EFFECTS OF GENDER BASED VIOLENCE ON GIRLS AND WOMEN IN
KIBERA INFORMAL SETTLEMENT, NAIROBI COUNTY
JANE IGOKI MWERERU
A RESEARCH PROJECT SUBMITIED TO THE SCHOOL OF HUMANITIES
AND SOCIAL SCIENCES IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE
REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS IN GENDER
AND DEVELOPMENT STUDIES OF KENYATTA UNIVERSITY.
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OCTOBER/2011
iviwereru, .rarre rguKl
Effects of gender based
violence on girls and
I 111111~Ii 11111 11111~ I II III III111111111~iII~I 11111111
2013/432344
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'KENYATTA~UNIVERSI~( Lt·,Ir·- ,-..•-.... ..
DECLARATION
This project is my original work and has not been presented for a degree in any other
university.
Signature: ~~ . Date: t~..l..l..1..J. ..~).I. .
Jane Igoki, Mwereru
C50lCEI11269/07
This project has been submitted with our approval as the University supervisors.
. ~ C>.SIgnature: . Date: .~.1.~Ll..?:9..I. J ....
Dr.Pacificah Okemwa
Department of Gender and Development Studies
Kenyatta University
Signature: .
Isf IIf 'LlJJ 1/
Date: .
Dr. Grace Wamue -Ngare
Department of Gender and Development Studies
Kenyatta University
DEDICATION
I would like to dedicate this degree to my mother Hellen Muthoni Mwereru and my two
children, Collins ]amhuri and Melody Tarnasha. There is no doubt in my mind that
without their continued support, love and patience, I would not have completed this
process,
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT v
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS vi
DEFINITION OF TERMS vii
ABSTRACT ix
CHAPTER ONE 1
1.0 Background to the study 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Statement of the problem 4
1.3 Objectives of the study 4
1.4 Research Premises 4
1.5 Justification of the study 5
1.6 Scope and limitations of the study 6
CHAPTER TWO 7
2.0 Literature review 7
2.1 Introduction 7
2.2 Forms and nature of gender based violence 7
2.3 Causes of gender-based violence 9
2.3.1 Socio-cultural factors 10
2.3.2 Policy and legal conditions .11
2.3.3 Institutional Factors 12
2. 4 Effects of gender based violence on girls and women 13
, 2.4.1 Economic consequences of gender based violence 13
2.4.2 Health 'consequences of gender based violence 15
2.4.3 Social consequences of gender based violence .16
2.5 Strategies of addressing gender bases violence 18
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2.6 Summary and Knowledge Gap 21
I
2.7 Theoretical Framework 21
CHAPTER THREE 23
3.0 Research Methodology- 23
3.1 Introduction 23
3.2 Research design 23
3.3 Site of the study 23
3.4 Target population 25
3.5 Sampling techniques and sample size .25
3.6 Research instruments 26
3.6.1 Interview guides 26
3.6.2 Questionnaires 26
3.6.3 Focus group discussions (FGDs) ..................•............................................................ 26
3.7 Validity and reliability 27
3.8 Data analysis and presentation procedures 27
3.9 Ethical considerations 28
CHAPTER FO UR 29
4.0 Effects of gender based violence on girls and women in informal settlements 29
4.1 Introduction 29
4.2 Socio demographic characteristics of respondent .29
4.2.1 Gender distribution of household members 29
4.2.2 Age distribution of household members .30
4.2.3 Educational level respondents 32
4.2.4 Marital status of the respondents 32
4.3 Nature and forms of gender based violence 30
4.4 Causes of gender based violence 36
4.5 Effects of gender based violence on girls and women .41
4.6 Ways of addressing GBV in Kibera .43
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CHAPTER FIVE 48
5.0 Summary, conclusion and recommendations 48
5.1 Introduction 48
5.2 Key observations according to study objectives .48
5.3 Conclusion 50
5.4 Recommendations ; 50
5.5 Suggestions for further research 51
REFERENCES 52
APPENDICES 56
APPENDEDIX 1: Introductory letter to the district officer 56
APPENDIX II: Questionnaire 57
APPENDIX III: Questionnaire for women 61
APPENDIX IV: Questionnaire for girls 63
APPENDIX V: Community fgd guide 64
APPENDIX VI: Teachers fgd guide 65
APPENDIX VII: Interview guide for the local administration 66
APPENDIX VIII: Interview guide for the community leaders 67
APPENDIX IX: Interview guide for police 68
APPENDIX X: Medical personnel in-depth interview guide 69
111
LIST OF TABLES
Table 4.1: Age distribution of household members 30
Table 4.2: Forms of gender based violence 34
Table 4.3: Ways of addreessing GBV in Kibera 43
Table 4.4: Strategies for addreessing GBV in Kibera 45
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 4.1: Gender distribution of household members 29
Figure 4.2: Household sizes 31
Figure 4.3: Education level of respondents 32
Figure 4.4: Marital status of respondents 33
Figure 4.5: Causes of gender based violence 36
Figure 4.6: Factors that increase chances of gender based violence 39
Figure 4.7: Effects of gender based violence on girls and women 41
LIST OF PLATES
Plate 3.1: Map of Kibera 24
Plate 4.1: A plate of a woman involved in gender based violence 38
Plate 4.2: Plate of Kibera 40
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I wish to acknowledge and express my gratitude to my supervisors. Dr. Pacificah
Okemwa and Dr. Grace Wamue - Ngare for their guidance. professional advice and
constructive criticism which kept me going to the end.
I also thank my family members especially my mother Hellen Muthoni Mwereru who
encouraged me to start this degree. my children Collins jamhuri and Melody Tamasha for
their patience and love and my household manager Joyce Mbinya for her support
throughout the period of my study.
Lastly. I would like to thank the respondents for their cooperation and input.
May the Almighty God. bless you all.
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BCC
CBO
CEDAW
CREAW
CSO
FGM
GBV
GVRC
IGWG
MSF
NGO
NWH
SGBV
UN
UNDP
UNHCR
UNICEF
UN IF EM
USAID
WHO
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS
Behaviour Change Communication
Community Based Organization
Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against
Women
Centre for Rights Education and Awareness
Civil Society Organization
Female Genital Mutilation
Gender Based Violence
Gender Violence Recovery Centre
Interagency Gender Working Group
Medicin sans Frontiers
Non-Governmental Organisations
Nairobi Women's Hospital
Sexual and Gender Based Violence
United Nations
United Nations Development Program
United Nations High Commission for Refugees
United Nations Children's Fund
United Nations Fund for Women
United States Agency for International Development
World Health Organisation
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DEFINITION OF TERMS
Economic Impact: This refers to the effects of gender based violence which are
related to the ability of a victim to conduct an economic activity,
earn a living and have decent living standards.
Gender Based Violence: An umbrella term for any harmful act that is perpetrated
against a person's will and that is based on socially ascribed
(gender) differences between males and females.
Health Consequences: In the context of this study these are the results of-gender based-~
violence on a victim's health status. These include physical,
psychological and emotional consequences of GBV
Sexual Violence: An act, attempt to obtain a sexual act, unwanted sexual comments
or advances, or acts to traffic, or otherwise directed against a
person's sexuali ty using coercion, by any person regardless of their
relationship to the victim, in any setting, including but not limited
to home and work
Social Consequences: This refers to those issues which come as a result of gender
violence and affects the relationship between the victim and the
other members of the society
SurvivorNictim: A person who has experienced gender-based violence. The terms
"victim" and "survivor" can be used interchangeably. "Victim" is a
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vii
term often used in the legal and medical sectors. "Survivor" is the
term generally preferred in the psychological and social spheres
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viii
ABSTRACT
This sought to investigate the effects of gender based violence (GBV) on girls and
women in Kibera, an informal settlement. The aim was to document the nature and forms
of GBV in Kibera as well as establish their causes. In addition, it sought to investigate the
effects of GBV on girls and women. The target population was sampled from the nine
villages that constitute Kibera Division. Purposive sampling was applied to select these
villages. Findings revealed that there were various forms and causes of GBV in Kibera
that had adverse effects on all facets of girls and women's lives, their health, economic
and social aspects. Based on the findings it is concluded that GBV has adverse effects on
girls and women in the informal settlements. From the research findings, it is
recommended that there is need for increased sensitization and enhanced advocacy on
GBV, enhanced awareness education with regard to the provision of Sexual Offences
Act, where to seek help and what help is available for the survivors of GBV,
strengthening of the legal framework and judicial system, and socio- economic
empowerment of girls and women.
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CHAPTER ONE
1.0 BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY
1.1 Introduction
Primarily, any form of violence is taken to mean physical aggression and physical or
sexual harm. Any restriction of the freedom, independence or physical integrity of
women and girls is a form of gender-based violence (GBV). This conforms to the
definition as understood by the Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against
Women (CEDA W) adopted by the UN General Assembly in 1979.For the purposes of
this Declaration, the term "violence against women" means any act of gender-based
violence that results in, or is likely to result in, physical, sexual or psychological harm or
suffering to women, including threats of such acts, coercion or arbitrary deprivation of
liberty, whether occurring in public or in private life. (UN, 1993).
The GBV social ill was one of the issues which led to the adoption of The Convention on
the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women-tCEDA W), in 1979 by
the UN General Assembly. In the same spirit one agenda extensively dealt with during
the United Nations Fourth World Conference on Women held in Beijing China in 1995
was that of GBY. ,These initiatives point to the fact that, varied stakeholders have
recognized the magnitude of the GBV problem, its effects on the victims and the utmost
need to address it in all corners of the world.
The prevalence of G?V is underscored by such campaigns as the "The 16 Day Actiyism
for No Violence against Women and Children". This is an international campaign which
takes place every year from 25 November (International Day for the Elimination of
Violence against Women) to 10 December (lnternational Human Rights Day). During
this time Governments and stakeholders run a 16 Day Activism Campaign to raise
awareness on the negative impacts of violence on women and children and to act against
abuse (Philli ps- Barrasso. (2009).
Gender-based violence is a leading cause of girls and women's death and incapacity
globally. In addition to facing physical and psychological trauma and injury. girls and
women who suffer violence are at a higher risk of contracting sexually transmitted
infections. including HIV/ AIDS. They may also face unintended pregnancies. adverse
pregnancy outcomes and chronic health problems. Survivors of GBV often suffer
rejection and further victimization from partners. family and community members due to
the shame and stigma associated with such violations (Okioma and Kimani 2007).
Adolescent girls are particularly vulnerable to sexual abuse and harassment in and around
school settings. Bennet (2005). in a research study based in South Africa found that a
third of men who raped girls under the age of 15 were teachers. The risk of school-related
violence and exploitation deterred parents from sending their daughters to school and was
also a reason why the girls dropped out of school. It is worth noting that GBV is so
rampant in South Africa that four women are killed every day by their intimate partners
(Njenga, 2001). Many children are still being married off in several African countries.
All the reports around Africa point to the same conclusion; girls and women have been
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unacceptably subjected to violence i
not any safer (Nienga, 2001),
Mutua (2009) notes that gender based violence against women takes place at all levels of
society and within all social classes, In Kenya such violence is sexual. political. sadistic
or criminal. He further notes that GBV is in the home. the work place. on the street with
strangers. and all around us, He concludes that "Kenya has an epidemic of gender-based
violence", Njenga (2001). on the other hand. notes that wife-battery; wife-murder. rape.
and other forms of gender-based violence are possible because men see themselves in a
superior-subordinate role towards women,
A 2010 Amnesty International study showed that more than half the women in slums had
experienced physical. sexual or psychological violence, The report found that
perpetrators of these abuses included youth gangs. intimate partners. family members.
employers and security personnel. The study was conducted in four slums of Nairobi
between November 2009 and February 2010 (CREA W 2009), It is from this background
that this study was conducted with the aim of shedding light on this retrogressive practice
with particular attention being paid towards identifying the effects of GBV on girls and
women in Kibera.
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1.2 Statement of the problem
Kibera is an informal settlement with a high population made up of people from diverse
cultural backgrounds. Various forms of GBV are reported regularly in this area by the
media.
From the background, it is clear that GBV is prevalent in Kenya. The study focused on
Kibera settlement in order to underline the effects of GVB on girls and women.
NGOs working in Kibera have noted high prevalence of the various types of GBV.
However, many are unreported and one wonders why this is the case, yet GBV in its
various forms adversely affects girls and women.
This study therefore sought to document nature and forms of GBV. It also aimed at
answering questions such as, are there factors that increase the chances of GBV, what
effects does GBV have on girls and women and are there ways of addressing GBV in
Kibera?
1.3 Objectives of the study
The objectives of this study were:'
1. To document the nature and forms of GBV in Kibera.
2. To assess the factors that increase chances of GBV in Kibera.
3. To investigate the effects of GBV on girls and women in Kibera.
4. To find ways of addressing GBV in Kibera.
1.4 Research Premises
These are my research premises:.,
1. GBV in Kibera mdnifests itself in various forms.
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2. There are many factors that fuel GBV in Kibera.
3. That GBV affects girls and women in various ways in Kibera.
4. There are ways of addressing GBV in Kibera.
1.5 Justification of the study.
In Kenya, efforts to deal with the crisis of GBV directed towards girls and women in its
many forms have been frustrated by the patriarchal society and cultural laws among
others (Mutua, 2004). In view of this situation, a study was needed to investigate the
effects of GBV on women and girls and recommend various solutions. This study will be
helpful to various stakeholders. First, the nature, forms, causes and effects of GBV
directed towards girls and women in informal settlements in Kenya will be documented
and the results of Kibera will emphasize to the consequences of this worrying social
problem.
Given that there are studies on the topic which have taken the context of the proposed
study; that of giving attention to the informal settlements and in particular Kibera, the
findings will go a long way in giving insights into the features of GBV in Kibera. The
findings may be utilized to inform policy makers on the need to raise awareness on GBV
and strategies of managing GBV menace in informal settlements. The study findings will
also form basis for further research by other scholars.
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1.6 Scope and limitations of the study
The study was carried out in Kibera, targeting the whole spectrum of people living within
this community. Largely an informal settlement, Kibera presented a unique opportunity
for study since informal settlements are known to have the greatest incidents of crimes
(Swat, 2010). The study had limitations that restricted both its extent and some desired
outcomes. These included limited financial resources, time constraints and unavailability
of some key respondents including the children's officer, and judicial officers.
The research tools used were designed in a way that enabled gathering of relevant
information without infringing on the privacy of respondents. The respondents were also
assured that the information obtained was for academic purposes only .
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CHAPTER TWO
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
This chapter contains the literature reviewed in relation to the research topic. It is divided
into the following sub- topics: Literature related to the forms and nature, causes and
effects of GBV on girls and women in Kibera. The summary and knowledge gap is given
and the theoretical framework related to gender based violence discussed.
2.2 Forms and nature of gender based violence.
Violence has always been part of human experience. Despite this fact, the world does not
have to accept it as part of the human condition. According to a WHO (2004) report,
more than one million people lose their lives and many more suffer non-fatal injuries as a
result of self-inflicted, interpersonal and collective violence every year. The magnitude of
violation makes this a crucial issue for action with violence against women and girls
especially requiring priority action.
Domestic violence is the most common form of violence, and the most difficult to deal
with, since it is perpetrated under the privacy of the home and family. Such is the extent
of this type of violence that girls and women have come to accept it as a norm in
marriage. Studies show that 35% of women in Egypt, 41 % in Uganda, 19% in Columbia,
30% in India, 28% in the USA, and 16% in Cambodia report being beaten by their
husbands (Ward, 2005).Domestic violence takes various forms, including wife battering,
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child defilement, desertion, abusive language, marital rape, incest, child labor and sexual
exploitation of domestic workers (The Advocates of Human Rights, 2006).
Other forms of violence that are meted out on girls and women are physical and
psychological forms of violence. They take the form of actual physical beating,
intimidation, verbal abuse, subordination, over-work, deprivation of basic necessities,
control of movement and isolation from family and friends.
Most societies have some traditional practices which encourage violence against women
and girls (Runbold and Keesbury 2008). Female genital mutilation (FGM), early and
forced marriage, early sex, discriminatory dietary practices, child labor and wife
inheritance are apt examples that have hazardous health, mental, physical and social
effects. Others include folk tales, songs, proverbs and sayings that undermine women's
capabilities and teach them to subordinate their own needs, wills and sexual desires in
order to please and serve men (Bennet, 2005). Cultural tolerance of violence, gender-
based division of labor and heavy workload for girls and women are other forms of
exploitation and abuse (Leach, 2003).
Sexual violence which is another form of violence meted out on girls and women, can be
defined as "any sexual act, attempt to obtain a sexual act, unwanted sexual comments or
advances or acts to traffic, or otherwise directed against a person's sexuality using
coercion, by any person regardless of their relationship to the victim, in any setting
including but not limited to home and work" (WHO, 2002). In Kenya, 43% of 15-49 year
old women reported '~aving experienced some form of gender-based violence in their
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lifetime, with 29% reporting an experience in the previous year; 16% of women reported
having ever been sexually abused, and for 13%, this had happened in the last year (K
DHS, 2007).
2.3 Causes of gender-based violence
The unequal power relations between females and males in society are the root cause of
gender based violence. According to Betron and Doggett (2006), the abuse of power and
gender inequality is at the core of CBV. Power relations have been critical in fuelling
CBV, although erroneously advocated as normal and acceptable based on traditional and
customary attitudes and practice. Other factors can only be legitimately viewed under the
scope of these power relations. In other words, other factors cannot suffice on their own
without reference to unequal power relations. In a quest to bring to light the primal cause
of CBV, the UNHCR (2007) report suggests that other factors only exacerbate these
unequal power relations. In fact, in most cases, these other factors only determine the
type and extent of violence.
The other factors may be classified differently depending on the perspective taken. In this
study however, the factors viewed by and large include social cultural causes, policy and
legal frameworks as well as institutional factors. The social and cultural factors to a great
extent help explain the legitimization of the unequal power relation function while legal,
r
economic and Institutional challenges may explain the extent and sustenance of CBV in
any given context.
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2.3.1 Socio-cultural factors
While some literature uses power relations and socio-cultural factors interchangeably, the
two are inherently distinct in that while power relation has to do with psychological
positioning, the latter has to do with the perpetuators of this positioning. With this
understanding, factors like the patriarchal nature of most societies would then help
explain the existence and extent of unequal power relations. In these societies, there is
legitimized subordination of women, which includes the treatment of women as the
property of men through practices such as payment of bride price. This, in turn,
perpetuates violence against women and girls (CREA W, 2009).
The socialization process is such that the female gender is relegated to positions,
functions and roles that are viewed as inferior and by extension suitable for the bearers of
these aspects (IRIN, 2004). In other words, females are perceived as, and socialized to
believe that they are weak, inferior and needing direction, guidance and discipline. In
other cases, they are socialized to believe that they exist for the sole purpose of satisfying
men's needs and desires (Long, 2001). Males, on the other hand, are socialized to
demand and expect services from women and to treat them as inferior (Njenga, 2001).
Traditions, customs, beliefs and attitudes are used to justify the subordination and
violation of women's rights (El Jack, 2003). According to Bennet, (2005) women are the
gatekeepers of' th; traditions, customs, practices and attitudes passed on through
generations. Those who do not toe the line are ostracized by society and endure violence
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of different types. The powerlessness of women is worsened by their general lack of
exposure, illiteracy and low education, which also limits their choices to a better life.
2.3.2 Policy and legal conditions
Lack of access to legal services, justice and protection for victims is a major hindrance to
actualization of women's rights (Krug, 2003). Inaccessibility to these services makes it
difficult even for the willing to make headway while the perpetrators of violence often go
unpunished. Some of the laws as well as the poor justice implementation structures make
the victims of violence feel left out and even in some cases traumatized in the pursuit of
justice. On the other hand, the level of commitment by some governments to the
implementation of the international commitments is not sufficient (Mezieobi, 2004). For
most countries, the spirit and letter of the said commitments goes only as far as the ink of
the appended signatures reaches.
In most countries, national constitutions provide for the equal rights of women and men.
However, in some cases, there is a disconnect between the existing laws and policies and
the constitutions of the respective countries. This disconnect invariably requires certain
amendments to allow for conformation. The challenge arising from this regards the pace
of amendments which has itself become a major constraint to achievement of equality
between the females and males. Equally, the law reform processes are dependent on the
support of lawf!1akers, most of who are men and whose commitment to support the
gender equality agenda cannot be guaranteed. Experience from several countries has
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demonstrated that women cannot expect much from these legislative institutions (Judith
2004).
There are no laws governing domestic violence in most countries. The law enforcement
agencies, including the police and the judiciary, largely rely on penal provisions relating
to assault and battery to fill the gap, inadequate as they are in dealing with the seriousness
of the problem. In matrilineal and patrilineal societies alike, men are the key architects
and custodians of customary law and authority as well as government policies and
programmes. The absence of women from decision-making positions is a major factor
contributing to the negative policy and political environment, which perpetuates or at
least tolerates violence. Most governments only pay lip service to the global
commitments to eliminate violence and often sign conventions and covenants they have
no intention of implementing (UNIFEM, 1998).
2.3.3 Institutional Factors
In most countries there are few, if any, victim support services. Even where they exist,
the services are far away and victims cannot easily or cheaply access them. Long
distances from courts, health facilities and police stations are a major obstacle to
combating gender-based violence. According to Ahmadu (2000), most settings especially
the rural areas, chiefs, religious as well as community leaders are the only link to any
form of justice for victims of GBV and other crimes. These positions are invariably
occupied by men who are heavily influenced by the patriarchal culture which ultimately
becomes the definition of social justice. For instance, among the Somalis, the incidents of
12
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domestic violence or rape are in most cases reported to the Maslaha courts. All the
Maslaha members are usually men and even when judgments are passed, the victim is
never at the center of their consideration. Restitution for lack of a better word is done to
the members of the Maslaha rather than to the victim of violence. With such institutions,
the challenge of GBV remains deeply rooted in the communities.
2. 4 Effects of gender based violence on girls and women
Gender based violence affect girls and women in various environments. In this study the
consequences are grouped into three categories -economical, health and social. UNICEF
(2000) captures the situation in a report on GBV and states that GBV against girls and
women continues to be a global epidemic that kills, tortures, and maims - physically,
psychologically, sexually and economically. The report further emphasizes that GBV is
one of the most pervasive of human rights violations, denying girls and women equality,
security, dignity, self-worth, and their right to enjoy fundamental freedoms.
2.4.1 Economic consequences of gender based violence
Female-focused violence represents a hidden obstacle to economic and social
development. By sapping women's energy, undermining their confidence, and
compromising their health, gender violence deprives society of women's full
participation. As the United Nations Fund for Women (UNIFEM) recently observed,
"Women cannot lend their labour or creative ideas fully if they are burdened with the
physical and psychological scars of abuse" (UNIFEM 1999) ..'
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The potential psychological effects of a GBV incident include lowered self-esteem,
difficultly with interpersonal relations, increased stress, depression, frustration, and
anxiety. Those who have encountered GBV display common coping strategies:, i.e.
indirect expression of anger, denial or minimization of the incident, and compliance; as
well as feelings of powerlessness, aloneness, fright, humiliation, and incidence of post-
traumatic stress disorder (Dobash and Dobash , 2007).
Gender based violence is also a serious development concern. Development is not simply
the pursuit of economic growth but the linking of economic growth to indicators of social
justice and individual well-being. The UNDP defines development as the "enlargement of
choices," and the improvement of women's individual agency is essential to this.
Therefore, at the most fundamental level. GBV contradicts the goals of development
(UNDP, 2010).
Gender based violence against women also undermines development outcomes, because
it depletes resources and has various direct and indirect economic and social costs. Sash
(2007) identify direct costs such as medical, criminal justice, social services as well as
non-monetary costs such as increased homicide, suicide, alcohol/drug abuse, depressive
disorders. For example, in the United States, the health related costs of rape, physical
assault; stalking and homicide by intimate partners are more than $5.8 billion every
single year (UNIFEM, 2003) .
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Research has also identified larger economic consequences of GBV such as loss of
productivity, decreased investment and social impacts such as intergenerational
transmission of violence, reduced quality of life, reduced participation in democratic
processes (Burton et al. 2000). Violence and the threat of violence have been found to
significantly reduce women's and girl's opportunities for work, their mobility and their
participation in education, training, community activities and wider social networks
Fawole, and Osungbade (2003), In Mexico a study found that a major reason why women
stopped participating in development projects was due to men's threats (Heise et al,
1999:28).
2.4.2 Health consequences of gender based violence
Health consequences of GBV take various forms. First there are physical and
reproductive consequences such as, injury, diseases, gastrointestinal problems, infections,
gynaecological disorders, unwanted pregnancy, menstruation disorders. pregnancy
complications. sexual disorders, unsafe abortion and miscarriage among others. There
are also emotional and psychological effects including post-traumatic stress disorders,
mental illness, suicidal thoughts and behaviours, shame, insecurity, self-hate and self-
blame among others.
According to USAID (2006) the impact of gender-based violence resonates in all areas
of health and social programming: survivors of GBV experience increased rates of
morbidity and mortality, and violence has been shown to exacerbate HIV transmission,
among other health conditions.
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Fawole et al. (2003) did a study on prevalence and nature of violence among young
female hawkers in motor-parks in south-western Nigeria. He found that the women who
had undergone any form of gender based violence were physically injured or had suffered
mental torture. The study found that victims usually have scars and in the severe cases
such as where acid was used in the attacks the physical appearance of the victim was
altered completely. The study also noted that there were instances of death though they
could not be traced directly to the gender based violence.
Regarding the issue of female genital mutilation/cutting (FGM/C) the consequences
include stress, fear, extreme shock, heavy bleeding and sometimes death. This is
complicated like in the case of Somali women who are stitched. Brady (2001) indicated
that depending on the type of excision made - cutting the tip of the clitoris or removal of
the clitoris as well as the minor and major labia - women end up suffering complications
during their menstrual period, during marriage and at childbirth. Carr (2007) also found
that as the stitching done during FGM leaves only a small opening, this often results in
complications that can lead to infections during the menstrual period and at times a
woman has to undergo surgery upon marriage to re-open the vagina. Even during
childbirth, surgery must be performed and this can lead to the baby's or woman's death
where surgery is not easily available.
2.4.3 Social consequences of gender based violence
Morrison (2004) observes that GBV leads to social consequences including social
.'stigmatization, social 'rejection and isolation, loss of roles/functions in society, the
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blaming of the victim, feminization of poverty and increased gender inequality. All these
consequences have led to an increase in maternal morbidity.
Gender based violence has an impact on young girls in social. family and school settings.
It is only through the studies presented in the foregoing discussions that we can assess the
impact of gender violence against girls. They suggest that violence against girls is an
important cause of poor performance and dropout in schools, although it is difficult to
establish cause and effect. The study by Dunne (Leach, 2003) on the impact of violence
experiences on retention and achievement found that violence against girls, in the form of
sexual intimidation, verbal abuse and physical assault was a significant contributor to
irregular attendance and underachievement of girls in school and extra curricula
activities.
The United Nations Fourth World Conference on Women held in Beijing in 1995
observed that violence against women is an obstacle to the achievement of the objectives
of equality, development and peace in the society. It was further noted that GBV against
women both violates and impairs or nullifies the enjoyment by women of their human
rights and fundamental freedoms (Morrison et al., 2004).
Domestic violence has been found to cause untold suffering on the victims of the
violence-directly being the mother, this in turn affects the relationship with the children.
In most cases as observed domestic violence leads to family breakdown. According to
o·
Njenga (2001) this situation is confirmed by the high number of households which are
17
having single parents. This is because in the long term abusive relationship ends up in
separation or in extreme cases deaths.
2.5 Strategies of addressing gender bases violence
Gender based violence is an extremely complex phenomenon with deep roots in power
imbalances between men and women, gender-role expectations, self-esteem and social
institutions. As such, it cannot be addressed without confronting the underlying cultural
beliefs and social structures that perpetuate violence against women. In many societies
women are defined as inferior and the right to dominate them is considered the essence of
maleness itself. Confronting violence thus requires re-defining what it means to be male
and what it means to be female (Pliilltps-Barrasso, 2009). The passage of the Convention
of the Elimination of all forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDA W) in 1979
revolutionized advocacy for women's rights in global, national and local spaces.
Subsequent global conferences on women, especially those convened by the United
Nations, squarely put women's rights issues on national agendas. Specifically, the
naming of violence against women a human rights violation to be considered as a moral
and legal crime by CEDA W, the Vienna Declaration and the Beijing Platform for Action
reinvigorated local activism against gender based violence (Ward, 2005).
Research from the United States indicates that certain individual factors can increase the
likelihood of violence on the part of any particular man including excessive alcohol use, a
history of physical pr sexual abuse within his own childhood, witnessing parental
violence as a child and unemployment. But none of these factors accounts for why
18
women are so systematically the targets. Only the pervasive existence of cultural,
economic, and social systems that subordinate women can explain the overall pattern of
abuse.
According to Tamale (2001) any response to violence must meet the immediate needs of
victims while working to combat the attitudes, beliefs and social structures that
encourage gender-based abuse. There is need to reform laws that discriminate against
women in addition to expanding legal. medical. psychological, and advocacy services for
victims (Rumbold and Keesbury 2008). There is also need to enact and enforce laws
against battering, rape, and sexual abuse. Training professionals in how to identify and
respond to abuse and expanding th,e availability of shelters and safe home networks have
been suggested as ways of addressing with the impact of GBV. Incorporating gender
awareness training, parenting skills, and non-violent conflict resolution into family life
curricula; eliminating gratuitous violence from the media; and ensuring alternatives for
women by expanding access to low income housing, credit, child care, and divorce
(Judith, 2004).
Experience has shown that strategic intervention on the part of the community, women's
organizations, and the state, can save lives, reduce injury, and lessen the long term effects
of victimization on women and their children. Kabira and Nzioki (2003) indicate that
women in Kenya have formed women groups popularly known as chamaas. These
chamaas were found to playa pivotal role in disseminating information on GBV and also
.
empowering women across all social classes in the Kenyan society to stand up and speak
out on GBV.
19
Kithaka (2008) describes sexual offences legislations cropping up in the region in the last
two decades as intended to prevent and protect people from harmful and unlawful gender
violence acts. Armed with these International Human Rights instruments, women human
rights activists around the world campaigned for legal reform to bring local laws up to
universal standards. In Kenya the Sexual Offences Bill despite it watering down in
parliament is a strong deterrent and a firm step by the policymakers to address the issue
of GBV against women and girls in Kenya.
According to Borwankar (2008) approaches towards GBV often do not recognize or
quantify the costs of gender-based violence to a society. Bennet, (2005) note that given
that GBV has serious consequences not only for health, but also for unemployment,.
productivity and overall economic development, a cost-based analysis of gender
inequality and GBV might encourage stronger leadership of the issue, which is urgently
needed to develop a multi-sectoral approach towards combating GBV. National planners
must determine how they are to rectify the weak or insufficient policy response to GBV,
by addressing legal inequality for women and increasing legal access and education.
Leaders must also recognize the nexus between high levels of gender-based violence,
gender inequality, and HIV /AIDS, and 'develop overt measures to tackle all three issues
in different sectors of society (Machera, 2004)). Rumbold and Keesbury (2008) argued
that gender-based violence is fundamentally a governance issue, and it requires African
leadership and .engagement on this issue like we have never seen before .
.'
20
2.6 Summary and Knowledge Gap
The literature reviewed gives a description of the nature and features of GBV. This
includes the nature and forms, causes and effects ofGBV. The literature review reflects
the fact that GBV seems to be a rather resilient and destructive, yet largely hidden social
activity, that is firmly rooted in the existence and prevalence of patriarchal relationships
of power at every level of human interaction within the historically often male-dominated
societies around the globe.
The available studies have not concentrated on the effects of GBV on women in informal
settlements such as Kibera. Therefore this study was based on the existing literature but
went further to add a Kenyan perspective and is designed in the contexts of informal
settlements such as Kibera.
2.1 Theoretical Framework
This study was guided by the Interacting Factors Model developed by Maynard and Winn
(1989). In this model, the two wished to integrate "a wide range of factors" across
various forms of violence against women and reveal their commonalities. The model
defines some elements of interacting. These are sociological (historical and cultural),
interpersonal or situational (social networks) (Bell' and Naugle, 2008). This perspective
examines individual behaviours in context.
The Interacting Factors Model assumes that patriarchy operating from historical level
affects the power dynamics of all relationships. Shared patterns of ideas and beliefs.'passed through generations define ones social networks. Historical and social- cultural
21
factors create an environment in which the growing child learns rules and expectations. It
is evident first in the family context, and later in the peer, intimate and work relations.
The early experiences define the context for later experiences.
Embedded in these social networks are characteristics of the personal relationships in
which the individuals act violently. Power dynamics become enacted at the interpersonal
level and result in the internalization of gendered values, expectations and behaviours.
Thus, cultural norms governing the use of aggression as a tool of the more powerful to
subdue the weaker combines with gender inequalities to create an environment conducive
for violence against women which is inextricably bound to the social context of male
domination and control in the society. The patriarchal view of the society gives men a
higher value than women. Men dominate in politics, economics and the social world
including the family life. This is seen as normal and natural. Violence against women is
thus an assertion of power and control men have over women, an idea also expressed by
Shipway (2004).
Using the above model as a framework of analysis, White and Kowaski identified key
factors that distinguish between various types of violence against women, the nature of
relationship, the ages of the perpetrator and the victim and the form the violence takes.
For example, sexual activity between unrelated adults is called rape, among others. In all
cases the violence varies in severity continuum and is psychological, verbal or
physical and may be episodic or continuous. Intimate violence is learnt and maintained
within broad social context that has tolerated violence against women, Beech and Ward,
(2004).
22
CHAPTER THREE
3.0 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction
This chapter focuses on the research methodology that was employed in the study. The
sections covered include: research design, site of study, target population, sampling
techniques and sample size sampling procedure, research instruments, validity and
reliability of the instruments, data analysis and presentation procedures and ethical
considerations.
3.2 Research Design
This study was exploratory and it employed a descriptive survey design. Descriptive
survey designs are used in preliminary and exploratory studies to allow researchers to
gather information, summarize, present and interpret for the purpose of clarification.
Borg and Gall (1989) note that descriptive survey research is intended to produce
statistical information about aspects of education that interest policy makers and
educators. The choice of the descriptive survey design was based on the fact that in this
study, the researcher was interested in the state of affairs already existing in the field and
no variable was manipulated.
3.3 Site of the Study
The study was done in Kibera, the largest of Nairobi's informal settlements (slum) with a
population of 170,070 inhabitants as found out in the 2009 national census (Kenya
National Bureau of S~atistics 2010). The slum is located 5 km south west of the city'.
l
23
centre of Nairobi encompassing an area of2.5km2. The area is divided into a number of
villages, including Kianda, Soweto, Gatwekera, Kisumu Ndogo, Lindi, Laini Saba,
Silanga/Undugu, Makina and Mashimoni (Ndeti, 2003). The study location was chosen
because of the alarming rate of GBV as reported in the media. GBV in Kibera is so
rampant that it has accelerated family breakup, school dropout and injury of some
residents. The residents of Kibera represent the ethnic diversity that is reflected in Kenya.
Below is the map of Kibera showing the nine villages.
--
• ••
I•I
I.•.'
#•
I!".- •••."... "...
•..".,.•I.~
j•*.......
Plate 3.1: Map'of Kibera: Source: Hagen (2009)
24
3.4 Target population
The target population for the study was 170,070 inhabitants of Kibera This population
occupied nine villages namely Kianda, Soweto, Gatwekera, Kisurnu Ndogo, Lindi, Laini
Saba, Silanga/Undugu, Makina and Mashimoni each of which had a population of
approximately 18,000 people. From the villages, 30 households were identified to
participate in the study; each of these households had an average of 5-6 occupants
(30x5=150). Thus 150 persons were to be interviewed. The total sample size targeted was
150 respondents and was considered sufficient for generalization at 95% confidence
level. A booster sample of 14 respondents was included, raising the total number of
!
respondents to 164.
3.5 Sampling Techniques and Sample Size
The study used purposive sampling in order to identify half of the villages to participate
in the research. Out of the nine villages, four were selected for the study. The size of the
village was used as a criterion and as a result two large and two small villages were
selected. Due to the nature of the informal settlement where the houses are not
constructed in any order, the study applied cluster sampling to identify households whose
members would be involved in the study.
The idea of having clusters was to ensure optimal representation across the areas of study
and to eliminate any possible biases that could result from a more generalized sampling
design. The expected number of respondents from the 30 households was 150. 14
.'respondents were added to this population to cater for any unreturned questionnaires
25
giving a total of 164 respondents. This was approximately 10% of the total population
hence a representative sample size. Snow balling sampling was also used to identify FGD
participants due to the sensitivity of this topic.
3.6 Research instruments
3.6.1 Interview guides
The researcher applied interview guides, (Appendix VII, VIII, IX, X) in order to collect
data from key informants who were too busy to complete questionnaires. Appointments
were made early and this enabled the key informants namely the local administration,
community leaders, the police, and the medical personnel to prepare and attend the
interviews.
3.6.2 Questionnaires
These were applied on household members, women and girls (Appendix II, III, and IV).
The researcher used research assistants to drop the questionnaires at all the sampled
households and collected them after two days as arranged. Out of the 164 questionnaires
distributed. only 5 were not returned and 16 were not completely filled as expected.
3.6.3 Focus group discussions (FGDs)
The researcher applied this method in order to collect data from the community and
teachers (Appendix V. VI). FGDs were used to obtain information that was difficult to
get using other methodologies and from persons that were well informed. In addition. the
researcher wanted to, interact with the participants. pose follow-up questions and ask
26
questions that probed more deeply. The sampled groups' opinion on the study topic was
also very important. There were 5 FGDs, 2 for women, 1 for girls, 1 for the teachers and
1 for boys and men.
3.7 Validity and Reliability
In order to ensure the validity of these instruments, the questions on the research tools
were constructed in a manner that the responses only provided answers to the research
questions. Pre- testing was conducted with a sample of 15 respondents from 5 villages
who were not part of the final sample respondents for the study. The pre-testing was
necessary to determine validity of the instruments and enabled the researcher to
determine whether the respondents understand the question. The research tools were also
designed with the help of supervisors who gave important critique of the tools.
3.8 Data Analysis and Presentation Procedures
Data processing was done at two levels, considering the qualitative and quantitative data
collected. The qualitative data were analyzed through content analysis and included in the
reporting for the augmentation of the findings of the survey. Quantitative data were keyed
in using EPI Data. It was then transferred to SPSS for analysis. Initial runs were done to
check for outliers or unusual results. The analysis was done after the data were deemed
clean. The presentation was organized according to objectives and presented using
narratives, tables and charts as was applicable.
27
3.9 Ethical Considerations
During the study, the researcher focused on certain ethical issues, which were considered
during the data collection phase. First, the researcher sought permission from the District
Officer Kibera, and also the researcher kept the identity of the subject's anonymous
pseudo and the information provided by the respondents was treated as confidential. This
was done by not keeping a record of real names of the participants. In addition, their
identity was kept confidential.
.'
28
CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 EFFECTS OF GENDER BASED VIOLENCE ON GIRLS AND WOMEN IN
INFORMAL SETTLEMENTS
4.1 Introduction
In this chapter, the findings of the study are presented. The findings were presented under
the following sub-headings: socio-demographic characteristics of respondents, nature and
forms of GBV, causes of GBV, effects of GBV on girls and women and ways of
addressing GBV in Kibera.
4.2 Socio demographic characteristics of respondent.
4.2.1 Gender distribution of household members
The study sought to establish the gender distribution of men, women, girls and boys in
the 30 sampled households. This was crucial to guarantee gender equitable representation
and participation in the study.
Figure 4.1: Gender distribution of household members
29
From the 30 households sampled, 110 (67%) of the respondents were women and girls
while 54 (33%) were men and boys. The results indicate that the female gender was more
represented which was good for the study's objective whose aim was to document the
effects of GBV on girls and women in Kibera. The findings also indicate that women
dominated the percentage of respondents since they headed most of the households. A
majority of the men were indulged themselves in alcoholism or occupied with other
issues not related to family cohesion.
4.2.2 Age distribution of household members
The demographic attribute of age was important since it is linked to individual
knowledge. Knowledge can differ across age cohorts in relation to the study variables.
The researcher felt that age differences may be a factor in the nature and effects of GBV
on girls and women in Kibera. The age distribution of the subjects is shown on Table 4.1
below.
Age Interval Frequency %
Female Male
Below 18 years 28 14 26
19-25 32 6 23
26-35 22 10 20
36-45 12 15 16
46-55 11 6 10
56-60 5 3 5
TOTAL 111 53 100
Table 4.1: Age distribution of family members
..
30
Forty-two (26%) of the household members were aged below 18 years. Out of this figure
28 (67%) were girls and 14 (33%) were boys. The data indicates that there were more
female than male in the targeted households. The 19-25 age bracket were more because
majority of them were employment seekers and had sought tenancy in Kibera because of
cheap housing and low standards of living as compared to other residential estates. The
frequency per age bracket seemed to decrease with increasing age. This may be due to the
low life expectancy in the informal settlements due to the hardships faced of which GBV
is one of them (PARTH, 2008).
The average household size was 5 people. The bar chart below shows the household sizes
in the study area.
Seven to Nine
20%
Figure 4.2: Household Sizes
From the households sampled, 39% of the respondents were the household heads (male)
while 33% were the female spouses. Sixteen per cent were children of the households
while 9% were members of the extended family. The fmdings indicate that there were far
31
too many people sharing a single or double room. This compromised both privacy and
security and therefore, a key factor that may be fueling GBV in Kibera.
4.2.3 Education level of respondents
• None _ Primary _ Secondary _ College/University
4%
Figure 4.3: Education level of respondents
The figure (4.3) shows that 47% of participants had attained secondary school education
leveL This implies that most of the respondents had just finished their secondary school
and had sought tenancy in Kibera because of cheap housing. The fmding may imply that
they were prone to GBV since they were secondary school graduates with no training or
stable source of income.
4.2.4 Marital status of the respondents
In 59% of the households in the study, the occupants who were interviewed were married
while 27% of households were single persons. Eight per cent and 6% indicated that they
were divorced or widowed respectively as shown in Figure 4.4 below.
32
70 59% of the respondents were
59 married because of the60
financial support from either
50 of the couple.
40 The research established
that although the female
30 gender faced discrimination
20 and violence, they opted tostick to their marriages due
10 to the financial support they
got from their husbands.
0
Widowed Divorced Married Single
Figure 4.4: Marital status of respondents
The finding situates GBV within marriage. Therefore, it confirms earlier studies that the
perpetrators of GBV are people known to the survivors especially those they live with
(COV AW 2006).
4.3 Nature and forms of gender based violence
The study sought to document the various types of GBV in Kibera. It was established that
majority of the people knew types of GBV due to the fact that they were very common. It
was noted that older women and men knew more about the nature and the various forms
of GBV. However, they trivialized it, and thus wife battering was regarded as a
disciplinary measure rather than a violation or a crime against the survivor. For this
reason, a working definition of the concept of GBV had to often be explained to the study
participants.
33
In order to document the nature and forms of GBV rampant in Kibera, the researcher
posed the question "What forms of GBV are you aware of"? The findings are presented
in the table 4.2 below.
GBV awareness
Forms ofGBV Women Men
Rape/Defilement ]00% 90%
Domestic violence against a spouse 27% 20%
Female circumcision 80% 50%
Verbal abuse 100% 98%
Forced marriage (Forced wife inheritance) 89% 59%
Incest 90% 68
Forced prostitution 80% 60
Drug induced sex 89% 42
Table 4.2: Forms of gender based violence existing in Kibera
34
When asked to name the forms of GBV they were aware of, 100% women and 90% men
mentioned rape/defilement. Domestic violence against a spouse was 27% and 20%
respectively. The study established that violence against a spouse was seen more as a
disciplinary measure than a form of violation. In this regard, Iohn" stated that:
... wife beating is meant to tame a wife. Women are like babies, if not
beaten once in a while, they will get out of hand .... (0.1 26/07/2011)
The findings suggest that all forms of GBV are known to the Kibera community.
However, the high level of awareness did not imply legal or other form of redress.
This may be an indicator that many forms of GBV have become part of common and
accepted community behavior and practices. COVA W (2006:7) expresses a similar view
that communities may condon violence against women due to tradition, lack of access to
legal services and service providers as well as attitudes towards these forms of violence.
Rape and verbal abuse were noted to be the most common forms of GBV amongst the
girls and women because of the poor living conditions such as dark streets and
alcoholism. Domestic violence, according to the men, was not too serious a form of
violence because of the cultural values as Wanjala put it.
.. .1 being an African man believe that our culture allows us to discipline our
women when in the wrong, though not to hurt .... (0.1 26/07/201l.
.'
35
4.4 Causes of gender based violence
This section discusses the causes of GBV cases in Kibera. By design, the study took
liberty to explore the causes without being overly concerned about any categorization.
This is partly because part of the data collection exercise was participatory and therefore,
there were no limitations on how the information came in.
The study found out that there were many causes of GBV in Kibera, The most common
are presented in the Figure 4.5 below
• Power relations
• Perversion
• Alcoholism
• Peer influence
• Cultural practices
• Excessive exposure
Financial constraints
Figure 4.5: Causes of Gender Based Violence
20 % of the respondents had the view that the violence was caused by alcoholism. This is
supported by the fact that the informal settlements are characterized by cheap liquor
which is also easily available.This was confirmed by Mariam*who said:
... The men of this place drink too much until they lose their senses.
Due to the effect of this cheap liquor, they go on a raping spree so that
Kibera is worse than it was in terms of safety. I nolonger send my
daughter to the shops after 7 pm because I don't know who is waitng
to harm her .... ( 0.12/08/2011)
36
Power relations (21 %) was sighted as one of the biggest causes of CBV. Mutisya* a
community leader noted:
... Men in Kibera feel they are superior to women just because they
are the breadwinners and majority of women in this slums depend
on them for finacial support.So even when they violate the rights of
the women, the women do not report but keep quiet as they do not
want to lose their daily bread. This makes GBV continue unabated ....
(0.1 23/08/2011)
In view of the above, Otieno opined:
... If you don't beat your woman, she will look down upon you
and even rebelagainst you .Other men will laugh at you.
Wife beating has been there since the days of our forefathers,
so we follow suit. ... (0.1 23/08/2011)
The respondents therefore felt that men beat their wives in order to demonstrate power
over them. The women would hardly walk out of abusive marriage due to economic
dependency and fear of more beatings. The photograph below documents a typical scene
of what would happen if a woman tried to run away from her husband. Ideally, she would
be beaten in public and if caught and returned to her house
*Name disguised for the safety of the respondents and for confidentiality
.'
37
Plate 4.1: A woman who had fallen as she tried to run away from her abusive husband
after a domestic fight in the Kibera. Source: Author, 2010
Other factors identified as facilitators GBV and included insufficient security,
intimidation and incompetent excuses among others. These factors were not in
themselves direct causes, however they increased the probability of GBV occurring.
Some of these factors are presented in table 4.6 below:
38
53
3
Figure 4.6 Factors that increase chances of gender based violence in Kibera.
The study established that insufficient security (53%) was the main factor that facilitated
GBV in Kibera. The insecurity was due to poor living conditions in Kibera with poor
housing and access roads which lacked street lighting. In this regard, Auma* felt that the
Nairobi city council should improve the lighting of Kibera
.. .If only we could have the lighting maintained by Nairobi city council
then the many incidences of GBV would not occur
or would be reduced .... (OJ 24/08/2011)
39
Incompetent excuses (wearing of mini-skirts and tight revealing trousers) (3%) and
ignorance (7%) were sighted as other factors that increase GBV.
Plate 4.2: Photo of Kibera (27/07/2011)
The above plate shows the state of living of the residents of Kibera. The poor living
conditions, small congested houses and poor access roads which lack street lighting were
said to be very strong factors that increased GBV.
40
4.5 Effects of Gender Based Violence On Girls And Women
This section gives a detailed account of the findings obtained regarding the effects of
GBV on girls and women in Kibera. The presentation is divided into three sub-sections;
health, social and economic fronts.
80
70
60- 50uIIIc.
.§ 40-0 30Qj
>~ 20
10
0
Health Impact
• SeriC51 73
•Social Impact Economic Impact
16 11
Figure 4.7 Effects of gender based violence on girls and women
Figure 4.7 shows that 73 % of the respondents said that GBV had a negative health
impact, 11 % said that GBV affected them economically. while 16 % said that GBV
affected them socially.
The study established that 73% of girls and women's health had been negatively affected
by GBV with consequences ranging from physical injury, chronic pain, anxiety and
depression, to deadly outcomes such as maiming. Achieng* narrated how she was still
suffering after a thourough beating by her husband with whom she still lives.
,
... He hit my head against the wall several times accusing me of having an
affair with his brother. I screamed but he did not stop neither was anyone
coming to my rescue. I don't know howl got to Kenyatta National
41
Hospital because that is where I found my self when I gained
conciousness. Todate, I cant hear properly as my ear drums were
damanged .... (0.1 24/08/2011)
jane". a leader of one of the women groups in Kibera had this to say:
... Three quarters of the women in my group have undergone GBV. We share a lot
and comfort each other. In fact, two of them have no uterus as we speak,one, the
husband forced her to do an arbotion claiming the child she was carrying was not
his, while the other after being gang-raped she got serious infections that the
womb had to be removed ... (0.1 24/08/2011)
Sarat-who cried throughout this discussion had this to say:
... 1 had to take my dauhgter to live with my sister in Mathare as my husband had
made a habit of defiling her when I was not in. She is a cripple and not able to
defend herself. I noticed bruises in her private parts while washing her and she
confided in me that her father ( my husband) ,who is her step-father, had been
abusing her and threatened to kill her and me if she disclosed to anybody ...
(0.1 25/08/2011)
Though a small percentage (II %) said GBV affected them economically, Nekesa* had
the following to say:
... We just have to put up with these' monsters. '
As you can see our status, we are poor and like me
I have five children, if I leave my husband where
do I take this burden to? ... (0.1 25/08/2011)
This clearly shows that women in Kibera depend on men and GBV will continue until the
women are economically empowered.1n addition, they feel helpless and therefore unable
to do anything about the violence meted on them.
Wanja", a primary school teacher in Kibera reported thus:
o·
42
... progress in education, particularly girls' enrolment and retention in schools, was
clearly constricted by the high prevalence of GBV within schools and the community
due to the insecurity that girls faced on their way to and from school, within the
school and at home. GBV inhibited girls' access to schooling, resulting poor
performance and eventually dropping out. Once raped, some girls drop out of school
due to shame and stigma. Male teachers still lure the bigger girls into having sex with
them and impregnate them. Parents are then compromised due to poverty ....
(0.1 15/08/2011)
4.6 Ways of addressing GBV in Kibera
The study sought to establish what was needed to be done in order to minimize cases of
GBV in Kibera. The study focused on ways of dealing with GBV by asking the question,
how-do-you-address GBV-? 'Fable 4-:-3-below shows various actors who are addressing
GBV in Kibera.
SIN Actors Frequency % Responses of the Actors
1 Community Leadership 23 14 Arbitrated and settled disputes
2 Teachers 25 15 Facilitated further reference
3 Administration 34 21 Arrested the culprits and
mediate the cases
4 Law enforcement agencies 18 10 Investigated the crimes and took
the offender to court
5 Health Care 53 32 Offer medical consultations and
did referrals
6 Civil Society 29 18 Created awareness, educated
and advocated for the
eradication of GBV
TOTAL 164 100
Table 4.3: Ways of addressing gender based violence in Kibera
Table 4.3 summarizes the findings of the respondents regarding the various ways
adopted by the" survivors in addressing GBV in Kibera. 32% of the respondents said they
visited the health care facilities for medical consultations and referrals. .loyce", a nurse at,
Medicin Sans Frontiers (MSF) Clinic said:
43
... this clinic offers medical consultation for victims of GBV which include
among other services, sexually transmitted infection (STI) treatment, post
exposure prophylaxis (PEP) and counseling .... (OJ 20108/2011)
Wanjira* had praises for the clinics operating in Kibera:
... if it were not for these clinics, most us would be dead by now. When I was
raped, I went there and was treated immediately. Otherwise I could have
contracted AIDS as the doctor put it .... (OJ 20108/2011)
The study noted that 18% of the respondents sought assistance from civil society
organizations/NGOs when incidences of GBV occurred. The main NGOs that had
specific programme targeting GBV issues in Kibera include, Centre-for-Rights-Edecation
and Awareness (CREA W), Pathfinder International, World Vision International (WVI) as
well as Care International. The respondents said that the reason that made them go to
these civil societies was because they were involved in the creation of awareness,
education and advocacy in relation to GBV issues. They also offered legal assistance to
individuals affected by GBV to access justice, as Ochieng* put it:
... if it were not for CREA W, I would be childless. They took up my daughter's
case as if we were related. They took my daughter to Nairobi Women Hospital.
she was represented in the court by a very good woman lawyer and the offender
was jailed for life ... (OJ 20108/2011)
He was referring to the daughter's defilement case.
10% of the respondents reported GBV to the law enforcement agencies that included both
the Regular Police and the Administration Police. Wandia * observed:
.,. Many women are reluctant to report cases of GBV to law enforcers as many a
times they were threatened by the perpetrators when they got wind of it. The man
who defiled my daughter openly told me to move from Kibera or he ~ill kill me if
44
I don't withdraw the case I had filed with the police. I had no choice but to
withdraw for my own safety ... (0.1 23/08/20] 1)
The school girls (15%) preferred to report GBV cases to their teachers, most of which
were sexual in nature, although physical violence was not entirely absent. The greatest
challenge for teachers in dealing with GBV cases included threats from perpetrators and
frustration with follow up in the formal justice system. Muriuki", a class six teacher said:
... The best we can do as teachers is to facilitate
further reference with the head teacher .... (0.1 27/08/2011)
The study also established that GBV survivors received support from the various actors
discussed earlier in this chapter as indicated by table 4.4 below.
SIN Strategies Adopted Frequency %
1 Systems Rehabilitation 80 49
2 Community Education / 50 30
Awareness
3 Sustained and Systematic Victim 34 21
Recovery
Total 164 100
Table 4.4 Strategies for addressing gender based violence in Kibera.
45
From the findings shown in Table 4.4, about half 49% of the respondents were for the
opinion that there was great need to rehabilitate all the government systems in order to
increase efficiency. In this regard, Hassan", a civil society and human rights crusader
said:
... unless all the government systems are totally transformed and the people
manning them are trained, including the removal of persons stalling the processes,
GBV will continue in Kibera .... (0.1 30108/2011)
Wambua*who thought otherwise said:
... There should also be a behavior change communication (BCC) strategy that is
drawn up targeting the Government Systems to make them friendlier ....
(0.1 3/09/2011).
The study also found that community education should focus on mobilizing the
community to take action rather than imparting information to the community on issues
surrounding GBV. This view was expressed by 30% of the respondents.
Edith", a CBO worker, had this to say:
... Development of a behaviour change communication (BCC) strategy
to improve community sensitization on GBV as a violation of
human rights is necessary. This can be emphasized through existing
channels like radio programs and other interactive activities.
Special focus on young people is important, to break the silence
and indifference towards GBV and to start to shape a non-violent
generation ....
(0.1 3/09/2011)
21 % of the respondents were of the opinion that there should be collaborative efforts to
ensure optimal recovery of the victims.
46
... These could include coordination between health providers, legal aid providers,
local administration and law enforcers. All partners should be able to jointly
educate and provide a coordinated referral system which will ensure that a
survivor receives all the necessary assistance (Ann, PARTH) .... (O.I 4/09/2011)
The study established that the people of Kibera had various options to redress GBV.
However, GBV was still rampant with many girls and women keeping silent about it.
47
CHAPTER FIVE
5.0 SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Introduction
This chapter presents the summary, conclusion and recommendations of the study. The
chapter is organized as follows: summary of each objective, conclusion, and
recommendation. Areas for further research are then proposed.
5.2 Key Observations according to study objectives
The first objective was to document the nature and forms of GBV in Kibera. In this
regard, the study noted that there are many forms of GBV. Though the girls and women
were aware of GBV occurrence, the awareness did not translate into actions aimed at
addressing it. This finding is in line with the model of interacting factors that says
"cultural norms governing the use of aggression as a tool of the more powerful to subdue
the weaker combines with gender inequalities create an environment conducive for
violence against women". Thus women and girls are aware of GBV and its adverse
effects, yet they opt to suffer in silence.
The second objective was to assess the factors that increase chances of GBV in Kibera.
In view of this it was noted that there are many factors that fuel the incidences of GBV in
Kibera and hence the need to increase its understanding in terms of depth and to enlarge
the scope of reach. .'
48
Maynard and Winn (I989) express a similar opinion in their observation that gender
based violence is inextricably bound to the social context of male domination and control
in society and that many factors culminate into violence. These include historical and
social factors compounded with power dynamics, all of which aggravate GBV. This
explains the reasoning of some of the research participants that women must be
disciplined by their spouses as the society dictates.
Objective three was to investigate the effects of GBV on girls and women in Kibera.
In this regard, there was evidence that there are adverse effects of GBV that are
experienced immediately and in the long run. Indeed, most of the GBV experiences were
life changing and totally altered the lives of the victims.
White and Kowaski (2001) who analyzed this model say that the effects of violence
meted on women varies in severity continuum and is psychological, verbal or physical
and may be episodic or continuous. This concurs with the findings on the effects of GBV
on the lives of survivors as discussed in chapter four.
The fourth objective was to establish ways of addressing GBV in Kibera. In this regard it
was established that there are various actors addressing GBV. The services provided were
varied, among others, these were, arresting the culprits, mediating the cases,
investigating the crimes and taking the offender to court, offering medical consultations
and referrals to the survivors, and creating awareness and advocacy for the eradication
of GBV. It was however. noted that the available interventions are few as compared to..
the populatiun of Kibera.
49
5.3 Conclusion
The study concludes that GBV has adverse impact on all facets of women and girls Iives-
health, economic and social aspects. These adverse effects are both short-term and long-
term. Indeed, most of the GBV experiences are life changing and totally alter the lives of
the victim. The study also notes that there are various ways of addressing GBV, but the
people often fail to report GBV cases and therefore, it would look like the mechanisms
are not effective.
5.4 Recommendations
i) It is recommended that enhanced awareness education with regard to the
provision of Sexual Offences Act, where to seek help and what help is available
for the survivors of GBV are done. In this regard, empowerment of both girls and
women to report cases of GBV should be emphasized. This would ensure
enforcement of the law hence reduce GBV in Kibera.
ii) A combination of strategies could be put in place to counter the factors fueling
GBV. This include sensitization and cautioning of men and boys violating the
rights of women using culture as an excuse and indulging in violent acts that are
criminal should be done urgently and lighting of footpaths and enhanced patrols
by security agents .This may be implemented by the Kenya Power as well as the
various arms of security namely such as the Kenya Police and Administrative
Police.
iii) Key actors (health providers, legal aid workers, and local administration and law
enforcers) involved in GBV issues in Kibera should collaborate to educate and,
50
provide a coordinated referral system which will ensure that the victims receive
all necessary assistance. This will mitigate the negative impact of GBV.
iv) The community inculcates positive values and practices with regard to gender
relations. ideas that are necessary to ending GBV.
5.5 Suggestions for Further Research
The study suggests the following areas where further research should be conducted;
Further studies should be conducted in other slum areas ana other parts of the country to
assess the effect of GBV on women and girls as this would enable a cross country
comparison and observation of the trends in sexual violence.
Further studies could also be conducted on one of the aspects of women lives such as
health or economical aspect to bring out the clearer picture of the adverse effects of GBV
Studies should also be conducted to find out the impact and challenges being faced by the
on-going interventions aimed at checking GBV in informal settlements.
.'
51
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.'
55
APPENDICES
APPENDEDIX 1: INTRODUCTORY LETTER TO THE DISTRICT OFFICER
DISTRICT OFFICER
KIBERA DIVISION
Dear Sir/Madam,
RE: PERMISSION TO CARRY OUT A STUDY IN YOUR DIVISION
I am a postgraduate student in the department of gender and development studies of
Kenyatta University. I am undertaking a study on effects of Gender Based Violence
(GBV) on girls and women in informal settlements.
Kibera has been sampled as a study division and hence I request you to allow me carry
out this study here. The research instrument calls for direct dissemination through
interviews and observation with the respondents.
The data generated by the study will be treated as confidential and will be used for the
purpose of this study only. The cooperation of men, women, boys and girls as well as you
will be highly appreciated.
Thank you.
Yours faithfully,
Jane Igoki Mwereru
Noted by:
Supervisor
.'
56
APPENDIX II: QUESTIONNAIRE
Dear respondent, my name is Jane Mwereru. I am a student at the Kenyatta University
and currently I am carrying out a study on "Effects of Gender Based Violence on girls
and women in Informal Settlements". You have been selected to be one of my
respondents. I have a set of questions that I would like you to answer with the aim of
coming up with data that will be useful to this study.
Any information you give will be for academic use and it will be treated with uttermost
confidence. Please do not indicate your name.
Section A: General Information
AI) A2) A3) A4) AS)
Gender of Respondents Education Marital Status of Occupation of HH
respondenL .Relation to levels-of-HH HH
the
Household
Head
1 '" Male 1 '" Is the 1 '" None 1 '" Single I '" Full time
2 '" Female HH 2", Primary 2 '" Married employment
2 '" Wife 3 '" 3 '" 2 '" Business
3 '" Husband Secondary Separated/Divorced 3 '" Casual
4 '" Son 4 '" College/ 4", Widowed employment
5 '" Daughter University 4 '" Fully
6 '" Relative 5 '" unemployed
7 '" Others .........
Employee
Adults Children
A7 A9
Male
Female AS AIO
All Are there other contributors to the HH income? I", Yes
! 2 = No I
57
Section B: Forms of Gender Based Violence
I). What forms of gender-based violence are you aware of?
Tick from the table below
Forms ofGBV Tick
Rape / Defilement 1
Forced marriage (Forced wife inheritance) 2
Female Circumcision 3
Wife battery 4
Violence against a child/child abuse 5
Indecent acts e.g. touching a woman's sexual parts, breasts 6etc.
Drug induced sex 7
Incest 8
Forced sexual favors because of one's position 9
Use of sexually offensive language 10
Child marriage 11
Forced prostitution 12
Sexual assault 13
0'
58
Section C: Causes of Gender Based Violence
Below are causes of GBY. Please read them carefully and indicate to what extent you
agree or disagree with each of them. Indicate the extent of your agreement or
disagreement by using this scale?
Neither
Statements Agree Agree agree Disagree Disagreestrongly somewhat nor Somewhat Strongly
disagree
] Alcohol & substance 2abuse 5 4 3 1
2 Cultural Practices: 5 4 3 2 ]
3 Peer Influence 5 4 3 2 ]
4 Criminal activities 5 4 3 2 ]
5 Personal frustrations 5 4 3 2 ]
6 Non-working 5 4 3 2 1
7 Unfaithfulness or 5 4 3 2infidelity ]
8 Insufficient Security 5 4 3 2 1
9 Hatred 5 4 3 2 ]
10 Social Economic 5 4 3 2Conditions ]
o·
59
Section D: Effects of Gender Based Violence
Below are some effects of GBV on girls and women.
Please study each statement carefully and tick your opinion on the frequency.
Statements Agree Agree Neither Disagree Disagree
strongly somewhat agree Somewhat Strongly
nor
disagree
1 They contract 5 4 3 2 1
HIV/AIDS
2 Leads to death 5 4 3 2 1
3 Increases rates of 5 4 3 2 1
divorce
4 So-cial stigmatization 5 4 3 2 1
5 Social isolation 5 4 3 2 1
6 Depression 5 4 3 2 1
7 Drop out from school 5 4 3 2 1
8 Unintended 5 4 3 2 1
pregnancies
9 Hatred 5 4 3 2 1
10 Broken families 5 4 3 2 1
Thank you for your time and input.
.'
60
APPENDIX III: QUESTIONNAIRE FOR WOMEN
Dear respondent, my name is Jane Mwereru. I am a student at the Kenyatta University
and currently I am carrying out a study on "Impact of gender based violence on girls and
women in Informal Settlements". You have been selected to be one of my respondents. I
have a set of questions that I would like you to answer with the aim ofcoming up with
data that will be useful to this study.
Any information you give will be for academic use and it will be treated with uttermost
confidence.
1. What is your age?
Between 18- 30years [ ] 30 -40 years [ ] 40 --50 years I ] 50 --60 years [ ]
Above 60 years
2. What is your marital status?
Single [ jMarried [ ] Widowed [ ] Divorced I ]
3. What is your highest level of education?
Graduate [ ] A' Level [ ] O' Level [ ] Primary I ] None
4. What is your occupation?
Student [ ] Housewife [ ] Wage employment I ] Pensioner [ ] Business/trade I
Unemployed [ ] other, specify
4. a) If in occupation how much income (in Ksh) do you make per month from your
occupation? (Tick one)
Low (0 to 3,000) [ ] Middle (3,000 to 6,000) [ ] High (above 6,000) [
b) If not in occupation how do you earn a Iiving/ make ends meet?
6. Have you ever suffered any form of abuse?
Yes [] No []
7. What was the form of the abuse?
Physical abuse [] Psychological/emotional abuse
Combination of I and 2 I ] Combination of I, 2. and 3
8. Who abused you?
Spouse [ ] Brother in law [ ] Sister in law [ ]
Others specify _
9. Please specify the form of abuse?
Rape I ] Slapping [ ] abuses [ ]
Other [please specify] _
10. How did/would you react to the abuse?
Went for counselling [ ] Accepted it as normal [ ] Escaped
Fought back l l Tried to change self /partner [ ]
Others _
I 1.a) Did you report the abuse?
[ ]
] Sexual abuse [
[ ]
[ ] Made peace [ ]
61
Yes [J No [J
b) If no, what made you react that way?
12. What do you think are the causes of abuses 0
13. What are the effects of these abuses on woman?
14. What would you recommend regarding gender based violence situation in Kenya?
Thank you for your time and input
."
62
APPENDIX IV: QUESTIONNAIRE FOR GIRLS
Dear respondent, my name Jane Mwereru. I am a student at the Kenyatta University and
currently I am carrying out a study on "Effects of Gender Based Violence on girls and
women in Informal Settlements". You have been selected to be one of my respondents. I
have a set of questions that I would like to discuss with you with the aim of coming up
with data that will be useful to this study.
Any information you give will be for academic use and it will be treated with uttermost
confidence.
What is your age? _
Are you married?
Yes [] No [ ]
1. What is your highest level of education?
Graduate [ ] A' Level [ ] O' Level [ ] Primary [ ] None []
2. Have you ever suffered any form of abuse?
Yes [] No []
3. What was the form of the abuse?
Physical abuse [] Emotional abuse [ ] Sexual abuse [
Combination of 1 and 2 [ ] Combination of 1. 2. and 3 [ ]
4. Please specify nature of abuse?
Rape [ ] Slapping [ ] Verbal abuses [ ]
Other [please specify] _
5. How did you react to the abuse?
Went for counselling [ ] Accepted it as normal I ] Escaped [ ] Made peace [ ]
Fought back [ ] Tried to change self /partner [ ]
Others _
6. What do you think are the causes of these abuses?
7. What are the effects of these abuses on the girls?
8. What would you recommend regarding gender based violence situation in Kenya?
Thank you for your time and input.'
63
APPENDIX V: COMMUNITY FGD GUIDE
Focus Group Discussion Guide
Introduction
• Introduce self
• Introduce group discussion process - Interactive, participative, no wrong answers
• Complete confidentiality - to obtain unbiased responses
• Rules for discussion - One person at a time, no side conversations, no domination
Warm up
Respondents introduce themselves
• Name
• What you do
Introduction Today we are going to talk about Gender Based Violence (GBV)- in Kibera.Explain to-them what Gender Based Violence is.
• What forms of GBV do you know?
• ListsAwareness and
Knowledge on
forms ofGBV
• Do you know of people in your neighbourhood or household
who have been victims of GBV?
If yes what were the form, nature and extent of the abuse?Forms, nature andextent of GBV
Practices
•
• Have you been a victim of any GBV violation?
If yes, which one?•
• What do you think is the root cause of the GBV violations you
named?
Are there things a person can do to increase the chances of
GBV violation happening? (Say to cause battery, rape, verbal
assault etc.)
Causes and factors
ofGBV •
Effects of GBV on
girls and women
• What were the effects of GBV violations on girls and women?
• Do you have any comments or suggestions on what we have
just discussed?Conclusion
,
Thank you for your time and input
64
APPENDIX VI: TEACHERS FGD GUIDE
Dear respondent, my name Jane Mwereru. I am a student at the Kenyatta University and
currently I am carrying out a study on "Effects of gender based violence on girls and
women in Informal Settlements". You have been selected to be one of my respondents. I
have a set of questions that I would like to discuss with you with the aim of coming up
with data that will be useful to this study.
Any information you give will be for academic use and it will be treated with uttermost
confidence. Please do not indicate your name.
1. Are you aware of any pupils in your school who are abused or have been abused?
2. What was the nature and form of this abuse?
3. Which is the most common?
4. In most cases, are the victim's boys or girls?
5. What do you think are the causes of these abuses?
6. What are the effects of these abuses on the girls?
7. Is there anything you have done having learned of the incidents of abuse?
8. Any comments or suggestions on what we have just discussed?
Thank you for your time and input
..
65
APPENDIX VII: INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR THE LOCAL ADMINISTRATION
A. Introduction
• Introduce yourself
• Assure respondent of confidentiality by stating that the information
provided will be used for research purposes only and personal details will
not be divulged
B. Interviewer's Details
Name of interviewer: Date of
interview _
C. Respondent's Details
Name of respondent
Place of work
Phone/ Mobile no.
Today, I would like us to talk about gender based violence (GVB). But perhaps to kick
off the discussion, you could tell me a little bit about yourself & office
D. Yourself & Office
How long have you been an administrator in this area?
What services does your office offer the people?
E. Forms of GBV
What form/nature of GBV is reported to your office?
Which are the most common?
F. Causes of GBV in the area
In your opinion, what are the causes of the mentioned GBV cases?
G. Effects ofGBV
What are the effects of these abuses on girls and women?
H. Conclusion
Do you have any comments or suggestions on what we have just discussed?
Thank respondent and end interview
.'
66
APPENDIX VIII: INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR THE COMMUNITY LEADERS
A. Introduction
• Introduce yourself
• Assure respondent of confidentiality by stating that the information
provided will be used for research purposes only and personal details will
not be divulged
B. Interviewer's Details
Name of interviewer: _
Date of interview _
C. Respondent's Details
Name of respondent
Place of work
Physical Address
Phone/ Mobile
no. (optional)
Today, I would like us to talk about gender based violence (GVB). But perhaps to kick
off the discussion, you could tell me a little bit about your office
D. Yourself & Office
a) What do you do as a community leader?
b) What role do you play in dealing with GBV?
E. Forms of GBV
a) What are the major forms of SGBV in this area?
b) Which are the most common ones?
F. Causes of GBV in the area
a) In your opinion, what are the nature and the causes of the GBV incidents?
G. Effects of GBV
a) What are the effects of these abuses on girls and women?
H. Conclusion
Do you have any comments or suggestions on what we have just discussed?
Thank respondent and end interview
.'
67
APPENDIX IX: INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR POLICE
A. Introduction
• Introduce yourself
• Assure respondent of confidentiality by stating that the information
provided will be used for research purposes only and personal details will
not be divulged
B. Interviewer's Details
Name of interviewer: _
Date of interview _
C. Respondent's Details
Name of respondent
Place of work
Physical Address
Phone/ Mobile
no. (optional)
Today, I would like us to talk about gender based violence (GVB). But perhaps to kick
off the discussion, you could tell me a little bit about your office
D. Yourself & Office
a) What is the title of your department/office?
b) What services does your office offer the people?
E. Forms of GBV
a) What is the nature and forms of GBV reported here?
b) Which are the most common ones?
F. Causes of GBV in the area
a) What can you attribute to be the causes of the GBV incidents?
G Effects of GBV on girls and women
a) What are the effects of these abuses on girls and women?
H. Conclusion
Do you have any comments or suggestions on what we have just discussed?
Thank respondent and end interview
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APPENDIX X: MEDICAL PERSONNEL IN-DEPTH INTERVIEW GUIDE
Medical Personnel
A. Introduction
• Introduce yourself
• Assure respondent of confidentiality by stating that the information
provided will be used for research purposes only and personal details will
not be divulged
B. Interviewer's Details
Name of interviewer: _
Date of interview _
C. Respondent's Details
Name of respondent
Place of work
Physical Address
Phone/ Mobile
no. (optional)
Today, I would like us to talk about gender based violence (GVB). But perhaps to kick
off the discussion, you could tell me a little bit about your office
D. Yourself & Office
a) What is the title of your department/office?
b) What services does your office offer the people?
E. Forms of Gender Based Violence
a) What is the nature and forms of GBV you attend to?
b) Which are the common GBV violations you attend to?
c) In your assessment, are these cases many?
F Effects of GBV on girls and women
b) What are the effects of these abuses on girls and women?
G. Conclusion
Do you have any comments or suggestions on what we have just discussed?
Thank respondent and end interview
o·
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