, the land is cleansed. It is like, when
nababa is on land, people and everything within the environment are besieged; and as
such they have to break the bonds of nababa, so that it can go away.
,
Nababa and its associated evil are chased away towards the west and when one
reaches the nearest stream, one must denounce this evil and return without looking
back. According Waluke, the evil which is now in the stream, shall be drowned by
water and sent to Nzoia (the big river); which will eventually send it to Lake Yalulwe.
According to Washiali, when the evil of nababa is sent to lake Yalulwe it never comes
back to haunt the people.
186
6.5.2 The Evil of Nababa and the Evil of Satan
Listening to the respondents, this study concludes that water nullifies the evil, brought
about by nababa; and cleanses the whole community, bringing about the freshness of
r
life. The lake in this case signifies a point of no return for the evil of nababa, ushering
in the clean spirit responsible for the newness of life. Water among the Abawanga, is
a symbol of cleansing. From the above descriptions, water has the power to cleanse
and nullify the evil power, brought about by nababa. In this way, the Abawanga have
found ways of compating this evil and working to re - establish the harmonious
wellbeing; and to evoke God to forgive them and give rain that will bring about food
for life.
,
In an eff it to inculturate the concept of atonement, this study looks at the ritual of
nab ab a as a community affair in which every member must participate. This
community participation is purposeful because nababa spirit and its associated evil,
brings the community together. This is to say that evil attacks the community as a
whole and as such a collective community response is appropriate. The church also
consists of humanbeings who are equally associated and affected by evil. A good
example of the manifestation of evil in the church is the recently experienced election
violence in Kenya. Most of the people who beat, maimed and killed each other were
Christians. In church they would see each other as brothers and sister- ready to share
heaven. However, one wonders what happens with the brotherhood and sisterhood
after church service/mass, so that violence sets in destroying all good things that had
been said in church. The Abawanga take their religio - cultural teachings more
seriously than Christian teachings. For example, on the wedding day, the couple after
187
taking church vows ends up taking other traditional vows at night. The reason given is
that, if those traditional vows are not taken, the marriage will end in separation in
future. The taking of the later vows reveals that the Abawanga are not fully
committed to church. In order to bring about this committement, inculturation is
needed.
Having looked at the manifestation of evil in church, there is need for chasing such
evil away, just as nababa is chased away from among the Abawanga. This research
submits that in inculturating this ritual into Christianity, church leaders such as priests
and bishops could call for fasting and praying so that evil, just like nababa, is chased
away.
Just as noise is USf .1 to chase nababa away in this ritual, the priests and bishops would
allow the sounding of church bells, drums and any noise making equipment of the
church to run for about half an hour; making the loudest noise to scare away Satan.
People can then come back to the church having driven away evil. However, they also
need to be protected by the Holy Spirit; thus they should be sprinkled with holy water
to cover them with shroud of God's protection. For the case of the Catholic Church,
people then, go for confession, while in evangelical churches they can repent their
sins. In this way, the Wanga symbolism can be inculturated within Christianity,
giving the Abawanga Christians a symbolic identity.
188
6.5.3 Care for Environment
Concerning the environment, this study submits that the environmental evil originated
with human persons. Although in some cases, it may not be true that the Abawanga
are directly responsible for the evil befalling them. For example, the clearing of the
Kobolet (source of river Nzoia) and Mt. Elgon forests reduce the rainfall, lowering the
water volume of river Nzoia. The Abawanga will suffer drought and low water-'
supply, not because they have had anything to do with it; but all the same, it is a
humanity problem. Human beings according to Abawanga (cf 2.19), are stewards to
the environment and the animal world. They are, therefore, supposed .to intercede on
behalf of the environment and the animal world. After the above inculturated ritual,
the Abawanga Christians should be ready to go out and do well to everybody and
everything within the envi- .nment and the animal world.
6.6 Summary
In an effort to inculturate atonement in Africa, the researcher submits that the process
has a history. The evangelizers should take note of what has been happening so that
they can be able to build on what already exists. It is also noted that atonement does
not exist in isolation; there are other concepts that must be looked at alongside
atonement. Therefore, for any good and meaningful inculturation of the concept of
atonement, it is important that the two concepts of sin and evil be looked at; which
will mark the boundaries of the concept of atonement, because it is dependent on
these two.
189
The atoner is a very important figure in the atonement process. It is important that
he/she be someone who understands both the scriptures and the Wanga culture. That
is, the qualification of the atoner, as found in the bible, be compared to the same
among the Abawanga; making the person acceptable among the Abawanga. In this
way the person of Jesus Christ will be seen as one of their own. It is this person who,
to a large extent determines, what is to be offered as the atonement elements. The
person is also aware of when and where the ritual takes place. This is because Jesus
Christ understands life in both the divine and the natural worlds.
In the process of inculturating the concept of atonement, symbols should be taken
with the weight they deserve. For the concrete thinker, it will be greatly advantageous
for evangelizers to utilize this in the course of persuading the Abawanga to accept
Christianity. Symbolism will not r oily speak to the Abawanga's mind but to their
hearts as well. However, evangelizers should also take note that symbolism should not
take the place of the actual message; it should only point to the intended message. In
this case, therefore, the gospel message is as a result of interaction between the
Wanga culture and the scripture and should be articulated by the use of symbolism.
Finally, the translation of the scripture into the luhya language is of great importance.
In this way then Christ speaks to the peoples' hearts rather than their minds. It is the
translation of the scripture that makes it possible to interact with the Wanga culture,,
producing the gospel message (Ndegwa, 2007,41-42).
190
6.7 Conclusion
In this chapter, the researcher sought to show the importance of inculturating the
biblical concept of atonement, among the Abawanga. In doing so, this research
suggested the the inculturation of the meaning of atonement, should come from the
people themselves. The process should be directed by a trained theologian, who
should provide the expert advice; while the people provide the historical and
contextual knowledge. In this way, the whole process of inculturation will be owned
by the people; leading to the acceptance of the gospel message.
This research takes cognizance of the fact that the gospel message is the interaction
between the scripture and the culture (Ndegwa, 2007: 41). Accordingly, it is the end
result of the interaction between these two entities; the scripture and the Wanga
culture that results in the gospel message. This gospel message is what authenticates
the Wanga Christian faith; thus producing the Abawanga who are authentically
Wanga at the same time truly Christians. The true gospel message then, is in itself an
incluturation! The figure (6.1) bellow illustrates this study's persuasion.
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Figure 6.1 Scripture interaction with Wanga culture
The Gospelled
Atonement
Wanga
Culture
Scripture
Euro- '
American
Culture
The figure 6.1 above shows that one can be truly Christian; and at the same time
authentically Wanga. In essence, one does not need to get out of their culture to
become a Christian; but rather to let the scripture interact with one's culture. In this
view, this research makes general conclusions; and suggests recommendations for
further research on matters of inculturation and other biblical concepts, for any
successful evangelistic enterprise.
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CHAPTER SEVEN: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
7.1 General Conclusions
A closer look at the concept of atonement reveals that, sin, evil and guilt are the three
elements that bring about bad relationships, in the Wanga community. Atonement
addresses this problem, by way of sacrificial rituals because it is a place of
engagement, whereby the offender and the offended find expression.
7.1.1 Atonement and Peaceful Co - existence
In the Wanga understanding, atonement is neccessary for a peaceful eo - existence,
of both the natural and the supernatural worlds. It brings toge' .er people and spirits
who would otherwise be potential enemies. Atonement, therefore, is the bridge for
both the living and the living dead to reach out to each other; as it mediates between
the warring factions. Atonement can, thus, be said to be the place where justice meets
mercy. Here, the offender repents and restitutes, to the offended. In return, the
offender is re-accepted into the community; while the offended receives justice.
Consequently, atonement restores the balance of nature; bringing back the situation
that prevailed before, so that life countinues harmoniously. The tranquility and
serenity that is now enjoyed by the community after the atonement rituals have been
performed is what is referred to in chapter six (cf 6.5), as omulembe kwa eshialo - the
peace of the nation.
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7.1.2 Atonement and Culture
Atonement takes place in specific cultures; and as such, its practice is also culturally
imbedded. In the light of this, there is a way in which the concept of atonement is
handled; in terms of where to perform the ceremony, who to perform, how to perform
it, as well as how the sacrificial victim is handled. The place of sacrifice is in most
cases, an indicator of the presence of God because the said place is pre - determined
and set aside for this purpose. The atoner is specifically picked based on the
qualifications set by the people in consultation with the divine. Consequently the
handling of the sacrifice increases or reduces the efficacy of the atonement. All these
show that atonement is, to some extent, dictatorial and prescriptive in nature.
7.1.3 Categorizing Atonement in the Old Testament
In the Old Testament, atonement can be put in five categories as follows: obedience,
sacrifice, propitiation, redemption and reconciliation. These, in essence, are five
different facets of the same truth that address the restoration of broken relationships;
between individuals, individuals and the community, and between the community and
God.
7.1.4 The Elements of Atonement
The concept of atonement also reveals that, apart from destroying relationships, sin
separates people; a situation that can only be remedied by shedding blood. To the
t
Abawanga, the ox, sheep or goat is slaughtered; which indicates that sin costs life. In
194
the Christian circles, the life and death of Jesus Christ brings the offender and the
offended back to the negotiation table; where an agreement is reached. The agreement
involves the offenders' judgment and the vindication of the offended; then, the
relationship that had been initially destroyed is restored.
Atonement is an important concept in the practice of the Christian faith; as it reveals
the extent of love the Lord has for his people. Although they have sinned and injured
their relationship with each other and with him, he is willing to work on it again. This
is not a costless love, as it cost the life and death of his beloved son, Jesus Christ; so
that people may restore the right relationship that initially, was lost. What this shows
is that God is the initiator of atonement. In the Christian context, the offender is
'hmanity', while God is the offended. It is the offended (God) who makes the
initiative. Jesus Christ is the sacrificial victim that is offered, but also, the atone_. In
the Wanga religio - culture, the community makes the initiative; because there is
already the offender and the offended. The sacrificial victim is the ox or the quail.
7.1.5 The Universality of Atonement
Having looked at the Christian view of atonement, it is emerging that atonement is the. ,
only concept that unites humanity with God. Atonement brings in, the equality of
humankind, whereby all people of all races and all times are equal before Jesus Christ
the atoner. Here, then, atonement must be viewed as a universal phenomenon;
because it does not segregate, based on religion or race. It is an all inclusive act;
because, Jesus Christ died on behalf of the "children of Adam," making His
atonement universal (Grenz, 1994: 450 - 451).
195
7.1.6 Atonement: Reconcilliation between God and Humanity
Atonement is a tool of purpose, as it brings all humankind to only one objective - to
please God. Jesus Christ's atonement, therefore, enables people to reach God. In the
atonement act, God reaches out to the humanity; whereby Jesus Christ the atoner,
becomes the reconciler, bringing these two foes together. The result of this
,
reconciliation act becomes the peace that is now being enjoyed between God and
humankind.
Christians also, see atonement as a tool that unites humanity, by way of identification;
and subsequent removal of sin, committed against God. In the atonement transaction
the offended is vindicated; whereas the offender is pardoned. Hence the atonement act
signifies a new beginning of relationships for both parties. The vindication, the
pardoning, and the new relationship, bring in a new identity, by whi~h the offender
and the offended are identified. That is, they share a new life and have a new name;
the children of Jesus Christ, or Christians.
Relating the atonement rituals, in Christianity and the Wanga traditions reveals that
atonement is a human need that must be fulfilled for the wellbeing of every
community. Thus, it constitutes part of the justice system, in any given community.
196
7.1.7 Atonement versus Sin and Evil
The practice of atonement, points to the fact of the universality of sin and evil,
because through atonement, both the Abawanga and the Christians deal with the
product of sin; and also, acknowledge the need of peaceful co-existence. Atonement,
further, recognizes the personal and corporate responsibility of, and for, the sin
committed. Thus, by atonement, people confess their inability to deal with sin, and
acknowledge the fact that, they require another power to help them neutralize the,
effects of sin.
By looking at the instructions, the elements and processes of atonement, both in the
Wanga culture and in Christianity, this research concludes that God has supernaturally
put mechanism within the universe to deal with conflict and conflict related issues.
One of these mechanisms is the atonement rituals; which operate in both the
supernatural and the natural realms; so that both realms are reconciled. This restores
the communication that may have been broken by the sinful acts of the humankind.
7.1.8 Incultrating the Concept of Atonement
Having looked at the concept of atonement, it is important that the process of
inculturation starts with the people themselves. However, the process should be
directed by a trained theologian, who should be charged with the responsibility of
providing the expert advice; as the people provide the historical and contextual
knowledge. In doing so, the whole process of inculturation will be owned by the
people; which is likely to lead to the acceptance ofthe gospel teaching ...
N (ATTA UNIVE SiTY
197
Inculturation of the concept of atonement binds the Abawanga together; because it
speaks the language of the people. The symbolism used is not foreign, the examples
are taken from among the people; and the priests or theologians, charged with the
responsibility of inculturation, are part of them. Inculturation then, creates an identity
for the Abawanga; making them identify with missionaries, and the Christian faith,
that is offered to them.
In the final analysis, inculturation is seen as the interaction of the scriptures and the
Wanga culture. Ndegwah (2007: 41) says that, interaction between scripture and
culture produces the gospel message. This research thus, takes cognizance of the fact
that the gospel message results from the interaction between the scripture and culture.
It is therefore the gospel message that moulds a Muwanga who is truly Christian and
at the same time authentically African.
7.2 Recommendations for Inculturation
Having looked at the dynamics and complexity of inculturating the concept of
atonement, among the Abawanga, this research submits that, the challenge of
inculturation is the main issue that faces evangelizers. This study, therefore, makes
the following recommendations:
1. For any meaningful evangelistic enterprise in Africa, inculturation of biblical
concepts should be given the first priority. In this way, Jesus Christ will speak
to the people, in their own language and expressions.
198
2. Targeted communities should be fully involved in the inculturation process.
This way, the cultures will own the concepts inculturated; thus making the
gospel message meaningful to the community and easily understood. This
process, is what this research calls, 'down up inculturation process. Arbuckle
(1988: 510 - 512) and Burke (2001: 63) comment that, the adopting of
symbols and words from a given culture should be the starting point of
incluturation. Deeper understanding of these symbols and words must form
the actual incluturation is needed for any meaningful evangelism to take place.
3. As much as the community participation is important, the input ofthe expert is
needed in the inculturation process, in order to efficiently guide the people.
According to Ndegwa (2007: 38), experts bring in the theological contribution,
while the people bring in the cultural contribution. This research calls this,
'the integrated inculturation process. Chibuko (1996: 33 - 34) and Waliggo
(1986: 13), do not only speak ofthe expert as a theologian, but an expert in the
said culture as of equal importance to the theological expert. According to
these scholars, these two will bring inculturation at a professional level and
bring out the intended meaning, of the scriptural text, to the people.
4. Inculturation should be an on going process in any given culture; because
languages and culture are not static. This will also ensure that, appropriate
words that convey the intended meaning are chosen. Apart from this, Christian
faith will be a lived faith; since the process will be current and' able to answer
to the needs of the people. Ndegwah (2007: 37) agt,:ees with this
199
recommendation, when he says that any meaningful inculturation should be an
on going endeavour; because culture is continuously evolving. ,
7.3 Recommendations for Further Research
Inculturation is a wide subject that needs to be looked at from a wider perspective.
This research, therefore, recommends that research be carried out in the following
areas:
1. The impact of inculturating the concept of atonement on evangelisation.
2. Inculturation of related concepts, such as sin and evil; and its implications on
mission work in Africa.
3. Inculturation and the question of the African Christian identity.
4. How inculturation of biblical concepts affect biblical hermeneutics in Africa.
5. The impact of inculturation on the preparation and delivery of sermons.
200
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209
INTERVIEWS
Aba-olusoma Focus Group 26th December 2009. The Wanga Traditional
Understanding of the Concept of Atonement. Khabukoshe.
Andoni W. (31-5-2010). The Christian Understanding of the Concept of Atonement.
Nairobi: Interview
Anangwe J. 7thNovember. The Wanga Traditional Understanding of the Concept of
Atonement. Emakunga.
Andanje O. 12th December 2009. The Wanga Traditional Understanding of the
Concept of Atonement. Khabukoshe.
Chitechi M. 4th December 2009. The Christian Understanding of the Concept of
Atonement. Ebisishe.
Kachisa L. 5th January 2010. The Wanga Traditional Understanding of the
Concept of Atonement. Lubinu.
Karakacha 1. 11th November 2009. The Wanga Traditional Understanding of the
Concept of Atonement. Mirere.
Inganga K. (19-1-2010). The Christian Underst .nding of the Concept of Atonement.
Bulimbo.
Inyangala 1. (3-1-2010). The Christian Understanding of the Concept of Atonement.
Eshihaka.
Khisa W. 16th December 2009. The Wanga Traditional Understanding of the
Concept of Atonement. Eburimba
Kizito W. (4-6-2010). The Christian Understanding of the Concept of Atonement.
Nairobi.
Luseno H. 9th January 2009. The Wanga Traditional Understanding of the Concept of
Atonement. Emmakunda
Mungoni A. ih December 2009. The Wanga Traditional Understanding of the
Concept of Atonement. Ebuchifi.
Mutumishi C. (19-1- 2010). The Christian Understanding of the Concept of
Atonement. Bulimbo.
Mwanga A. io" December 2009. The Wanga Traditional Understanding of the
Concept of Atonement. Panyako
Nabakolwe Focus Group 6th December 2009. The Wanga Traditional Understanding
. of the Concept of Atonement. Ematungu.
210
Okwelinda P. (12 -2-2010) The Christian Understanding of the Concept of
Atonement. Mumias
Okutoyi W. (24-2-2010). The Christian Understanding of the Concept of Atonement.
Mumias.
Opatia O. (23-1-2010). The Christian Understanding of the Concept of Atonement.
Ekhabakaya.
Okusimba S. 5th December 2009. The Wanga Traditional Understanding of the
Concept of Atonement. Mulukhuna.
Oluumbe J. (3-1-2010). The Christian Understanding of the Concept of Atonement.
Emusanda: Interview
Oronda H. 12th December 2009. The Wanga Traditional Understanding of the
Concept of Atonement. Mulukhuna.
Omusikoyo M. 15thDecember 2009. The Wanga Traditional Understanding of the
Concept of Atonement. Shibaale.
Omulama A. lOth December 2009. The Wanga Traditional Understanding of the
Concept of Atonement. Namulungu.
Omukoko S. 8th December 2009. The Christian Underst.nding of the Concept of
Atonement. Mwipoma
Omukamani B. zo" December 2009. The Wanga Traditional Understanding of the
Concept of Atonement. Ekhaimba.
Omurunga P. 20th December 2009. The Wanga Traditional Understanding of the
Concept of Atonement. Mwipoma
Swati S. (12-2-2010). The Christian Understanding of the Concept of Atonement.
Mumias.
Shisia H. 14th December 2009. The Wanga Traditional Understanding of the
Concept of Atonement. Lubinu.
Webele M. 7th November 2009. The Wanga Traditional Understanding of the
Concept of Atonement. Emakunga.
Wekesa K. 4th November 2009. The Wanga Traditional Understanding of the
Concept of Atonement. Emakokhwe.
Wamukoya N. 11thNovember2009. The Wanga Traditional Understanding of the
Concept of Atonement. Ebuchifi.
Wandere O. 4th March 2010. The Christian Understanding of the Concept of
Atonement. Mwipoma.
211
Wangulu S. 22nd December 2009. The Wanga Traditional Understanding of the
Concept of Atonement. Khabukoshe.
Wawire M. 16th December 2009. The Wanga Traditional Understanding of the
Concept of Atonement. Khalaba.
Washiali R. 4th December 2009. The Christian Understanding of the Concept of
Atonement. Shibaale.
Weimi C. (14-6-2010). The Christian Understanding of the Concept of Atonement.
Nairobi.
Wasiche P. 10th December 2009. The Wanga Traditional Understanding of the
Concept of Atonement. Khabukoshe.
212
APPENDICES
At Chapeterization of the Study
Chapter 1: General Introduction.
Chapter 2: Atonement in Traditional Wanga Thought and Practice.
Chapter 3: Approaches Used by Missionaries in Teaching Atonement Among the
Abawanga.
Chapter 4: The Impact of the Euro-American Inculturation on the Wanga
t
Christianity .
Chapter 5: The Biblical Understanding of the Nature and Process of Atonement.
Chapter 6: Inculturating the Concept of Atonement in Wanga Religio-culture.
213
A2 Tentative Time Schedule
January July 2009- May August January,
2009 - 2010 - 2010- 2011- April2011-
June 2009 April 2010 July December March June 2011,
2010 2010 2011
Proposal •....
Writing ,...
Presentation ••....
& ,....
corrections
of Proposal
Field ••....
Research
,,.....
Analysis of ,
Field •....
Research
,...
Findings
Thesis ••....
Writing
,...
Draft Thesis •....
Presentation, ,...
Revisions
Presentation
of Thesis for r •....,...
Examination ,
& Defense
Thesis •....,...
Defense
214
A3 Tentative Budget
The projections bellow is by no means exact; and are subject to fluctuation, according
to circumstances. They are, however, based on some of the real costs already
experienced; as well as fees structure, acquired from Kenyatta University.
Estimated Unit Required/ Total Cost
Item or annual cost in estimated , in Kshs.
Kshs. Numbers
Tuition fees in the University 250,000 3 - 750,000
University Administrative fees:
~ Registration 1,500 3 4,500
~ Examination 10,000 1 10,000
» Identity card 500 1 500
» Caution 2,000 1 2,000
~ SubscriptionlMedical 2,000 3 6,000
~ Library 3,000 3 9,000
~ Material Development 3,300 3 9,900
~ Computer fees 4,000 3 , 12,000
~ Submission of thesis for
examination 10,000 1 - 10,000
Purchase of computer and 80,000 1 80,000
Computer Software
Stationery 15,400 15,400
Subsistence 30,000 30,000
Research assistants 50,000 50,000
Books 5,000 30 150,000
Travel to libraries and
documentation centres 200 150 30,000
Travel to Western Kenya for field 6,000 10 trips " 60,000
research
-
Total 1,108,900
215
A4 Research Instruments
Preamble
My name is Manya Wandefu Stephen; A Ph.D. student at Kenyatta University. I am
carrying out a research on the topic "INCULTURA TION OF THE CONCEPT OF
ATONEMENT IN AFRICA: A CASE OF THE WANGA PEOPLE OF KENYA."
You are requested to be part of this research by participating in the interview. You are
kindly requested to be objective in your answers. The information you provide shall
be used strictly for this research; and your views will be confidential.
Research instrument will be administered to the following categories of informants:
1. Community elders (Male and Female).
2. Clergy (Male and Female).
3. Lay Preachers (Male and Female).
4. Members of the Wanga community who adhere to the traditional Wanga
religion.
5. Christian members of the Wanga community.
AS Interview Questions for Male and Female Community Elders
216
1. What is your name? Age? and occupation?
i). Tell us about your family's (Parents, children, siblings), education, economic
and religious situation currently.
3. For how long have you lived in Wangaland?
4. What are some of the words that mean atonement in the Wanga language?
6. When are these words used in the common Wanga living? /
7. Why, do you think, atonement is important among the Abawanga?
8. What happens if atonement ritual is not performed?
i). To an individual?
ii). To the society?
iii). Tc the environment?
9. What are some of the qualifications of an atoner among the Abawanga?
10. How do young people come to know about atonement?
11. What qualified one to teach the Abawanga atonement?
12. What are some of the elements used for atonement?
13. Where is atonement administered/performed?
A 6 Interview Questions for the Clergy and Lay Preachers
217
1. What is your name? Age? and occupation?
i). Tell us about your family's (Parents, children, siblings), education, economic
and religious situation currently.
2. Which Church organization are you serving?
3. For how long have you been serving as a ClergylLay Preacher?
4. a). Do you have any theological training? Yes/No.
b). Explain your answer.
5. What are some of the words that mean atonement, in the Bible?
6. Do you think atonement is important in the Christian community? Yes/No
b). Explain your answer above.
7. What happens if atonement ritual is not performed,
i). To an individual?
ii). To the society?
iii). To the environment?
8. What are some of the qualifications of an atoner in the bible?
9. How do young people come to know about atonement?
10. When is atonement administered?
11. Where is atonement administered/performed?
A7 Interview Questions for Traditionalists
1. What is your name? Age? and occupation?
i). Tell us about your family's (Parents, children, siblings), education and
economic status.
4. What are some of the words that mean atonement in Luhya language?
5. a). Is atonement important among the Abawanga people? Yes/No
b). Explain your answer above.
9. What happens if atonement ritual is not performed?
i). To an individual?
ii). To the society?
iii). To the environment?
10. What are the qualifications of an atoner among the Abawanga?
11. Who participates in the atonement process?
12. How do young people come to know about atonement?
13. What are the elements used for atonement?
14. When is atonement administered?
15. Where is atonement administered/performed?
218
A8 The Map of Kenya, Provincial Boundaries
Hinkelman (2008 :1).
Note: The shaded province is the home ofthe Abaluhya.
219
220
A 9 Mumias District
Adopted from the Wanga ofMumias, Were (1967: 99).
, '< ili.1IOK0$:~l<II.o~..... -c
.~AXIIIiDk
• KH!>l~RA
KHAlAs~
221
Note: Administrative boundaries may have been changed, but the village names and
geographical locations remain the same, as at the writing of this thesis.
KERrc: 7C'