...
AVAILABILITY AND USE OF TEACHING AND LEARNING
RESOURCES FOR MUSIC EDUCATION IN KENYA:
~.~
A SURVEY OF. SECQNDARY SCHOOLS IN
NAIROBI PROVINCE. If
BY
BEATRICE A. OBONYO lDI~OLO
A '1'HESISSUBMI'.rTED.IN PARrrIAL FULFILMENT FOR
THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS OF
KENYATTA UNIVERSITY
1997
Digolo. Beatrice A
Availability and use
of teaching and
II~IIIIIIIIIIIIII.IIIIIIII
1997/230988
•
..
DECLARA'I'ION
This thesis is my otiginalwork and has not been presented
for a degree in any other university.
DIGOLO
This thesis has been submitted for examination with our
approval as University supervisors .
.~~--------------------
DR. P. N. KAVYU
Department of Music, Kenyatta University.
------'--~. ::> ~
PROFESSOR ~.'6.AYOT.
Department of EducationaJ Communication and
Technology, Kenyatta University.
----v ITA UNIVERSITY LIB _
DEDICATION
To my beloved husband, Obonyo Digolo and children
and
My dear parents, Mwalimu Absalom Oyule and Mrs. Bethsheba
Auma Oyule.
iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to express my sincere appreciation to the
following individuals and institutions for their invaluable
assistance and support during the writing of this thesis.
First and foremost, I am indebted to my supervisors, Dr.
Paul Kavyu and Professor Henry Ayot for their dedication and
guidance throughout the study. Their interest and concern has
been a source of inspiration in the face of many apparent
difficulties and pressure of time.
Many thanks to my-academic colleagues; Dr. Charles
·Nyakiti, Mrs. Lucy Kilonzi, Mrs. Annetta Miller and Dr. Fr.
Okelo whose criticisms and suggestions added new dynamism to
the thesis.
I cannot forget to mention Prof. Kitula Kingei of
Kiswahili Department, Kenyatta University who read my proposal
. and gave constructive comments.
/'
My gratitude goes to Mrs. Monica Odera for her
professionalism which went into the typing of this work and
Mr. A.D Bojana for proof-reading the thesis.
iv
My profound thanks go to the Office of the President for
granting me -the research permit. The then permanent secretary,
Ministry of Educ~tion, Mrs. E. S. Masiga, for granting me an
authori ty to conduct research in the sample secondary schools.
I would also like to express my appreciation to the
headteachers, music teachers and students in the sample
schools for their cooperation.
The reading. materials r got from certain institutional
libraries greatly contributed towards the shaping of the
thesis. These institutions are Kenyatta University,
University of Nairobi, Institute of African Studies, Kenya
Institute of Education, Daystar University and National
commission for Unesco library.
My very sincere appreciation goes to my dear husband,
Professor Obonyo Digolo, whose inexhaustible tolerance and
excessive understanding accorded me the opportunity to pursue
my studies to this level. To my children, opiyo, Akinyi,
Omondi and otieno for their patience and calmness throughout
the study.
Above all, I sincerely thank the Almighty God, by whose
grace I was able to overcome many field difficulties without
fear.
Beatrice A. Obonyo Digolo
Department of Music
Kenyatta University.
v
TABLE OF CONTEN'l'S
PAGE
ii-
iii
iv
vi
x
xiii
xv
DECLARATION .
DEDICATION .
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .
TABLE OF CONTENTS .
ABSTRACT " .
LIST OF TABLES .
ABBREVIATIONS .
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
1.0
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
Background to the study .
Statement of the problem ~ .
Objectives of the study .
Basic assumptions .
Research hypotheses .
Rationale and significance of
the study .
Scope and limitation
of the. study .
Theoretical framework .
Definition of terms .
1
5
6
7
8
9
11
12
15
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
Introduction .
Review of the literature focusing on
importance of teaching and learning
resources in general .
Review of literature highlighting the
habitual lack of teaching and learning
resources for Music Education .
Review of literature emphasizing the
need for acquisition and use of teaching
and learning resources
for Music Education .
Summary .
18
18
23
27
32
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
3.0
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
Introduction ' "
Sampling procedure .
Data collection techniques .
Organization of the questionnaires .
Questionaire adfuinistration and data
col1ec~ion procedure .
Data analysis procedure .
33
34
35
37
38
39
vi
CHAPTER FOUR: DATA ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION
4.0 Introduction................................ 46
4.1 Secondary school headteachers
as respondents .
4.1.1 Annual budget for music departments .
4.1.2 Purpose for allocating funds
to music departments .
Adequacy of textbooks and musical
instruments .
Ways of coping with the syllabus
content that the teache~
cannot handle .
teachers as respondents .
Availability of music facilities .
Suitability of classrooms used for
music lessons .
Textual materials used most by
the teachers .
Adequacy of the textual material
used for Music Education .
Availability of other instructional
resources for music .
Adequacy of instructional resources ..'..
Use of instructional resources for
Music Education .
Teachers' Attitudes Towards
The Use of Instructional Resources .....
Qualification and use of
instructional resources .
Experience and use of instructional
resources " .
Use of instructional resources
and stud nts' achievement in Music .....
Teacher attitude and use of
instructional resources... . .
Factors hindering acquisi 'on and
use of instructional reso rces .
Music students as respondents , .
4.3.1 Frequency of use of musical instruments
for self-practice .
Storage of the instructional resources
for Music Education .
Instruction on musical jnstruments .
Students' ownership of essential
music textbooks .
~Way~of coping without essential
textbooks .
Extent of use of instructional
resources in music lessons .
Summary .
4.1.3
4.1.4
4.2 Music
4.2.1
4.2.2
4.2.3
4.2.4
4.2.5
4.2.6
4.2.7
4.2.8
4.2.9
4.2.10
4.1.11
4.2.12
4.2.13
4.3
4.3.2
4.3.3
4.3.4
4.3.5 ....
4.3.6,
4.4
46
48
48
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
59
60
64
65
76
78
79
80
8'2
83
84
84
85
86
87
88
89
CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
5.0 Introduction _ 91
5.1 Discussion of secondary school
headteachers' responses _ 92
5.1.1 Length of service ,•.... 92
vii
5.1.2 Budget allocation to music
departments. .......................... 93
5.1.3 Purpose for allocating funds to
music departments 94
5.1.4 Adequacy of textbooks and musical
instruments. ........................... 95
5.1.5 Ways of coping with areas of syllabus
that music teachers cannot handle 97
5.2 Discussion~qf ~sic teachers' responses 98
5.2.1 - Availability and suitability of the
teaching facilities.................. 99
5.2.2 Textbooks used most by teachers 101
5.2.3 Availability of music textbooks 102
5.2.4 Availability of other instructional
resources used for Music Education 103
5.2.5 Adequacy of instructional resources 105
5.2.6 Use of instructional resources
for Music Education 108
5.2.7 Teacher Qualification and use
of instructional resources 109
5.2.8 Teachers' experience and use of
instructional resources 110
5.2.9 Use of resources and students'
achievement inmusic 112
5.2.10 Teachers' attitude and use of
instructional resources 113
5.2.11 Factors hindering acquisition and
use of teaching and learning resources 114
5.3 Discussion of mu ic students responses 118
5.3.1 Frequency of use of musical
instruments. ...................... 118
5.3.2 storage facilities for music resources. 120
5.3.3 Instruction on instrumental music 122
5.3.4 Ownership of essential textbooks 124
5.3.5 Ways of coping without music
textbooks '. ...................... 125
5.3.6 Frequency of use of instructional
resources in music lessons 126
CHAPTER SIX: SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS RECOMMENDATIONS AND
SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH
6.0
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
Introduction .
Summary .
Conclusions .
Recommendations .
Suggestions for further research .
128
128
130
133
136
viii
BIBLIOGRAPH1· . ';oh-~ •• '=!. • • • • • • • • • • • . • • • . • • • .• 138
APPENDICES •.••••.••..•..•..•..•• ""..•. "..... 142
ABSTRACT
This study investigated the availability and use of teaching
and learning resources for Music Education in secondary
schools within Nairobi Province of Kenya. /
/
The study was necessitated by an urge to carry out an in-depth
investigation on the state of teaching and learning equipment
and facilities in the schools in order to establish the
limitations that hinder their acquisition and utilization.
Specifically, the study s ght to;
a). Determine what resources were available for teaching and
learning music in the secondary schools.
b). Find out whether the available resources were adequate
for use by the students and teachers.
c). Establish the extent to which the available
instructional materials were used in the teaching and
lean"ing =pr-octrs s .
d). Determine factors that affect the acquisition and use of
the teaching and learning resources;
e) Ascertain whether any relationship existed between the
use of instructional resources and students' learning and
x
achievement in music.
The study targeted the headteachers, music teachers and
music students. A total of 26 headteachers and deputy
headteachers, 27 music teachers, and 330 music students
participated in the study.
The simple random sampling technique was used in selecting the
respondents that participated in the study. Data was collected
from the respondents using three types of instruments, namely,
questionnaires, interviews, and observation. The data was
analyzed using frequency tables, percentages, and the Chi-
square (X2) test.
The frequency tables and percentages were used in analysing
the ava i Lab i.Li ty , adequacy, and use of the instructional
resources._ ~ariables such as teacher qualification,
experience, attitude and student achievement were subjected
~o the Chi-square (X2) test to determine their relationship
with the use of instructional resources.
The ma jor findings of the study revealed that essential
teaching and learning resources for Music Education were
either inadequate or not available at all in most of the
secondary sohools. The insufficiency of the resources was
xi
established to be a serious drawback to student learning and
achievement. Lack of competence among some music teachers
hindered proper utilization of the instructional resources.
In light of these findings, recommendations for improvement
and further course of action by appropriate authorities were
made.
xii
TABLE
1-1
1-2
4-1
4-2
4-3
4-4
4-5
4-6
4-7
4-8
4-9
4-10
4-11
4-12
LIST OF TABLES
PAGE..
Performance in KCSE music 1989 and 1990 .... 2
Performance in KCSE music 1992-1994 3
Analysis of the headteachers' responses
regarding the duration of their headship ... 47
Analysis of the headteachers' responses
regarding budget allocation for music
departments. ............................... 48
Analysis of the headteachers' responses on
purposes for allocating funds to
music departments 49
Analysis of the headteachers' responses
on adequacy of textbooks and musical
instruments ,....................... 50
Analysis of the headteachers' responses
on how they cater for areas of the music
syllabus that teachers cannot handle... ... 51
Analysis of teachers' responses
regarding availability of
music facilities............................ 53
Analysis of teachers' responses on
suitability of the rooms used for
music lessons............................ 54
Analysis of teachers' responses regarding
music textbooks ·they use most............ 55
Analysis of teachers' responses regarding
adequacy of the music textbooks for
setidents' use............................. 56
Analysis of teachers' responses
regarding availability of
. instructional resources 58
Analysis of teachers' responses regarding
adequacy of instructional resources
available in the schools ·.......... 60
Analysis of teachers' responses on extent
of use of the instructional resources..... 63
xiii
4-13
4-14
4-15
4-16
4-17
4-18
4-19
4-20
4-21
4-22
"
4-23
4-24
Analysis of statements gauging the music
teachers' attitudes towards use of
instructional resources . 65
Analysis of relationship between
teachers' qualification and use of
instructional resources . 76
Analysis of relationship between
teachers' experience and use of
instructional resources 77
Analysis of relationship between
use of instructional resources and
students achievement in music 79
Analysis of relationship between teachers'
attitudes and use of instructional
r~sour";ces-:=: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Analy~is of t~achers' responses regarding
factors hindering acquisition and use of
teaching and learning resources for
Music Education............................ 82
Analysis of students' responses regarding
the frequency of their use of musical
instrument for self practice 83
Analysis of students' responses regarding
where instructional resources for music are
kept in their schools 84
Analysis of students' responses regarding
who instructs them on playing instruments .. 85
Analysis of students' responses regarding
ownership of the textbooks used most
frequently for music lessons 86
Analysis of students' responses regarding
how they cope without essential textbooks .. 87
Analysis of students' responses regarding
the extent to which various instructional
resources are used in their music lessons .. 88
xiv
8-4-4:
ABRSM:
KCSE:
KEMUTA:
KNEC:
ABBREVIATIONS
Kenya's educational system involving eight years of
primary, four years of secondary, and a minimum of
four years of university education.
Associated Board of the Royal Schools of Music.
Kenya Certificate of Secondary Education.
Kenya Music Teachers Association.
Kenya National Examinations Council.
xv
1CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.0 Background to the study
The Government of Kenya has made strenuous and continuing
effort to provide necessary planning for Music in Education.
The period after independence saw the strengthening and
expansion of the government policy on Husic Education. with
the introduction of 8-4-4 (i.e. eight years of primary, four
years of secondary and a minimum of four years of university
education) syitem of Education, music was introduced in the
curriculum of most of the Kenyan secondary schools. Over 2,000
(two thousand) candidates who sit for the Kenya certificate of
Secondary Education (KCSE) each year, do music examination.
The candidates are tested on practical music, which is
contained in Paper I and theory of Music, which is contained
in Paper 11 for the KCSE music examination.
"Reports prepared by the Kenya National Examinations Council on
Music, from 1989,to 1994, indicate that majority of candidates
taking the Kenya certificate of Secondary Education (KCSE)
Music examination have consistently performed poorly in the
practical paper as compared to the theory paper.
2Table 1.1 below presents the data from the Kenya National
Examinations council, showing the average mark achieved in
each paper in the Kenya certificate of Secondary Education
Music Examination in the years 1989 and 1990.
Table 1.1:
PERFORMANCE IN KCSE MUSIC, 1989 AND 1990
YEAR PAPER CANDIDATURE MAX.MARK MEAN MARK
1989 1 2631 100 16..35
1990 1 2309 100 33.67
1989 2 2631 100 35.26
1990 2 2309 100 41.40
SOURCE: T~ &enya~ National Examination Council Music
Reports For 1989 and 1990.
From table 1.1, it is evident that candidates performed
better in Paper II, than Paper I in the two years. In
1989, a mean score of 16. 35 was recorded in Paper I,
while in Paper II, mean score was 35.26. In 1990, Paper
I had a mean score of 33.67, while Paper II had 41.40.
This may be an indication that the candidates, for some
reasons, had no adequate preparation for the practical
skills that are tested in paper I.
, 3
Table 1.2 below shows the performance in music
examination over a period of three years ranging from
1992 to 1994.
TABLE 1.2
PERFORMANCE IN KCSE MUSIC, 1992-1994
YEAR PAPER CANDIDATURE MAX MARK MEAN MARK
1992 1 2435 100 40.27
- 1- ~1993 2013 100 41.14
1994 1 2534 100 47.70-
1992 2 2435 100 47.99
1993 2 2013 100 54.05
1994 2 2535 100 49.98
SOURCE: The Kenya National Examination Council Music Report
For 1992, 1993 and 1994
The data presented on table 1.2 above indicate that
performance in music examination improved between 1992-
1994, as compared to the earlier years. Nevertheless
Paper I still had lower scores than Paper 11 in all the
years. In 1992, Pa'per I had a mean score of 40.27, while
Paper 11 had 47.99. In 1993, Paper I had 41.14 and Paper
11 54.05~ In 1994, Paper I had a mean score of 47.70 and
4Paper 11, 49.98. Hence, better performance has been
consistently recorded in the theory paper than the
practical paper.
The poor performance in the practical music paper
has been blamed on lack of teaching and learning
resources with which to support the practical
lessons, and lack of competent music teachers in
some of the schools that offer music in Kenya.
The Permanent Presidential Music Commission (Omondi
Report 1984), for instance, named lack of equipment,
facilities, qualified and experienced teachers as one of
the major drawbacks to the implementation of music
curriculum in Kenyan secondary schools. Similarly, the
Kenya National Examinations council's report on Music
(1994), enumerated the causes of poor performance in
certain questions in the practical paper as:
i. Lack of teaching equipment like books and
instruments
ii. Inadequate ear training exercises, due to lack of
relevant teaching equipment.
iii. The inability by some teachers to make use of any
available resources, leading to theoretical
teaching only.
5The foregoing concerns clearly highlight the necessity to
conduct an investigation on the state of teaching and
learning resources in Kenyan secondary schools. The
limitations that hinder the acquisition and utilization
of the resources need to be estabJ ished, in order to
suggest strategies for improvement.
1.1 statement Of The Problem
There has been continuous outcry by various Kenyan
scholars that Music Education in the country suffers from
insufficiency of teaching facilities, equipment,
qualified and experienced teachers. Such sentiments were
expressed by The P~rmanent Presidential Music Commission
(Omondi Report, 1984), Makobi (1985), and Kiama (1990).
The sentiments appear to have been shared by the Kenya
National Examinations Council (1994), when it pointed out
that majority of music candidates portray weaknesses in
practical and aural music, as contained in Paper I of the
KCSE music examination, and attributed such weaknesses to
possible lack of equ Lpmen t , faci 1ities and competent
music teachers to handle the areas. Inspite of such
concerns, no study has been conducted to establish what
the real situation is in the schools, hence the
formulation of this study.
6The study sought to provide answers to the following
questions;
Do t~e schools that offer music in Kenya have necessary
equipment and facilities with which to support the
teaching and learning of the subject? Do the music
teachers in' Kenya secondary schools recognize the
potential use of resources in enhancing the teaching and
learning of music? Do the teachers' qualification,
experience and attitudes affect the use of teaching and
learning resources? What other factors hinder the
acquisition arid use of the teaching and learning
resources for music education? Could there be any
relationship between use of instructional resources and
students' achievement in music?
1.2 Objectives Of The study
Specifically the study sought to fulfil the following
objectives:
(b) .
Determine the availabi Li.ty of teaching and
learning resources for Music Education in the
secondary schools.
Ascertain the extent to which the resources
are utilized in the teaching and learning
process.
( a) •
7(c) . Establish the relationship between the
teachers' professional qualification and the
;
use of instructional resources.
(d) . Establ ish the relationship between teaching
experience and the use of instructional
resources.
Determine the relationshlp between the
teachers' attitudes and the use of
instructional resources.
(f) . D.etermine whether there is any relationship
between the use of instructional resources and
students' achievement in music.
(g). Identify factors that hinder the acquisition
and use of the teaching and learning resources
./ in schools.
1.3 Basic Assumptions
Teaching and learning equipment and facilities are basic
requirements for effective curriculum implementation.
This implies that the teaching and learning of a subject
would only ""'be -e-fficient if relevant resources are
available in schools.· Schools' efforts should therefore
be focused particularly upon identifying and rectifying
any limitation that may hinder the acquisition and use of
the teaching and learning resources. Based on the above
observations, the following were the assumptions made in
8the study:
(a) That the teaching and learning of music needs to be
supported by use of a wide variety of equipment and
f aeLl I 1:ies.~
(b) That the use of varied and quantitative resources-
enhances the process of teaching and learning
music. This assumption is supported by the
findings of Supulvado (1983), who maintains that
the use of varied resources enhances students'
learning.
(c) That there are certain factors that hinder the
acquisition and use of resources for teaching and
learning music in Kenyan s~condary schools.
(d) That the teachers' perception on the importance of
teaching and learning resources would influence the
extent to which they utilize the resources in
teaching and learning music.
1.4 Research Hypotheses
The following hypotheses were stated in the null form for
statistical testing in the study.
HOl There is no significant relationship between
professional qualification of music teachers
and use of instructional resources.
9There is no significant relationship between
the teachers' experience and use of
instructional resources.
The use of teaching and learning resources is
not significantly related to students'
achievement in music.
Ho4: There is no significant relationship between
t~achers' attitudes and use of instructional
resources.
1.5 Rationale And Significance Of The study
The study =-"cterives its signficance from the stated
objectives rif usin~ instructional resources to enhance
the teaching and learning of Music in Kenyan secondary
schools. Findings from existing literature indicate that
educators view the use of teaching and learning resources
in a lesson as motivational both to teachers and
students. On the other hand, lack of the resources is
seen as a drawback to the fulfilment of the learning
programmes, .Esh i.wari i (1983) and Kiama (1990).
This study was, therefore, formulated with a view that
the teaching and learning resources play an important
role in the implementation of any education programme,
and as such, they warrant a special consideration as a
major research area.
,10
Music Education in Kenya has scarce documented research.
This study will therefore contribute to the field as an
additional reference material for future researchers.
The study will provide essential picture on the present
situation of equipment and facilities for Music Education
in Kenya. Such information may be found useful to music
teachers, educational planners and administrators, in
their_effgrts.IO improve Music Education.
The findings of the study will be of great benefit to the
teacher trainers in colleges and universi ties. The study
has revealed certain shortcomings in the use of some
instructional resources by the music teachers, due to
lack of competency.
sensitize the teacher
Consequently, the
trainers to ensure
study will
that skills
related to utilization of various kinds of instructional
materials are properly instilled into the trainees.
The study has provided a number of recommendations on
procedures for acquisition of equipment and facilities
for teaching and learning music. Such suggestions may be
of great use to music teachers, schools administrators
and policy makers, as they strive to improve the music
curriculum in Kenyan secondary schools.
11
The information provided by the study regarding the level
of competency of the music teachers may serve as a-baseline that highlights the necessity for developing
special in-service teacher training modules geared
towards equipping the music teachers with skills in
proper use of resources for music tAaching.
1.6 Scope And Limitation Of The study
The survey has been conducted in all the government
schools in which music is taught in Nairobi Province.
(See Appendix D). The study covered the following
respondents: headteachers, music teachers and a sample of
,students taking music in secondary schools in Nairobi
Province.
Nairobi Province was selected because it has a cross
section of schools which are representative of various
types of schools set-up found in the country. These
include National schools, provincial schools, and those
equivalent to district schools, former white and African
schools, schools with long established music departments,
and those in which music has been taught just for a few
years. A~l these categories of schools were expected to
provide ~ rich ground for conducting the survey.
12
The fsllo~ng were the limitations of the study:-
Lack of previous researches dealing specifically with
music resources, and scarcity of relevant local
literature in the same area, limited the scope of
literature review. However, related studies in other
subject areas, and foreign publications on music
education were reviewed to supplement the local
literature.
Time and financial constra ints did not allow for the
inclusion of more provinces, or undertaking a nation-wide
study. However, it is hoped that this study will
stimulate more researches on the same problem in other
parts of the country.
1.7 Theoretical Framework
This section deals with the theoretical formulation on
which the study is founded. Several theories of learning
have been developed which favour the type of
instructional method in which the learner is actively
involved in the learning process. The proponents of this
theory assert that the active involvement in learning may
only occur where there is a rich environment with
learning resources, readily available to the student.
13
Wendt (1975), one of the proponents of the theory, points
out that people are motivated by different conditions
depending on their goals. He further asserts that use of
varieties of instructional resources has proved to yield
a high degree of interest in subjects and topics, and has
contributed greatly to motivation and learning.
In this study, it is assumed that use of varieties of
teaching and learning resources is of paramount
importance in an instructional process. In order to
clarify the presumption and relate it to the teaching and
learning of music, the study drew upon the theory of
cognitive development by Piaget (1953). Piaget's theory
asserts that mental constructs are developed through
experiences in the environment. According to the theory,
in realm of education, students should be allowed to take
. ..
part in varieties of activities on their own, guided only
~ by use of types of learning resources which permit their
activities to be cognitively useful.
. ;;FE-
The theory lays a strong case for use of teaching and
learning resources in Music Education. The use of
varieties of resources in the teaching and learning of
music should be encouraged, since this is the best way of
formulating cognitive development through the students'
active pa~ticipation. The theoretical rationale for the
14
.teaching and learning resources is seen to lie in their
ability to add concreteness to the learning situation.
Their use allows the learners to interpret more easily,
through the channels of more than one of their senses,
the facts they need to know. This especially applies to
music, in which the use, particularly of instrumental
resources would appeal to visual, auditory and even
tactile senses of the learners.
Brunner (1963: 81 ), whi le supporting Piaget I s theory,
argues that "in order to grasp the underlying structure
of a phenomenon, learners should be provided with devices
for vicarious experiences". He rejects "instruction
confined to a steady diet of classroom recitation,
supported only by traditional methods and middling
textbooks, since it makes lively sUbjects dull for
students". Brunner (1963), thus advocates for the use of
varieties of resources in the teaching and learning
process.
The principles of Piaget I s theory is applied to the
teaching and learning of music, by Manford (1988), when
he asserts that music should be learned through
involvement of the students in the manipulation of
varying objects. He maintains that in the learning of
music, "d~ing" should be emphasized as a means of gaining
15
the required knowledge. Manford (1988) thus highlights
the necessity of using varied teaching and learning
resources for Music Education.
The theories cited above highlight the importance of
teaching and learning resources in an instructional
process. The theories therefore form a basis for
examining the availability and use of teaching and
learning resources for Music Education in Kenyan
secondary schools.
1.8 Definition of Terms
The following terms are defined as they are used in the
context of this study.
Adequa~e Resources: Refers to sufficient variety and
quantity of well maintained teaching and learning
equipment and facilities, all judged against the number
.•.•. ;;r..,;-
of music students in a particular school, the
requirements of the music syllabus and the satisfaction
of the users.
Implementa~ion: Refers to the stage when the music
•syllabus, and teaching and learning resources are being
used by the teacher and students.
16
Music Education: Refers to that part of total education
which contributes to the development of an individual
through the medium of various musical activities
prescribed in the curriculum.
Musical Instruments: objects or devices for producing
musical sounds and rhythms. In this study these will
include all the stringed instruments (instruments that
produce sound when their strings are plucked, strummed or
bowed), wind instruments (instruments that produce sound
when air is blown into them) and percussive instruments
(instruments that produce sound or rhythm when hit or
shaken) .
Resource Person: Refers to an individual with a
specialized knowledge or skill, that may be used by
teachers and learners to promote learning. such
specialists may be brought into class or the learners may
go out to reach them.
'Teaching and Learning Resources: Refers to everything in
.school that is planned to contribute to the
implementation of the music curriculum. These include
facilities"like music classrooms, practice rooms, stores,
libraries, and equipment like musical instruments,
textbooks, tape recorders, music cassettes and sheet
17
music among others. The equipment are also referred to in
this study as instructional resources.
-
Traditional Learning: Refers to the learning process
whereby the learner plays a passive role, and the teacher
is considered as the source of all the knowledge and
skills to be imparted to the learner.
18
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 Introduction
This section reviews the literature related to the study.
It provides vital information regarding what various
educators have expressed concerning the importance of
teaching and learning resources in the instructional
process in general, and specifically in Music Education.
The literature is divided ·into three sub-sections:
(a) Review of literature focusing on the importance of
teaching and learning resources in general.
(b) Review of literature highlighting insufficiency of
the resources for Music Education, or inappropriate
use of available ones.
(c) Reaiew~of -literature emphasizing the need for
,-
acquisition and use of the teaching and learning
resources for Music Education.
2.1 Review Of Literature Focusing On Importance Of Teaching
And Learning Resources In General
Teaching and learning resources are considered as basic
requirements in an instructional process. Comenius, in
Konchar (1992:134), vividly described the value of
19
teaching and learning resources in the statement, "The
foundation of all learning consists in representing
....•. ~-.- """""'-clearly to the senses, sensible objects so that they can
be appreciated easi"iy".
Similarly, many of the present century educationists
consider teaching and learning resources as being among
the major strategies for improving the learning outcomes.
The scholars maintain that the instr.uctional resources
facilitate the understanding of difficult concepts and
ideas. They make learning an interesting and fulfilling
experience, and make it easier for learners to follow,
understand, respond to and retain the content of the
lesson" (Gamble et al. 1984 p . 157). While trying to
portray the importance of teaching and learning
resources, for instance, Brown (1964:5) defines their use
as "a combination of human and non-human resources to
bring about learning". According to the educator, no
proper learning is possible if the necessary resources
are not provided for to be made use of in the process of
teaching.
The importance of the teaching and learning resources is
also highlighted by Romiszowski (1994:9), who refers to
them as "Aids to 'teaching", implying that the resources
are part and parcel of the teaching process. The teacher
20
must, therefore, use them in order to make the teaching
and learning process more efficient.
unwin and McAleese (1987), clearly outline the advantages
of use of varied resources in the teaching and learning
process. Accordirig to the two educators:
(i) greater learning results when varied
instructional resources are integrated into
the traditional learning process.
(ii) equal amount of learning is often accomplished
in less time using the resources.
(iii) learning that involves interaction with
various instructional resources is preferred
by students when compared with traditional
instruction.
The assertion that the use of varieties of resources in
the process of teaching and learning increases interest,
comprehension and retention, is based on the presumption
that the more abstract the content of a message,the more
difticuLt. it-4.sfor the learner to comprehend it. The use
of varied instructional resources, therefore, improves
the learning outcome.
21
A clear relationship is seen between student achievement
and availability and use of quantitative and varied
teaching and learning resources by Supulvado (1983). He
then asserts that the resources influence learning a
great deal if used appropriately.
Similarly Rao and Ravin (1992), while trying to highlight
the importance of use of relevant instructional resources
to support the teaching and learning process, assert that
the resources offer a concrete basis for conceptual
thinking, thus reducing the meaningless word-responses of
students.
Use of instructional resources enable students to take
active involvement in the learning activity and offers a
greater variety of channels for dissemination of ideas
and knowledge. This is especially so in music where a
learning activity like piano playing would involve the
learner- in"'-"'the--useof a number of senses including
visual, aural and tactile. The division of the music
syllabuses in theory and practical sections, is in fact
meant to give students an opportunity to learn music
concepts through channels of more than one of their
senses.
22
,
A number of Kenyan educators too, recognize the vitality
of instructional resources in the teaching and learning
process. Maundu (1986), maintains that instructional
resources are as important as any other school asset. He
thus decries the fact that while factors such as
availability of teachers, classrooms, desks, chairs,
games equipment and buses are by and large, the first to
be considered in initiating a school project, or while
supplying materials to a school, little or no
consideratfon is given to the instructional resources.
Rarely does it occur to many educational administrators
that these resources are as important as the buildings
and furniture.
Mwangi (1985), conducted a study on factors influencing
learning and achievement in Kenyan secondary schools and
came up with availability of instructional resources as
one of the major variables significantly correlating to
learning and achievement. Availability of textbooks,
especially, has been shown to be consistently related to
achievement in many developing countries. For instance,
studies conducted in Uganda, India, Ghana, Brazil and
Malaysia,by Farrel (1989) indicate that access to
reading materials is positively related to student
learning and achievement.
· ..
23
Similar findings were established in Kenya through
researches conducted by Eshiwani (1983), and Kiragu
(1986). The educators revealed that at both primary and
secondary school levels of Kenyan educational system, the
availabilit~~of ±extbooks had a positive relationship to
student learning and achievement. Though the findings ~re
of the scholars quoted above are based on other subject
areas, they stirred into the researcher the urge to find
out whether teaching and learning resources like books
and other materials, which are considered to be so
essential for student learning and achievement were
available in schools and were utilized for Music
Education.
2.2 Review Of Literature Highlighting Insufficiency Of The
Resources For Music Education And Inappropriate Use Of
Available Ones
Despite the importance that is attached to the use of
teaching and learning resources in an instructional
process, there has been continuous outcry by various
educators in Kenya and other countries that music
education suffers from insufficiency of teaching and
learning equipment and facili ties. Brocklehurst (1971: 2) ,
for instance points out that:
;
24
Music continues to be one of the most
neglected subjects of the school curriculum.
Of all the practical subjects 1 it has the
least satisfactory provisions. Very few
schools that offer music have specially
designed music rooms and most have none.
Paynter (1985:61) concurs with Brocklehurst (1971),
adding that:
Whereas with other practical subjects,
the equipment is installed before any
teaching can begin; with music, the
reverse practice is commonly followed.
The teacher has to begin with virtually
nothing and builds up slowly through the
years with his equipment supplied by
small grudging installments.
Kenyan educators have expressed similar sentiments
regarding resources for music education in the country.
Like their counterparts in other countries, they maintain
that Music Education is not well-catered for in most
schools, in terms of provision for teaching and learning
resources. The Permanent Presidential Music Commission
(Omondi Report, 1984), for instance, named lack of
equipment, facilities, qualified and experienced teachers
as being among the major drawbacks to the implementation
of the music curriculum in Kenyan secondary schools. The
music commission observed that there has always been
specific syllabi at the secondary school level, yet only
a few schools have facilities and equipment as well as
adequately trained music teachers who are competent
enough to handle the music programmes. Furthermore, in
cases where some equip~ent and facilities are available,
25
poor maintenance by the schools has led to their being
underused or not used at all.
A research conducted by Makobi (1985), on factors
affecting the implementation of music curriculum in
primary schools in Nyeri District, disclosed that one of
.
the major factors was lack of teaching facilities and
poor quality of music teachers.
Makobi 's (1985) findings are in agreement with the
sentiments expressed by Kavyu (1986), who pointed out
that while music syllabus has been published for Kenyan
secondary schools, little has been done on the problem of
teaching materials or instructional methods .
.....•• ~-
The research findings by Makobi (1985), and Kavyu (1986),
concerning music education, have great bearing on the
present study. The findings, by the music educators, act
as pointers to the fact that Music Education in Kenyan
schools is faced with an acute problem concerning lack of
teaching and learning equipment, facil i.ties and competent
teachers.
None of the educators, nevertheless, reports an in-depth
investigation carried out on the situation of teaching
learning equipment and faci lities in Kenyan schools.
I
26
This study presents a comprehensive report formulated
after a thorough investigation carried out on
availability of teaching and learning resources for Music
Education in some secondary schools, and the extent of
their utilization in the instructional process. The
study also investigated various factors that influenced
the acquisition and use of the resources in the schools.
Though studies by the educators quoted above were
conducted some years back, they concur with the current
views on the fate of Music Education in Kenya. For
instance, the report compiled by the Kenya National
Examinations Council (KNEC, 1994) on music, attributes
poor performance .in some questions in KCSE Music
examination, to apparent lack of facilities, equipment,
qualified and experienced music teachers in some
....••. . ~.~
secondary schools.
Some Kenyan educators conducting researches on general
educational issues have similarly revealed the
insufficiency of teaching and learning resources for
Music Education in secondary schools. One of such studies
conducted by Kiama (1990), on the implementation of 8-4-4
curriculum in Nairobi and Nyandarua, lists music as one
of the subjects whose teaching was hindered by the
sho~tage of learning resources and qualified teachers.
2.3
/
27
similarly, Digolo (1993) while conducting a study in
Kisumu and Siaya districts, to determine constraints on
education-:-'"'-established that practical subjects like
music, metalwork, woodwork, art and design were faced by
acute lack of teaching and learning resources. Findings
by these indications thateducators are clear
insufficiency of teaching and learning resources stfll
persists in Kenyan schools. Predicaments as quoted above
need to be thoroughly investigated since they are capable
of completely hampering the proper implementation of the
government policy on music education.
Review Of Literature Emphasizing The Need For Acquisition
And Use Of The Teaching And Learning Resources For Music
Education
Educators have continuously advocated for the acquisition
and use of quantitative and varied resources for
successful implementation of all educational programmes.
Atkinson and Atkinson (1975:23), point out that "it would
be difficult to envisage any proper teaching and learning
being possible without access to any kind of resources!"
While supporting the sentiments expressed by these
scholars, a music educator Snyder (1965:161) declares:
A great deal of physical paraphernalia is
needed in schools that offer music, in order
to bring the learning process to complete
fruition. In the teaching and learning of
music, there is a demand for more and more
equipment, material and supplies with which to
28
provide children
experiences expected
community.
with
by
learning
school and
The practical aspects of the music curriculum especially,
requires the use of diversified resources, without which
the teaching and learning of music will be completely
hampered. Hoffer (1964:16) had this fact in mind when he
stated that:
The nature of music curriculum decrees
that the students should explore every
avenue of musical experience, in order to
undercover its infinite variety and
scope. Such a comprehensive goal
requires the use of imaginative and
varied tools.
Textbooks and musical instruments are considered by
Forcucci (1980:87) to be the most vital instructional
resources for Music Education. He thus states explicitly
that:
Every general music class should have at least
a set ~f up-to date basic textbooks for each
level taught in that particular classroom, and
in sufficient quantity to provide one copy to
each student. varieties of musical
instruments, are also essential for a well
equipped music class.
Facilities like music classrooms, practice rooms, music
stores and libraries are considered to be essential in
all schools that offer music. Such facilities like music
classrooms and practice rooms, accord the music teachers
and students an opportunity to particjpate actively in
music making without interference from the rest of the
29
school, and without disturbing other school activities.
French, Hull and Dodds (1985:67), emphasize the vitality
of such facilities for the proper functioning of a music
department in a statement:
Areas planned specifically for the music
programmes are essential in all modern
secondary schools. In small schools, this may
mean merely arranging for built-in wall cases
.and adequate storage room for equipment, which
may also be used as a music classroom. In
large schools, at least, one separate room,
large enough for band, orchestra, or chorus is
essential. Desirable also are small rooms for
small ensemble work, and practice rooms for
instrumental and vocal classwork.
Kenyan educators, like their counterparts quoted above,
put a lot of emphasis on the need for acquisition and use
of varieties of resources for music education. Among the
proponents of this view is the Permanent Presidential
Music commission (Omondi Report 1984:21), which
highlights the importance of textual materials and
musical-inst:t'umeftts in a statement:
Books and other edu6ational materials,
including musical instruments are the basic
tools for music instruction. They must
therefore be available to the learner in right
quali ties and quantity at the time they are
required, and at the cost they can afford.
The commission was of the opinion that no efficient
teaching and learning of music could be undertaken
without availing certain equipment in schools. Books and
30
instruments, especially are considered as basic
necessities for implementation of music programmes in
schools.
While supporting this view, Wanjala (1991:6) explicitly
states that:
rhe introduction of subjects like music, art
and craft, home science and agriculture into
the programme of any school, implies the need
for acquisition of facilities, equipment and
materials with which to support the teaching
and learning of the subjects.
Similarly, Nyakiti (1995), maintains that. the
introduction of music in any school curriculum
presupposes availability of equipment, facilities and
qualified music teachers to maintain and use the
resources. The observations by these educators imply that
any attempt to implement a music curriculum in a school
must be preceded by the pr~parations of suitable teaching
and learning resources.
The use of certain music equipment like the musical
instruments require a high level of competency, without
which the instruments may be under used or not used at
all. Mark (1978) anticipates a situation where a music
teacher is incapable of handling certain areas in the
curriculum, like teaching the techniques of playing
musica~ in~truments. He thus suggests that in such
cases, a specialist should be. hired by the school to
(
32
2.4 Summary
The preceding chapter has reviewed literature on the
importance teaching learningof and resources,
highlighting their insufficiency in Kenyan secondary
schools. It has also established that where teaching and
learning resources have been available, their utilization
has at times been inappropriate. The need for acquisition
and us~ of relevant resources in Music ~ducation has been
emphasized. Besides, the reviewed literature has brought
to light the fact that practical subjects like Music
require the use of quantitative and qualitative teaching
and learning resources. Any school that offers Music in
the country would therefore be expected to acquire
appropriate resources with which to support the teaching
and learning of the subject. Thus, the literature formed
a basis for carrying out a survey on resources for
teaching and learning music in Kenya secondary schools,
in order to find out how far the schools are equipped for
the implementation of the Music curriculum.
...•••. ..;;;ri'"
33
CHAPTER THREE
METHODOLOGY
3.0 Introdution
This chapter deals with the methods and procedures that were
followed in carrying out the study. The study employed
empirical methods of investigation. This involved direct
observation, interview, and soliciting responses from the
respondents by use of questionnaires. Library resources
were also made use of in the study.
The study was conducted in two phases. The preliminary
phase dealt with pilot survey. The schools involved in the
pilot study did not constitute the final sample of the
study. During the pilot study, a total of 62 questionnaires
were administered to three secondary schools. The
questionnaires were distributed to t.hr ee, headteachers, six
music teachers and fifty three music students, selected
randomly from each of the schools. The administered
questionnaires. were all returned duly completed. Before
their administration, the questionnaires had been tested for
content validity using a non-statistical method. The first
drafts of the questionnaires were presented to a sample of
lecturers in Kertyatta University, and teachers in some
secondary schools, to get their opinions and suggestions on
the suitability of the format, content, language level and
34
other related issues. Each of the participants examined the
questionnaires individually and communicated the views to the
researcher directly. By and large, they considered most of
the questionnaire items valid. However, the few suggestions
made by them were accommodated by the researcher to ensure
efficiency in the main study.
The final part of the study focused on collection and analysis
of data. During the main study, data was collected from a
total of 26 headteachers, and deputy headteachers, 27 musid
teachers and 330 music students, from a total number of 16
secondary schools.
3.1 Sampling Procedure
The simple random technique of sampling was employed in
selecting the students and teachers that took part in the
study. Out ofa population of 660 music students that were
registered in the sixteen secondary schools which offer music
,-
within Nairobi Province, 380 ~ere selected to form the study
sample. In each-school, all the music students in each form
printed their names on pieces of papers. The blind-folded
papers were then drawn one at a time from a container. This
procedure was repeated in all the schools until the required
sample was obtained. This procedure gave each individual in
-
35
the population an equal chance of being selected. A total of
26 secondary school headteachers and 27 music teachers took
part in the study.
3.2. Data Collection Techniques
The following techniques were employed to aid in the
collection of relevant data from the study sample.
3.2.1. Observation
The observation process was made use of in gathering
information which could best be obtained through" direct
examination by the researcher. These included examining and
recording all the music equipment and facilities available in
each of the schools, and observing a number of music lessons
taught by each of the music teachers, in order to ascertain
whether the teachers made use of appropriate and relevant
instructional resources to support the teaching and learning
of music.
3.2.2. Interviews
Twenty six headteachers and deputy headteachers, and all the
heads of music departments in the si~teen secondary schools
which offer music in Nairobi Province were interviewed.
All interviews were informally conducted through discussion.
The informal strategy was preferred to other techniques
36
because the researcher felt' that it would create a more
relaxed atmosphere, and consequently encourage more complete
and spontaneous responses from the interviewees. Notes on
matters arising from the discussions were not taken in the
presence of the respondents, as this would make them censor or
restrict the responses. Notes were therefore made later in
their absence. The purpose of the interview was to clarify
certain issues that could not be clearly established through
the questionnaires and observation.
- ;;;r.,.'.
3.2.3. Questionnaires
Three categories of questionnaires were developed for the
study. Questionnaire' I for the secondary school headteachers,
(SHTQ) solicited general information on availabi ity of
resources for teaching and learninq musjc in the schools, how
the teachers perceived music in the school curriculum and the
financial provision the schools made for the running of music
departments.
Questionnaire 11 for the secondary music teachers, (SMTQ)
comprised sections, A and B. section A dealt with information
concerning the teachers' professional qualification, teaching
experience, classes taught, and availability and quality of
the teaching and learning resources in the schools. section
B of the teachers' questionnaire contained items intended to
•
37
gauge their attitudes towards use of instructional resources
in mqsic lessons, and the perceived constraints.
Questionnaire 111, for the secondary music students, (SMSQ)
was formulated to solicit responses intended to co~oborate
the information given by the teachers. It dealt mainly with
the kind of resources available for teaching and learning
music and accessibility of the resources to ·the music
students. The questionnaire contained a list of essential
instructional resource~ for th~ music studAnts to indicate by
ticking whether they had used them in their music lessons.
Questionnaires were used as part of the research instruments
because they would give the respondents adequate time to
formulate well thought out answers and also make it possible
for q +ar9f sampte to be de~lt with within a short time.
3.3 Organization Of The Questionnaires
The questionnaires were structured to allow for two category
of responses. "'-Therewere closed items that required the
respondents to ,select one response from the given
alternatives. The other category consisted of.open items
which required the respondents to express their personal views
about the questions asked.
•
38
3.4 Questionnaire
Procedure
l\dministration And Data Coll('ction
Prior to the administration of qu~stionnaire9 and data
coll~ction, the researcher delivered three letters to en h of
the sixteen schools (see appendix D). The letters included a
research perm! t from the Of fice of the Pres ident, a )ette
from the Chief Inspector of schools, and a letter from the
research~r, explaining the purpose and schedule of the
research.
In each school visi ted, the researcher briefed the he ad or
deputy headteacher about the purpose of the study. Th o
headteachers, then notified the music teachers, to whom thp
researcher explained the nature of the study and the par they
were expected to play. All the respondents were mnde to
understand that the results of the study were supposed to help
in improving the teaching. and learning of music in Kenyan
secondary schools.
The qu~stionnaires were then given to the secondary school
headteachers and the music teachers to fill. The studr>nts'
questionnaires were either administered by the researcher, or
in cases where the school administration f 1 it wa s more
convenient if the questionnaires were filled during the
students' --free time, the researcher left the studpnts'
questionnaires with the head of music department- After a
•
39
day or so, the researcher would go back to the schools to
collect the filled questionnaires.
Out of the ~O seTIdent questionnaires that were delivered, ))0
were returned . This number repr~sented 86.8% return rate,
.which was considered a good representation sample for the
student. population. All the questionnaires administered to
the headteachers and music teachers were returned duly
completed.
The researcher arranged with the headteachers, deputy
headteachers, and heads of music departments to have an
informal interview after collection of the questionnaires.
The informal interviews were carried out as planned.
Arrangements were also made by the researcher to go to the
schools, examine and take inventory of all the equipment and
facilities available in the schools for teaching and learning
music, and observe music lessons.
3.5 Data AnalysIs Procedure:.-
The collected data was analysed to determine:
(a) the availability aDd adequacy of various teaching
and learning resources in the schools surveyed;
(b) the frequency of utilization of the resources in
the teaching a d learning process;
40
(c) relationship between teachers' qualification and
use of the instructional resources;
(d) relationship between teaching experience and use of
the instructional resources.
(e) relationship between use of instructional resources
and students' achievement in music.
(f). relationship between teachers' attitude and use of
instructional resources.
(g) factors that hinder the acquisition and use of the
teaching and learning resources for Music
Education.
In order to determine the extent of utilization of the
instructional resources, and correlate it with variables like
teachers' qualification, teaching experience, students'
achievement in music and teachers' attitudes, the researcher
observed a number of music lessons taught by each of the music
teachers.
The attitudes of. the music teachers regarding use of the
instructional resources was gauged through a questionnaire
especially designed for the purpose.
The questionnaire consi ted of 20 items which were designed
using the Likert Five-Point Scale method. Half of the
41
questionnaire comprised statements indicating favourable
attitudes and the remaining half indicating the reverse.
The items were arranged in an order which provided for an in-
depth check for serious and genuine responses. Favourable or
reverse statements did not necessarily follow each other
consecutively.
The following procedure was used to score the responses on the
Likert Scale. For statements showing favourable attitudes,
the responses scored as indicated below:
Attitude Scale value
(a) SA strongly agree 5
(b) A Agree 4
(c) U Undecided 3
(d) D Disagree 2
(e) SD Strongly disagree 1
Statements advocating negative responses towards use of
instructional resources were scored as follows:
Attitude Scale value
•"(a) SA
(b) A
(c) U
Strongly agree 1
Agree
Undecided
2
3
42
(d) D
(e) SD
Disagree
strongly disagree
4
5
since the questionnaire consisted of 20 statements or items,
it was taken that the responses would be scored as follows:
20'x5=100 respondents choosing most
attitudes.
respondents
attitudes.
favourable
20x3=60 maintaining neutral
20x1=20 respondents choosing most unfavourable
attitudes.
Thus, the scores for all the respondents fell between 20 and
100. The scores were above 60 if the opinion of respondent
was favourable and below 60 if the opinion was unfavourable.
Above 60 was fflerefore designated posi tive and below 60,
nsgative attitudes. The attitude score for each teachers was
made use of when analysing the relationship between teachers'
attitude and use of instructional resources.
The researcher observed the music lessons for a period of four
months, in order t.o determine the extent to which
instructional resource were used in music lesson in each of
the schools.
43
For the purpose of data analysis the schools were then placed
under two categories. One category consisted ot the schools in
which the teaching and learning of music was supported by
intensive use of instructional resources. The other ~ategory
comprised the schools in which musj.c instruction was mainly
carried out theoretically.
The 1995 K.C~S.E. music candidates from the two categories of
schools were grouped according to their mean grades. The mean
grade groupings fell between A to B-, c+ to D+ and D to E.
The purpose of this grouping was to determine how the students
that made use of the instructional resources and those that
used none, were distributed into the three categories of
achievement. rrhe relationship between use of insructional
resources and students' achievement in music was tested using
the same information.
The analysis of the data coll~cted for this study was done
using tvlO statistical methods. These included descriptive
statistics, which involved the use of frequencies, percentages
and tabular representation of the data. The frequencies were
recorded for each type of response. These were then
summarised up to give the figures which were used to compute
percentages.
44
An inferential statistic, chi-square (XZ) was used to test the
four hypotheses at alpha x= ·05 level of significance and
appropriate degree of freedom (df). In computing the chi-
square (X7) value for:
(a) Teacher qualification and use of instructjonal
resources,
(b) Teaching experience and use instructional resources,
(c) Teacher attitude and use of instructional resources,
Yates correction for continuity formula was employed, since
all the tables involved comprised 2x2 cells with one (1)
degree of~4:ree60m Td f ) and some cells had frequency counts of
fewer than la (Best 1977; 29]). The formula thus emplo¥ed
was:
x2 = N [ An - BC - N/2 ] 7
(A+B)(C+D)(A+C)(B+D)
In computing the Chi-square value for: use of
instructional resources and students' achievement in music the
formula:
x2 = (fo-fe)' was used:
-----fe
whereby fo; indicates the observed frequencies and fe; the
expected frequencies.
45
The expected frequencies were computed by formula:
fe = (~f Columns)(~f Row)
Grand Total-
i.e Row total x Column total
Total Number
The results of all the analyses done in chapter four are fully
discussed in chapter five of the thesis.
46
CHAPTER FOUR
DA'rA ANALY=SIS AND PRESENTA'l'ION
4.0 Introduction
The following section deals with analysis and presentation of
data gathered from secondary school heads and deputy
headteachers, music teachers, and music students.
4.1 Secondary Schools' Headteachers As Respondents
!Availability of teaching and learning resources for music
education in schools depends largely on the concern of the
school administration, particularly the headteachers, who have
to m~ke financial arrangements in conjunction with the heads
of departments for the purchase and maintenance of teaching
equipment and facilities. Duration of service of the
headteachers was considered an important background factor in
this study because it was felt that the length of time the
administrators have taken in the schools would be a ma jor
contributing factor to their capability to deliberate on,.
matters related to availability of teaching and learning
resources for Music Education in the schools, and their use.
Teachers who head schools for, say, uninterrupted period of
not less than two years would have settled down and acquainted
themselves with the state of ,teaching and learning resources
in their schools. Their responses would therefore be regarded
as bearing more weight than those of the newly appointed
administrators.
47
Responses concerning budget for music departments, purpose of
the budget, and adequacy of the text books and musical
instruments were also acquired from the headteachers.
Analysis of the responses are presentedj.on the subsequent
tables.
Table 4.1: Shows analysis of headteachers' responses regarding
the duration of their headship.
NO - 26
DURATION FOR FREQUENCY PERCENTAGES
HEADSHIP
Below 1 year ="' __ -~ 2 7.7
1 - 2 YEARS 4 15.4
2 - 5 Years 5 19.2
Above 5 years 15 57.7
TOTAL 26 100.0
As can be observed from Table 4.1, most of the teachers have
headed the schools for a considerable period of time, 15
(57.7%) indicated that they had headed for over 5 years,
5(19.2%) indicated a period ranging between 2-5 years,
4(15.4%), indicated 1-2 years and only 2(7.7%) indicated they
had headed the schools for a period below 1 year.
The implication here, therefore, is that the majority of the
headteachers were in a good position to deliberate on factors
affecting music education in the schools.
,48
4.1.1 Annual Budget For Music Department
The headteachers were required to respond as to whether they
made annual budgets for music departments. Majority of the
,
headteachers responded that they never budgeted for the music
departments annually, but met each need as it arose. The
responses of the headteachers are analysed on the table below.
Table 4.2: Showing the headteachers' responses on whether
they budgeted annually for the Music departments
No - 26
RESPONSES FREQUENCY PERCENTAGES
yes 10 38.5
no- .;r.~.. .= 16 61. 5
TOTAL 26 100.0
Table 4.2 indicates that 16(61.5%) of the headteachers
reported that they did not make any special budget for the
music departments. Only 10(38.5%) responded that they
considered the music departments in their annual budget.
4.1.2 Purpose For Allocating Funds To The Music
Departments
Schools allocate funds to music departments for varying
purposes, depending on what each of the schools considers to
be the most important function of the musjc department. In
Table 4.3 below, is the analysis of the responses concerning
49
purposes cited by the headteachers for allocating funds for to
music departments.
Table 4.3: Analysis of the headteachers' responses regarding
the purpose for allocating funds to music departments.
NO - 26
PURPOSE FREQUENCY PERCENTAGES
Purchasing teaching /learning 3 11.5
equipment
Maintenance of equipment & '4 15.4
facilities
Entry of choirs for music festival 11 42.3
All of the above 8 30.8
TOTAL 26 100.0
As is evident in Table 4.3, the highest number of respondents,
11(42.3%) comprise the headteachers who reported that their
main purpose for allocating funds to the music department was
.•••. .;;;w. -:;=...
to enter the school choirs for music festival. The next
(30.8%) indicated that they allocated funds for requirements
~ike purchasing teaching and learning equipment, maintaining
equipment and facilities in the department, and entry of
school choirs for music festival. The other 4(15.4%) reported
that they allocated funds for maintenance of music equipment
and facilities while 3(11.5%) indicated that the funds they
allocated to music departments were for purchasing teaching
and learning equipment.
50
4.1.) Adequacy Of Textbooks And Musical Instruments
The head teachers were required to lndicate 1n the
questionnaires whether they had more than adequate, ndequate
or inadequate textbooks and musical instruments in their
schools. The percentages derived from the analysis showed
that in majority of the secondary schools, these vital
resources were inadequate. Analysis in Table 1\.1\ below,
testifies to this fact.
Table 4.4: Showing analysis of the headtcachers' responses
regarding adequacy of textbooks and musical instruments.
No - 26
EQUIPMENT MORE 'l'HAN ADEQUATE TNADEQUATE 1'0'1'AI ,
ADEQUATE
NO % NO % NO % NO %
Text books 3 11. 5 6 23.1 17 65.1\ 26 100
Musical - - 10 38.5 16 61.5 26 100
instruments
From Table 4.4, it is evident that the level of adequacy of
,-both textbooks and musical instruments in the schools surveyed
in the study was very low. Regarding the textbooks, only
3(11.5%) of the headteachers reported that they had more than
adequate supply, 6(2).1%) indicated adequate supply, and the
majority of the headteachers, 17(65.4%) reported inadequacy of
music textbooks in the schools.
51
None of the headteachers reported that their schools had more
than adequate musical instruments. However, 10(38.5%)
indicated that they had adequate musical instruments. The
largest number, 16(61.5%) responded that the musical
instruments were inadequate in the schools.
Table 4.5: Analysis of the headteachers' responses
regarding ways of coping with areas jn music
syllabus which the teachers cannot handle.
NO - 26
RESPONSES FREQUENCY PERCENTAGES
Hiring special Tutors 2 7.7
Arranging for workshops, 15 57.7
seminars, symposiums
No response 9 34.6
TOTAL 26 100.0-
4.1. 4 Ways of Coping with Syllabus Contents that the
Teachers Cannot Handle
Table 4.5, deals with analysi of responses that the
head teachers gave when they were asked to indicate how the
schools catered for the areas in music syllabus that the music
teachers were not competent in. As is evident on the table,
15(57.7%) of the headteachers reported that they arranged fo
the music teachers to attend music workshops, seminars and
symposiums, 2(7.7%) reported that they hired special tutors,
while 9(34.6%) gave no response to this question.
52
4.2 Music Teachers As Respondents
The music teachers are supposed to play an important part in
the process of acquisition, management and utilization of the
teaching and learning resources. It is the teachers who are
conversant with the music curriculum, who are aware of the
objectives of music education, who know what teaching
strategies to use, and what teaching and learning resources
are necessary for music education.
Because of the central role of the teachers, the following
sub-section of the study focusses on analysis and observation
on the data £rovi£l_ed-.py them, concerning availability and
utilization of teaching and learning resources for Music
Education. The section deals with teachers' responses
regarding availability of facilities like music classrooms,
practice rooms, music libraries and music stores in the
schools, whether their professional training equipped them
with adequate competencies to handle the musical instruments,
whether they made use of resource persons whenever necessary,
the type of textbooks they used most in teaching, and the
state of music equipment and facilities in the schools.
In this section, statistical analysis is done out by use of
the Chi-square (X7) test, or the relationship between teacher
qualification, experience, attitude and use of instructional
resources, also between use of instructional resources and
53
student achievement in music. The section also dealt with
factors that hinder· acquisi tion and use of teaching and
learning resources for Music Education.-
Table 4.6: Analysis of Teachers' responses regarding
availability of music facilities.
No - 27
FACILITY AVAILABLE NOT TOTAL
AVAILABLE
NO % NO % NO %
Rooms specifically 8 29.6 19 70.4 27 100
meant for music
instruction
Practice rooms for 6 22.2 21 77.8 27 100
voice and instruments
Music stores 4 14.8 23 85.2 27 100
Music libraries 4 14.8 23 85.2 27 100
4.2.1 Availability Of Music Facilities
From Table 4.6, it may-be noticed that.most secondary schools
that offer music in Nairobi Province lack the necessary
facilities to cater for the proper teaching and learning of
the subject. The music teachers in the province were
requested to inoicate the type of facilities that were
available in their schools. Very few teachers reported
availabili ty of the facilities listed on the table. For
instance, only 8(29.6%), 6(22.2%), 4(14.8%), and another
4(14.8%) report~d availability of music classrooms, practice
rooms, music stores and music libraries respectively.
54
Table 4.7: Analysis of teachers' responses regarding
suitability of the classrooms used for music
lessons.
NO - 27
RESPONSES FREQUENCY PERCENTAGES
Too small for music classes 6 22.2
Too close to other classes to 13 48.1
accommodate music practicals
Well situated and serves well 8 29.6
as music room
TOTAL 27 100.0
4.2.2 suitability Of Classrooms Used For Music Lessons
As can be observed in Table 4.7, 13(48.1%) of the teachers
reported that the rooms assigned for music lessons were too
close to other classes, and this hindered their use for music
performance, for fear of disturbing other classes. Another
6(22.2%) of the music teachers reported that the rooms were
too small to accommodate music classes comfortably. Only
8(29.6%) of the teachers indicated the availability of
suitable music classrooms in their schools.
55
Table.4.8; Analysis of teachers' responses regarding the
textual materials they use most.
NO - 27
BOOK TITLE FREQUENCY PERCENTAGE
Folk music of Kenya - G.S. Zake 27 100
Basic musi~ knOWledge - A. 18 66.7
Warburton
Rudiments and theory of music - 14 51.9
(ABRSM)
Graded music course - A. Waburton 13 48.1
4.2.3: Textual Materials Used Most By The Teachers.
Table 4.8 shows the textbooks used most by the music teachers
as reference books. As the figures and percentages on the
table indicate, Folk Music of Kenya by G.Senoga Zake is the
most favourite textbook for African music. 27(100%) of the
music teachers listed it as their major textbook. For Western
music, the book that was recorded by most teachers was The
Basic Music Knowledge by Annie Warburton, 18(66.7%) of the
teachers reported the use of this book. The use of Rudiments
a~ Theory of music by ABRSM was reported by 14(51.9%), and
Graded Music Course by Annie Warburton by 13(48.1%) of the
teachers.
The purpose of collecting the information was to establish
what books the music teachers used, in light of the fact that
the ministry did not recommend any books for teaching music.
The information gathered in this sub-section was also made use
56
of while in~st~ating whether the music students owned these
books which the teachers mostly made use of.
Table 4.9: Analysis Of Teachers' Responses Regarding
Adequacy Of The Music Textbooks.
NO - 27
BOOK TITLE ADEQUATE INADEQUATE TOTAL
NO % NO % NO %
Folk music of Kenya 7 25.9 20 74.1 27 100.- G.Senoga Zake
Basic music 2 7.4 25 92.6 27 100
knowledge by
A. Warburton
Rudiments and - - 27 100 27 100
theory of music by
(ABRSM)
Graded music course 4 14.8 23 85.2 27 100
by A. Waburton
4.2.4 Adequacy Of The Textual, Material Used For Mus· c
Education
From Table 4.9, it is evident that the music textbooks are
not adequate for use by the teachers and music students. The
music teachers were required to indicate whether the textbooks
they used most were adequate or inadequate for the number of
music students th~y had. Only 7(25.9%), 4(14.8%) and 2(7.4%)
of the music teachers admitted adequacy of the Folk Music of
Kenya, Graded .Music Course and Basic Music Knowledge
respecti vely. None of the music teachers reported adequacy of
Rudiments and Theory of Music, which according to some of the
teach~rs is a very useful book for beginners in western music.
57
The music teachers observed that lnck of textbooks WnS mninly
caused by the fact that most of the textbooks used for
teaching music in secondary schools were imported and many
times such books were out of stock. At times, 1ack of
essential books was so acute that music teachers took it upon
themselves to send people who were travelling out of the
country to buy the books for them. The cost of the importpd
textbooks is another drawback. Most of the books .ire too
expensive for the schools to order in large guantitirs.
58
-
Analysis of teachers' responses regarding
availability of instructional resources for
m~siceducation in their schools.
Table 4.10:
NO - 27
ITEM AVAILABLE NOT AVAILABLE TOTAL
NO % NO % NO %
PIANO(s) 19 70.4 8 29.6 27 100
Pre-recorded music 27 100 - - 27 100
cassettes (African &
Western)
Music scores 27 100 - - 27 100
Manuscript papers 11 40.7 16 59.3 27 100
Recorder instruments 13 48.1 14 51.9 27 100
String instruments 6 22.2 21 77 .8 27 100
(Western)
Wind instruments (Western) 10 37.1 17 63 27 100
(excluding recorder)
Wind instruments (African) 6 22.2 21 77 .8 27 100
String instruments 4 J4.8 23 85.2 27 100
(African)
Music stands 7 25.9 20 74.1 27 100
Music sheets (instrumental) 27 100 - - 27 100
Music sheets (vocal) 27 100 - - 27 100
,.
Melodicas 17 63 10 37.1 27 100
KCSE Past Papers 27 100 - - 27 100
School Test Past Papers 27 100 - -. 27 100
Staff-lined boards 5 18.5 22 81.5 27 100
Drums 8,. 29.6 19 70.4 27 100
Metronomes 3 11.1 24 88.9 27 100
--
Cassette Players 14 51.9 13 48.1 27 100
Xylophone 6 22.2 21 77 .8 27 100
59
4.2.5 Availability Of Other Instructional Resources For Music
Table 4.10 presents analysis of responses of the music
teachers regarding availability or non-availability of various
instructional resources for Music Education in the schools.
As is evident from table 4.10, non-availability of certain
essential instructional resources was reported by a good
number of the music teachers. However, certain resource scored
very high level of adequacy. For instance 27(100%) of the
music teachers reported the availability of materials like
pre-recorded music cassettes for prescribed African and
Western music, music scores, instrumental music sheets, vocal
music sheets, KCSE past papers and school test past papers.
The availability of piano (s) in schools was reported by
19(70.4%) of the teachers, while 14(51.9%), 13(48.1%).
11(40.7%) and 10(37.1%) of the teachers reported availability
of cassette, record~r instruments, manuscript papers and wind
instruments (Western) in their schools respectively. The
availability of drums was recorded by only 8(29.6%), music
I'
stands 7(25.9%), xylophones, 6(22.2%), African wind instrument
6(22.2%), staff-lined boards 5(18.5%), Western string
instruments 6(22.2%) ,.metronomes by 3(11.1%) of the music
.teachers.
60
Table 4.11: Analysis of teachers' responses regarding
adequacy of the instructional resources.
NO - 27
IIISTRUCTIOIIAL MORE THAN ADEQUATB INADEQUATE NOT APPLICABLE TOTAL
RESOURCBS ADEQUATB
NO , MO , NO , NO , NO •
PIAl/O(s) - - 7 25.9 ~2 44.4 8 29.6 27 ~OO
Music casset.t.ea 5 18.5 17 63 5 ~8.5 - - 27 100
~or pre.crlb~ ...;;;;r«•• -works Africansq•• t.ern ..
Husic scores 8 29.6 ~5 55.6 4 ~4.8 - - ~7 100
Manuscript papers 3 1~.~ 5 ~8.5 3 ~1.l. l.6 59.3 27 l.oo
Recorder 4 l.4.8 7 25.9 2 7.4 14 51.9 27 100instruments
String - - - - 5 ~8.5 22 81.5 27 100Inst.rullents
(Western)
Wind instruments - - 6 22.2 4 14.8 l.7 63 27 100
(Western)
Wind instrumenta - - - - 6 22.2 21 77.8 27 l.00
(Arrican)
string - - - - • ~4.8 23 85.2 27 l.00Instru.ents
(Arrican)
Music stands - - 5 ~8.5 2 7.4 20 74.1 27 100
MusIc sheets l.l. 40.7 ~6 59.3 - - - - 27 100(lnstruaental.)
Husic sheets l.9 70.4 8 29.6 - - - - 27 l.00(vocal.)
KCSE Past Papers l.4 5l..9 ~3 48.l. - - - - 27 100
Schoo1 Test Past. 22 81.5 5 l.8.5 - - - - 27 1.00Papers
Dru.s - - - - 8 29.6 ~9 70.4 27 100
Husic Textbooks 7 25.9 20 74.l. - - 27 ~OO
'-4.2.6; Adequacy Of Instructional Resources
Table 4.11 presents the music teachers' responses regarding
adequacy or inadequacy of various instructional resources for
Music Education in the secondary schools surveyed. As is
evident on the table, majority of the teachers reported that
the instructional resources were inadequate, while others
indicated that the' resources were not avai lable in their
schools. This category have been placed under the response
"not applicable".
61
Only six out of the sixteen items listed were reported either
as more than adequate, or adequate in the schools by a
reasonable number of the teachers. These included KCSE past
papers, that were reported by 14(51.9%) of the teachers as
more than adequate and by 13(48.1%) as adequate. Vocal music
sheets were reported as more than adequate by 19(70.4%) and
adequate by 8(29.6), school test papers were reported as more
than adequate by 22(81.5%) and as adequate by 5 (18.5%).
Instrumental music sheets were reported by 11(40.7%) as more
than adequate and 16 (59.3%) as adequate, music scores by
8(29.6%) as more than adequat~ and 15(55.6%) as adequate, and
pre-recorded cassettes for prescribed African and Western
music by 5(18.5%) of the teachers as more than adequate and
17(6~%) as adequate (see table 4-11).
The remaining ten items recorded very low level of adequacy.
For instance, only 4(14.8%) of the music teachers reported
they had more than adequate supply of tape recorders, and
I'
7(25.9%) adequate supply of the instruments. The other
3(11.1%) in~ica!~ed!!l..0rethan adequate supply of manuscript
papers and 5(18.5%) reported adequate supply of the papers.
only 7(25.9%), 6(22.2%), and 5(18.5%) of the music teachers
indicated adequacy of pianos, textbooks, Western wind
instruments, and music stands.
62
Resources like Western string instruments, African wind
instruments, African string instruments, and drums were either
reported as inadequate or not available by majority of the
teachers. "Not applicable" responses applied to situations
where the resources were not available, and therefore the
teachers could not indicate their adequacy or inadequacy.
Table "'.12: Teachers' responses regarding instrur:tionnl
resources they use in teaching music.
NO - 27
INSTRUCTIONAL RESOURCES USED NOT USED 1'01'" t.
NO 't NO % NO %
PIANO 9 33.3 18 66.7 27 100
Pre-recorded cassettes 17 63.0 10 37.0 27 100
for prescribed musjc
Music scores 13 tlB.1 1tl 'j 1.9 '/.1 100
Manuscript papers 19 70.4 8 29.6 27 100.-
Recorder instruments 5 In.5 27. B1.5 27 100
String instruments - - 7"1 100 27 100
(Western) -- ---- 1------ -- - -
Wind instruments 7 )').9 70 -; tl . 1 2"1 100
(western)
---
stringed instruments 1 I1 .1 2tl flU.Cl ")'1 100
(African)
Wind instruments - - 2"1 100 7.7 100
(African)
-
Music stands 6 7.2.2 27. 77.B 27 100
Instrumental music 10 37.1 1"1 G3 27 100
sheets
I-- Vocal music sheets 27 100 - - 27 100,
Melodicas 19 70.4 B 29.6 27 100
1----- -- ---
KCSE Past Papers 14 '1.9 13 48.1 27 100--f---- --
School Test Past Papers 9 33.3 18 66.7 7.7 100
Staff-l,ined boards 5 IB.5 22 B1.5 27 100
-
Drums J 11.1 2<1 88.9 27 100---
Metronomes 1 3.7 2G 96.3 27 100
-
Cassette Players 14 '11.9 13 4B.l 27 100-----
Xylophones 3 11 .1 2tl 88.9 27 100
--
64
4.2.7 Use Of Ins~ructiori~l Resources For Music Education.
In table 4.12, resources which are considered essential for
the teaching and learning of music were listed, and the
teachers were required to indicate whether they made use of
them in their teaching or not. The numbers and percentages of
teachers who recorded the use of the items were as foILows:-
Vocal music sheets 27(100%), manuscript papers 19(70.4%), pre-
recorded cassettes for prescribed African, and Western piece~
17(6)%), melodicas 19(70.4%), KCSE past papers 14(51.9%),
cassette players 14(51.9%), and music score J)(48.1%).
certain equipment were recorded by very few teachers as being
made use of in the teaching and learning of music. For
instance, only 10(37.1%) recorded use of instrumentaJ music
sheets, pianos, 9(33.3%), school test past papers 9(3).)%),
Western wind instruments, 7(25.9), music stands, 6(/.2.2%) ,
recorder instruments, 5(18.5%), staff-lined boards, 5(18.5%),
I'African string instruments, 3(11.1%), drums, 3(11.1%),
xylophones, J (11.1%) and metronomes, 1().7%) . None of the
music teachers recorded the use of Western string instruments.
65
Table 4.13: Analysis of statements gauging the music
teachers' atti tudes towards the use of inst.ructional resources.
SAjA U DjSD TOTAL
STATEMENT NO % NO % NO % NO %
S 12 5 18.5 - - 22 81. 5 27 100
S 13 20 74.1 6 22. 2 1 3.7 27 100
S 14 7 25.9 - - 20 74.1 27 100
S 15 10 37.0 - - 17 63 27 100
S 16 15 55.6 1 3.7 11 40.7 27 100
S 17 19 70.4 - - 8 29.6 27 100
S 18 4 14.8 - - 23 85.2 27 100
S 19 8 .29.6 - - 19 70.4 27 100
S 20 4 14.8 2 7.4 21 77.8 27 100
S 21 24 88.9 3 11.1 - - 27 100
S 22 3 11.1 2 7.4 22 81. 5 27 100
S 23 18 66.7 - - 9 33.3 27 100
/
S 24 19 70.4 2 7.4 6 22.2 27 100
S 25 23 85.;2 - - 4 14.8 27 100,
S -26 19 70.4 - - 8 29.6 27 100
S 27 24 88.9 - - 3 11.1 27 100
,-
S 28 5 18.5 5 18.5 17 63 27 100
S 29 2 7.4 - - 25 92.6 27 100
S 30 9 33.3 6 22.2 12 44.4 27 100
S 31 14 51. 9 - - 13 48.1 27 100
4.2.8 Teachers' Attitudes Towards The Use of
Instructional Resources
Table 4.13 above, presents the analysis of the music teachers'
attitudes based""-on their reactions towards statements
66
concerning use of t~aching and learning resources for Music
Education. To allow for easy analysis, the percentage
responses were reported by combining the two outside
categories: Strongly Agree (SA) and Agree (AD); Disagree (D)
and Strongly Disagree (SO).
The initials used otLthe table have the following meanings:,.... .--.•..
Key:1 Key:2
S - 12 = Statement No 12 SA - Strongly Agree
S - 13 .Statement No 13 A Agree
S - 14 = Statement No 14 U - Undecided
S - 15 Statement No 15 0 Disagree
S - 16 Statement No 16 SO - Strongly Disagree
etc
,
The following are the observations on the statements whose
response are presented on table 4.13 above.
S 12: I have always taught music using chalkboard only
.and the learners understood all the concepts well.
Most· of the music teachers disagreed with the
statement. 22 (81.5%) of the teachers expressed
their disagreement, and only 5 (18.5%) agreed with
the statement. The implication is that the teachers
S 13:
S 14:
S 15:
67
have general feelings that chalkboard alone should
not be the sole tea~hing and learning resource for
music.
Use of varieties of teaching and learning resources
enriches the music lessons.
The statement was supported by 20 (74.1%) of the
music teachers and only 1 (3.7%) refuted the
statement while 6 (22.2%) of the teachers were
undecided ~~rrhisindicates that most teachers regard
...••••. .;;;r"r-
instructional resources as important components of
the teaching and iearning process.
It is the type of learner (i.e. bright or poor)
rather than the use of teaching and learning
resources that matters in music.
20 (74.1%) refutea the statement, while 7(25.9%) of
the teachers supported it. The impl'cation here s
that majority use ofteachersof the see
instructional resources as capable of enhancing the
learning, even of low achievers.
I frequently support my music lessons with the use
of varieties of instructional resources.
68
Though the previous statements indicated that most
teachers value the use of instructional resources
to support their music lessons, only 10 (37.0%) of
the teachers admitted frequent use of the resources
17 (63%) disagreed with the statement. This is an
indication that though majority of teachers
acknowledge the importance of use of instructional
resources in teaching music, they do not actually
use them.
S 16: I put more emphasis on the content of the music
lesson than on use of the instructional resources.
15 (55.6%) of the music teachers agreed with the
statementJ regardless of the fact that majority of--- ,;;-... ~-
the teachers had supported statement No. 13, that
use of varieties of instructional resources enrich
teaching and learning process. 11 (40.7%) of the
teachers refuted the statement. Factors that could
be leading to the lack of emphasis on use of
learning resources by some of the teachers are
discussed in the later sections.
S 17: Without the use of learning resources like musical
instruments most students would not find music
lessons fulfilling.
69
The statement was supported by 19(70.4%) of the
music teachers, and refuted by only 8 (29.6%) of
the teachers. This implies that most teachers
consider the musical instruments as being among the
most important learning resources for Music
Education.
S:18 I have no interest in using instructional resources
in teaching music.
23 (85.2%) expressed disagreement. Only 4(14.8%)
agreed. This further seems to suggest that most
teachers are interested in using instructional
resources.
S:19 I always make use of piano when teaching topics
like harmony, cadences, intervals, modulation, and
other topics in which it is necessary.
19 (70.4%) of the teachers disagreed with the
statement. Only 8 (29.6%) agreed that they made use
of piano in their teaching. This could be an
implication that the instruments are not available,~. ~
available but out of order, or that most music
teachers are not competent in the use of pianos. It
is obvious that piano would be very useful in
S:20:
S:21:
S:22:
70
teaching the topics listed in S:19, and the fact
that majority of teachers indicate that they do not
make use of the instrument is surprising.
Use of instructional resources in teaching and
learning music wastes alot of time.
21 (77.8%) of the teachers did not approve of the
statement. 4 (14 .8%) of the teachers agreed and
2(7.4%) were undecided. This shows that even the
teachers who may not be using the instructional
resources regard them as important in the teaching
and learning process.
2se gt. inQtructional resources in music lessons is
important because it accords the learners active as
opposed to passive participation in the lesson.
24(88.9%) of the teachers accepted the statement,
only 3 (11.1%) were undecided.
My students prefer learning by listening than
doing ..
As many as 22 (81.5%)
with the statement.
of the teachers disagreed
Only 3(11.1%) agreed, and
5:23:
"5:24:
71
2(7.4%) were undecided. The implicatian here is
that mast teachers have realized that their
students are actually quite interested in learning
thraugh manipulation af varieties af instructianal
resaurces.
I make use af any available instructianal resaurces
mostly far t.he examinatian classes (i.e form IV).
This statement was supparted by as many as
18(66.7%) af the music teachers. 9 (33.3%)
disagreed with the statement. The respanse to this
questian gave a hint that in mast schaols, the use
af available instructianal resaurces is centred in,
the examinatian classes. This may imply that
drilling far examinatian purpases is being carried
aut in mast schoals.
The schaal is not able to. acquire necessary
resaurces to. be used far teaching and learning
music because af financial canstraints.
19(70.4%)
.••••. ,:;r-:;--
agreed with theaf the teachers
statement, 6(22.2%) disagreed and 2(7.4%) were
72
undecided. This is an indication that lack of
funds is one of the major problems in the secondary
schools.
5:25: I regularly make use of National Examination past
papers and school tests past papers because they
are valuable teaching materials.
The statement was accepted by quite a big number of
the music teachers 23(85.2%), who indicated that
they make use of the past papers. The remaining
4(14.8) disagreed with the statement. This could
be an indication that most teachers depend on
drilling their students through the past
examination papers, as the time for examination
draws nearer. It is true that examination past
papers are important teaching materials. However
if, overused as the sole teaching resources, the
teaching and learning process will seem to be only
examination-oriented.
5:26: Heavy teaching load makes it hard for me to
organize and use varieties of learning resources.
-. '
Most of the' music teachers indicated that heavy
teaching load was one of the factors that
S:27:
73
interfered with their organization and use of
instructional resources. As table 4.13 indicates,
19 (70.4%) of the music teachers agreed with the
statement. However, B(29.6%) refuted it. This
points to the fact that most of the secondary
school music teachers are overworked and may not be
concentrating on the coverage of contents of music
syllabus as they should.
Proper coverage of the secondary music syl~abus
would involve giving the students exposure to a lot
of practical skills, which would involve use of
varieties of teaching equipment and materials.
students should be exposed to the type of learning
in which they participate actively through
manipulation of varieties of learning resources.
As many as 24(88.9%) of the music teachers
supported the statement, while 3(11.1%) disagreed
with it. Most of the music teachers seem to realize
that music is an action-oriented subject and
learners cannot be expected to play a passive role.
Active involvement of learners, as Wendt (1975)
po rnt;s tJUt,"Ls only possible by use of varieties of
S:28:
S:29:
74
instructional resources to provide and maintain
interest.
The school administration is not supportive towards
the acquisition of the equipment and materials
needed for use in teaching music.
As shown in table 4.13 17(63%) of the music
teachers refuted the statement. Only 5(18.5%)
agreed with it, and the remaining 5 (18.5%) were
undecided. This finding seemed unusual since
teachers times schoolhave blamedmany
administrators disinterest lackfor ofor
enthusiasm in providing learning materials, and yet
according to the teachers' responses to the above
statement, most of them are of the opinion that
schools' administrators are supportive towards
acquisition of teaching and learning resources.
Use of instructional resources makes no d'fference
in teaching and learning, I have therefore not
bothered to acquire any.
An overwhelming number, 25(92,6%) of the music
teachers disagreed with this statement. Only
2(7.4% ) agreed. This shows that nearly all the
75
music teachers in the schools surveyed, do
recognize and acknowledge the value of
instructional resources in Music Education.
S:30: I feel competent in handling all the contents ef
music syllabus, both theoretical and practical
aspects.
Only 9 (33.3%) of the music teachers agreed that
they could be able to handle all the contents of
the music syllabus. The other 12(44.4%) disapproved
the statement and 6(22.2%) of the teachers were
undecided. The figures indicate that there is a
large number of the secondary school music teachers
that are not handling the music syllabus
competently. Furthermore, this may be an indication
that a large section of the music syllabus is left
uncovered in some schools.
S:31: I am .not able to make use of any musical
instruments because my training did not prepare me
for their use.
As given in table 4.13, 14 (51.9%) of toe teachers
agreed with this statement and 13(48.1%) disagreed
with it. The findings indicate that more than half
76
of the music teachers in the secondary schools
within Nairobi Province are no~ equiped with skills
of playing any musical instrument. The playing of
musical instruments is an important aspect of the
music syllabus. All music teachers should therefore
be trained in basic skills in handling musical
instruments, if they have to cover the content of
the secondary music ~yllabus efficiently .
.
Table 4.14:
No 27 Ahalysis of relationship between teacher
qualification and use of instructional resources.
TEACHER USE NON-USE TO'r.hL
QUALIFICATION
B.ED NO ~ NO % NO %0
7 25.9 6 22.2 13 48.
1.-
SI/DIP.ED 2 7.4 12 44.4 14 51.
9
TOTAL 9 JJ.J 18 66.7 27 100
X2 = . J .1 J df = 1 P=.05 NS
4.2.9 Qualification And Use Of Instructional Resources
In table 4.14, the hypothesis; "HO There is no significant
relationship between the qualification of music teachers and
use of instructional resources." was accepted at alpha = .05
level of significance and one (1) degree of freedom.
77
T~e statistical findings indicated that qualification of a
music teacher does not determine the use of instructional
resources.
This finding may seem rather unusual since the figures and
percentages on Table 4.14 indicate that more B.Ed teachers
than Dip.Ed teachers made use of the resources. For instance,
while 7(25.9%) of B.Ed teachers supported their teaching with
use of instructional resources, only 2(7.4%) of the Dip. Ed
teachers made use of the resources. Non-use of instructionnl
resources was noted among' 6 (22.2%) of the B.Ed teachers, and
12(44.4%) of the Dip. Ed teachers. The tabulated figures and
percentages may lead one into erroneously concluding that the
more qualified a teacher is, the more the teacher is likely to
make use of instructional resources in a lesson. Analysis of
the figures and percentages through the Chi-square test d'd
not however reveal any significant relationship between
teacher qualification and use of instructional resources.
t'
78
Table 4.15; Analysis of relationship between teacher
experience and use of instructional resources.
NO- 27
TEACHING USE NON)-USE TOTAL
EXPERIENCE
NO. % NO. % NO. %
Above 2 4 14.8 11 40.7 15 55.5
years
Below 2 5 18.5 ·7 25.9 12 44.4
years
TOTAL 9 33.3 18 66.7 27 100
df = 1 P=.05 NS
4.2.10 Experience And Use Of Instructional Resources
The hypothesis;
"H02 There is no significant relationship between teaching
experience and use of instructional resources." was accepted,
since the computed X:>= 1.5, was far below the x2 eritical
value of (3,. 84 )=.:.n~oessaryfor the reject.ion of the null
hypothesis at the .05 level of significance.
I'The implication of the finding is that, the fact that a
teacher has more years of experience does not have any bearing
on the extent that t.he teacher uses t.he instructional
resources in music lessons. As table 4.15 indicates, among
those with more teaching experience, 4(14.8%) used
instructional resources in their music lesson and 11(40.7%)
used none. On the other hand 5(18.5%) of t.hose with shorter
79
teaching experience used the instructional resources, while
7(25.9%) used none.
Table 4.16: Analysis of relationship between use of
structiona1 resource and student achievement in music .
.- ;;;r-,L-
No. of candidate = 112
USE OF A to B- C+ to D+ o to E TOTAL
INSTRUCTIONAL .
RESOURCES IN NO. % NO. % NO. % NO. %
MUSIC LESSONS
Resources 45 40.2 5 4.5 4 3.6 54 48.2
used
Resources not 30 26.8 8 7.1 20 17.9 58 51.8
used
TOTAL 75 67 13 12 24 21 112 100
13.29 df = 2 P =.05 s
4.2.11: Use Of Instructional Resources and Student's
Achievement In Music
In table 4.16, the hypothesis; "H03 The use of instructional
resources
"
is not significantly related to students'
achievement in music was rejected since the X2 value of 13.29
exceeded the X2 . critical value of 5.99 for 2 degrees of
freedom at the .05 level of significance.
According to the statistical finding, therefore, the use of
instructional resources is significantly related to student
achievement in music.
BO
The figures and percentages on table 4.16 show the
distribution of students ihto varioUs grades in schools where
instructional resoUrces were Used and schools in which the
teaching of music was basically carried out theoretically.
More failing grades were recorded in schools in which music
was taught without use of relevant equipment and materials.
Table 4.17: Analysis of relationship between teacher
attitUde and Use of instructional resources
NO - 27
ATTITUDE USE , NON-USE TOTAL
TOWARDS USE
OF NO. ~ NO. % NO. %0
INSTRUCTIONAL
RESOURCES
positive 7 25.9 14 51.9 21 77.
attitude 8
Negative 2 7.4 4 14.8 6 22.
attitude 2
TOTAL 9 33.3 18 66.7 27 100
X2 = 0.008 df 1 P=.05 NS
4.2.12: Teacher Attitude And Use Of Instructional Resources.....• .-rw:.. - ..•..
The null hypothesis tested in this sub-section was, H04 There
is no significant relationship between teacher attitude and
use of instructional resources". The hypothesis was accepted,
since the Chi-square (X") value computed was far below the (X2)
critical value of (3.84), necessary for rejection of null
81
hypothe~is at the .05 level of ignificanc and onp (1) degr p
of freedom.
Table 4.18 shows that out of the 21(77.8%) t ache r s who
recorded positive attitudes, t.owar ds use of Ins t r uc ional
resources, 14( 51 . 9% ) maden 0 1ISe 0 [ l~he i n5 t r ur ion a 1
resources-in their teaching and only 7(25.9%) used hem. I i c-.'
a I so worth not i ng tha t 2(7. t1 '}.) 0 r the t acho r s who r c-c ordcd
negative attitudes, made u e of thp resources while 4( 14.8')
used non0. It is interes ing to not0 from th abl thn t then'
were many teachers who expressed pos i t ive Cl tt i tudo s t owar d..
instructional resources, ye used none. Th f lncling indicates
that there must be some other va r j cl bles a f f o t Ing use of hp
instructional resources rather than teacher atti udes n .
82
Table 1.18: Analysis of teachers' responses regarding fnctors
hindering acquisition and use of teachJnq and l~nrnlng
resources for music education.
HO. 27
-
IIlHDERIHG PACTOHS FREQUENCY PEHCENTAGB
Lack of support from schools' 5 18.'1 -
ndministration.
Lnck of tenchinq materials due to 19 70.4
financial constraints
--
"cavy teaching loads 19 70.4
Lack of pa renta] suppor 11 40.7-
Lack of tcncher interest 4 14.0
-
Lack of proper traininq of 14 51 . q
teachers on use of media
Large enrolment of studen s 17 6J
-
4.2.1 J: Factors lt Lnd eri ng Acquisj t ion And Use Of
Instructional Resources.
I\s is evident on table 4.18,19('70.4%) 0 ho r ospondnn s
indicated that acquisi.tion and use or instructional rer.our co s
for Music Education was hindered by heavy teaching lootl. Th(>
same number of respondents c~ted financial constrnint as onc
of the major factors hindering the acquisition and use of thc
resources. An equally big number, 17(63%) of the t ooche rs
cited large enrolment of students per class as a major
drawback, while 14 (51.9%) of the teachers reported thil lock
of proper training was a major factor h i nd er i nq USE' of
instructional resources. Another 5( Ln.5%), and 4(14.8%) of the
83
teachers reported factors hindering acquisition and use of the
instructional resources as lack of support from school
administration, and lack of teacher interest.
4.3 Music Students As Respondents
The data collected from the music students focused on learning
resourc~s available in the schools, and which the students
used in their music lessons, adequacy of resources like
textbooks and musical instruments, and ways in wh ich they
coped without essential learning resources like textbooks.
The data collected from the music students are presented in
the tables that follow.
Table 4.19: Analysis of students' responses regarding how
often they used- musical instruments for self-practice.
NO. - 330
RESPONSES FREQUENCY PERCENTAGE
Often 78 23.6
Once in a while 215 65.2
Never 37 11.2
Total ~ -~;. --=.. . 330 100
84
4.3.1: Frequency of use of musical instruments for self
practice
As is evident on table 4.19, only 78(23.6%) of the music
students indicated that they oftenly made use of the musical
instruments. Majority of the students 215 (65.2%) reported
that they ~ed ~e ffi'tlsicalinstruments only once in Cl while.
There were 37(11.2%) who reported that they never used musical
instruments at all. The figures seem to imply minimal use of
the musical instruments by students in the secondary schools.
Table 4.20: Analysis of students' responses regarding
storage of the instructional resources.
RESPONSE FREQUENCY PERCENTAGE
In a store 69 20.9
In the Music room 228 69.1
In the Music - -
teachers' house
In various places 33 10.0
within the school
TOTAL 330 100
4.3.2: Storage Of The Instructional Resources For Music.
Table 4.20 shows that in majority of the secondary schools,
the music instructional resources are kept in the music rooms.
When music students were asked to indicate where the
instructional resources are kept in their schools, 228(69.1%)
of the students reported that the resources were kept in the
music rooms, 69(20.9) reported that they wpre kept in stores;
while 33(10%) of the students reported that the instructional
85
resources were kept in various places within the school
compound. Some students went further and mentioned places
like the teachers' offices, assembly halls, and Headteachers'
houses.
Table 4.21:Analysis of students response regarding who
gives them instructions in instrument playing
techniques.
No - 330.
RESPONSE FREQUENCY PERCENTAGE
Music teacher 63 19.1
Hired tutor 20 6.1
Self 200 60.6
No Response 47 14.2
Total 330 100
4.3.3: Instruction On Musical Instruments.
As indicated in table 4-21, most of the music students-200(60.6%) learn to play the musical instruments by
themselves. The other 63 (19.1%) reported that they were
instructed by their teachers, while 20(6.1%) reported that
they were instructed by hired tutors, and 47(14.2%) of the
students gave no response.
86
Table 4.22: Analysis of students response regarding ownership
of the text books used most frequently in the
music lessons.
No - ),]0
TEXTBOOK YES NO TOTAL
TITLE
Folk Music of No % No % No %
Kenya-By 1]2 40 198 60 ]]0 100
G.Sen9ga
Zake.
Basic Music 98 29.7 2]2 70.] ]]0 100
Knowledge By
Warburton, A
Rudiments and III ]].6 219 66.4 ]]0 100
Theory of
Music (ABRSM)
(ABRSM) 56 17 274 8] ]]0 100
Graded Music
Course- By
Warburton, A
4.3.4: Students' Ownership Of Essential Music Textbooks
It is evident from Table 4.22 that the number of music
students who admitted having the listed music textbooks were
far less than those who reported they did not have the books.
I"
For instance, out of the 330 music students, only 132 (40%)
reported they owned the Folk Music of Kenya by G. Senoga Zake,
G.S., III (33.6%) of the students reported ownership of
Rudiments and Theory of Music by (ABRSM), 98 (29.7%),
Owneiship of Basic Music Knowledge by Warburton A., and 56
(17%), Ownership of Graded Music Course by Warburton A.
87
It is interesting to note that these books owned by such small
number of students had been reported on table 4.8 to be the
ones mostly used by the musiQ teachers.
Table 4.23; Analysis of students responses regarding how they
cope without essential textbooks.
WAYS OF COPING FREQUENCY PERCENTAGE
Relying on notes 201 60.9
written on the
blackboard by
teacher
Sharing textbooks 83 25.2
with those who
have.
No respog"se _;;r-.- ~ 46 13.9
TOTAL 330 100.0
4.3.5: Ways Of Coping Without Essential Textbooks.
Table 4.23 shows that there is certainly insufficiency of
music textbooks in the secondary schools. The music students
were ~equired to indicate how they cope in cases where they
lacked essential textbooks. In response, 201 (60.9%) of the
students reported that they relied on notes written on ehe
blackboard by the teachers, 83(25.2%) indicated that they
shared textbooks with those who had them, while 46(13.9%) of
the students gave no response. It is possible that those who'
gave no response represent the percentage of the students who
had all ·the necessary textbooks.
-- 88
Table 4.24; Analysis of students responses regarding the
extent to which various instructional resources
are used in their music lessons.
NO - 330
ITEM FREQUENTLY OCCASIONALLY NEVER USED NO R!;:SPONSE TOTAl.
US!;:D NO \ NO \ NO \
NO \ 110 ,
PIANO 80 24.2 86 26.1 164 49.7 - - 330 100
PRE-RECORO!;:D 77 2:1.3 196 59.4 4n lIS. S - - 330 100
CASS!;:TTES
MUSIC SCORES 109 33.0 47 14.2 174 52.7 - - 330 100
MAIIUSCRIPT 244 73.9 78 23.6 - - - - 330 100
PAP!;:RS
nrSTRUM!;:NTAL 65 19.7 73 22.1 ta9 57.3 3 0.9 310 100
MUSIC SHE!;:TS
VOCAL MUSIC 212 64.2 67 20.3 -15 13.6 6 1.8 330 100
SHEET
KCSE PAST 99 30.0 39 10.8 '<>2 58.::> - - 1)0 100
PAPERS
SCIJOOL TEST 59 17.9 112 33.9 1":)9 48.:> - - 310 toO
PAST PAPERS
RECORDERS 72 21.8 88 26.7 170 51. 5 - - 330 100
WESTERN - - :> 0.6 322 97.6 6 1.8 330 100
STRIllG
INSTRUHENTS
WESTERN WIND 53 16.1 72 2J..8 203 61.5 2 0.6 130 100
I1ISTRUHENTS
AFRICAN WINO - - - - 330 100 - - 110 100
INSTRUHEIITS
AFRICAN - - 40 12.1 :>~6 86.7 4 1.2 330 100
STRIIIGED
INSTRUHENTS
HELOOICA 208 63.0 65 19.7 49 14.8 8 2.4 330 100
STAFF-LINEO 109 33.0 - - ?21 67 - - 330 100
BOARO
ORUMS 44 13.3 57 17.3 299 90.6 - - 330 100
XYLOPHOIIES - - 68 20.6 247 15 4.5 :l30 100
HETROIIES - - 35 10.6 284 86.,. 11 3.3 330 100
4.3.6: Extent Of Use Of Instructional Resources In Music
Lessons.
As is evident on Table 4.24, music students do not seem to be
involved in the optimum use of instructional resources in
their lessons. Eighteen items were listed for the students to
indicate the level of their utilization in music lessons.
-89
Only three out of the eighteen items were marked as frequently
used in the lessons. These included manuscript papers, vocal
music sheets, and melodicas. The frequent use of the
resources were reported by 244(73.9%), 212(64.2%), and
208(63.0%) of the music students respectively, while
196(59.4%) of the music students reported occasional use of
pre-recorded music cassettes. A good number of the students
reported that the remaining fourteen items, which are listed
below are nevei used at all in their music lessons. T~e non-
use of the remaining fourteen instructional resources was
reptirted by fhe following numbers and percentages of the music
students. African wind instruments, 330(100%), Western
stringed instruments, 322(97.7%) metronomes, 284(86.1%),
xylophones or marimbas 247(74.8%), staff-lined boards
221 (67% j, .Western wind instruments, 203 (61.5%), KCSE past
papers 19~(58.2%), instrumental music sheets 189(57.3%), music
scores 174 (52.7%), recorder instruments 170 (51.5%), pianos
164(49.7%), ·and school test papers 159(48.2%)
4.4 Summary
In the preceding chapter, various types of equipment and
facilities used for teaching and learning music were analyzed
for the purpose of establishing their availability and use in
the instructional process.
90
The responses by headteachers, music teachers, and
students were tabulated and percentages computed from the
numbers of responses.
Four hypotheses formulated for the study were tested using he
Chi -square (X2) statistics. The relationship between the
variables; teacher qualification, teacher experience and
teacher attitude were tested for any significant relationship
with the dependent variable, use of instructional resources.
The relationship between use of instructional resources and
student achievement was also tested.
The fin?ings analyzed in Chapter Four are discussed in Chapter
Five, as they relate to Music Education in Kenyan secondary
schools. This is followed by summary, conclusions,
recommendations, and suggestions for further research.
91
CHAPTER 5
DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
5.0 Introduction
In this chapter, discussion is carried out on the findings
that had been presented in chapter four of the study.
Discussion of the data provided by the secondary schools'
headteachers comes in the first sub-section. The data
provided by the music teachers is discussed in next sub-
section. The last sub-section deals with the data collected
from the music students.
The four research hypotheses that had been analyzed in chapter
4, using the chi -square (X2) test, are discussed in this
chapter.
The observation and interviews conducted by the researcher,
yielded some important and accurate information that has been
used in the discussion to supplement or corroborate the
questionnaire responses. Note that tables are referred to in
the discussion, in the order in which they appear in chapter.
four.
92
5.1 Discussion Of The Results Of Data PrQvided By Secondary
Schools' Headteachers.
The following sub-sections focus on the discussion of the data
provided by the secondary school administrators comprising
headteachers and deJ;ju·tyheadteachers. The analysis presented~ _ ... -
in the sub-sections concern length of service of the
respondents, budgeting for music departments, purpose for
funds allocation to the music departments, adequacy of
textbooks and·musical instruments, and lastly, how they cope
with areas in the music syllabus which the music teachers are
not competent in.
5.1.1 Length Of Service.
Discussion of the length of service of the head teachers and
deputy headteachers was deemed necessary because the
administrators have considerable influence on the acquisition
~nd use of the resources for Music Education in schools. As
Con ant and Randal (1963) point out, both the heads of schools
and the subject teachers have direct influence upon the
quali ty of education offered in schools. This could only
apply if a headteacher or a deputy headteacher has had a
considerable l~ngth of time serving a particular school. This
partly explains why the deputy headteachers were involved.
Some headteachers were fairly new in the schools and the
responses given by their deputies corroborated what the
headteachers said. The deput~ head teachers also acted as sole
93
respondents in cases where the headteachers were not
available. As indicated in table 4.1 in chapter 4, most of
the teachers have headed the schools for a considerable length
of time. The results show that 15(57.7%) of the teachers have
been heading the schools for over 5 years, 5(19.2%) indicated
they had headed for a period ranging between 2-5 years, and
(15.4%) indicated 1-2 years. Most of the headteachers were,
therefore, considered able to give reliable information on the
state of equipment and facilities in the schools.
5.1.2 Budget Allocation To Music Departments
Table 4.2 shows that 16(61.5%) of the headteachers do not make
provision in their annual budget for the music departments.
Only 10(38.5%) of the school administrators responded that
they budget for the music department. Music is a subject area
that requires some sort of annual financial allocation for
pHrchasing supplies and equipment. For instance, nearly all
schools at. one time or another require money for tuning
pianos, an~ bla'Ying=-materials like empty cassettes for
recording 'prescribed works in preparation for music
examinations.
The fact that some school administrators admitted not making
an annual budget for music depar t.ment.s , only implies that
music departments in S4ch sohools ~ave no fixed place in the
94
overall budgetary planning. An interview with some of the
headteachers confirmed this point.
Some administrators said that they met each need as it arose,
and allotted whatever funds they had at their disposal to meet
the needs, depending on whether they approved of the music
department's proposal or not. Some of the headteachers
further pointed out that such a situation has been
necessitated by the fact that the financial situation in the
schools is ·so poor that they cannot provide all teaching and
learning equipment a department needs. This type of situation
may really limit
.~ .;;;:g,;;--
and hamper the programmes of music
departments, since it reduces the status of the departments to
that of begging for their very existence.
5.1.3 Purpose For Allocating Funds To Music Departments
The reasons given for providing music departments with funds
varied from school to school, based on what each of the.
schools deems important. The analysis presented on table 4.3
(Chapter 4) shows the headteachers' responses regarding the
major purpose for allocating funds to the music departments.
As is evident in the table, 11 (42.3%) of the headteachers
specified their major purpose as entry of the school choirs
for the music festivals, 8(30.8%) responded that they
allocated fUnds for activities like purchasing teaching and
learning equipment, maintaining equipment and facilities, and
95
entry of the school choirs for the music festival. Another
4(15.4%) responded that they provided funds for maintenance of
equipment and facilities and only 3(il.5%) indicated that they
provide the music department with funds for purchasing,
teaching and learning equipment.
~ .;.-,..." -=-As indicated in table 4.3, the way in which music is seen
in some schools.may be characterized as purely utilitarian;
For instance, .schools that see the major purpose for
allocating funds to the music departments strictly in terms of
entry of school choirs for the music festivals may be using
music and music studies as instruments for the accomplishments
of other ends. Such schools may be seeing the school choir as
a focus for and expression of the identity of the school.
This is not a bad purpose at all. However, the trend may lead
the schools to rely on such values exclusively as the ones on
wh~ch to base school music efforts, thus neglecting the rest
•of the music curriculum by not giving due consideration to all
areas of the music curriculum. such schools may, therefore,
not come to realize the importance of teaching and learning
resources in Music Education, since they may not view music as
an academic subject.
5.1.4 Adequacy Of Textbooks And Musical Instruments
As table 4.4 (Chapter 4) shows the headteachers generally
concurred that books and musical instruments were insufficient
96
in schools. On the issue of textbooks, 17(65.4%) of the
school admirt1stratorsadmitted inadequacy. Only 6(23.1%) and
3(11.5%) of the school administrators reported they had
adequate and more than adequate textbooks respectively.
The musical instruments seem to be equally lacking in the
schools. For instance, 16(61.5%) of the heads of schools
reported inadequacy of musical instruments, and only 10(38.5%)
responded that they had adequate musical instruments in·their
schools. None of the respondents reported having more than
adequate musical instruments.
Textbooks and musical instruments have been considered by
music educators as pre-requisite in the implementation of a
music programme in any school. Forcucci (1980), for instance
states that:
Every general music class should have at least a
set of up-to-date basic textbooks for each level
taught in that particular classroom, and in
sufficient quantity to provide one copy to each
student. Well-equipped music class need varieties
of musical instruments too.
The same sentiments are echoed by the Permanent Presidential
Music Commission (Omondi Report 1984:21) in a statement that;
"Books and other educational materials, including musical
instruments are the basic tools for music instruction. They
must, therefore, be availed in the right qualities and
quantities to the learner."
97
It may be alluded from the statements of these educators
that lack or insufficiency of these basic instructional
resources may have a far reaching negative effect on learning
achievement.
5.1.5 Ways Of Coping with Areas Of Syllabus That Music
Teachers Cannot Handle.
The heads of schools were asked to state how they cope with
the areas in the music syllabus which the teachers 'are not
competent enough to handle. Table 4.5 (Chapter 4), shows that
15(57.7%) of the respondents reported that they arrange for
the teachers to attend seminars, workshops, and symposiums to
update their musical knowledge. 2(7.7%) of the heads responded
that they hire special teachers to handle the areas, and
9(34.6%) did not respond to the question. This is
commendable, since it is an indication that both the schools
administrators and the music teachers are committed towards
the improvement of Music Education in the secondary schools.
In an interview with some of the head teachers, it was
established that the seminars, workshops and symposium are not
regular activities, but may take place just once or twice a
year. since such acti vities are aimed at improving the
teachers' knowledge, skills and competence in teaching music
and using teaching and learning resources more appropriately,
teachers need to be exposed to them more frequently.
98
It was further established that some schools made special
arrangements with the parents to pay additional fee, if they
were interested in their children taking private lessons on an
instrument. Such a plan, however, catered only for a few
students whose parents could afford such arrangements.
Majority of the music students were, therefore, not catered
for in this ~lan~z Th~ headteachers who never responded to the
questionnaires were later asked about their opinions. They
pointed out that they never made any special arrangements for
the music departments due to lack of funds.
5.2 Discussion Of The Results Of Data Provided By The
Secondary Schools Music Teachers.
This sub-section deals with the discussion of data provided by
the secondary school music teachers. Th~ results djscussed
here, concern the teachers' responses regarding availability
of teaching and learning resources, their adequacy and use for
Music Education. This section also discusses the relationship~
between teachers' qualification, experience, attitude and use
of instructional resources, and the relationship between use
of instructional resources and students' achievement in music.
Lastly, the discussion will focus on factors that hinder the
,
acquisition and~se of teaching and learning resources for
Music Education.
99
5.2.1 Availability And Suitability Of Teaching Faci litie .
This sub-section focuses on resources like music cl ssrcoms,
practice rooms, music stores, and music 11br a r ie s . On of he
findings of the survey was tha these essential fncilitles
were lacking in many schools. In Ls o Ln t ed cn s os , the
fncJlities were available but not made optimum use of be nuse
t h~Y were not con veni ent 1Y sit ua t cd . l\s t nI ]o 4. 6 (Ch it pt or 4)
shows, only 8(29.61) of the tenchers admitted hot they had
rooms specifically meant (or teach inq music. The r ooms us ad
for music lessons in most o f the secondary school w{'t"e sh r ed
between music and other subjec s , or wer us d os s s emt ,I y
halls. Some were too small o accommoda the students
comfortably ,or too close to the rest of the cl e rvs e s , and
hence could not be used for pr~ctical l{'ssons convenien ly
during school hours. The analysis presented on ab l e 4.7
testifies-to ~·his~ffect.
facilities like music practice I-ooms, music stores nnd mu~ic
I i br a r ies were found to be non-exi s tent inmost ..ecoridn ry
schools. Only 6(22.2\), 4(14.8\) and another 4(14.8\) of the
music teachers admitted having these f ac i l ities in t ho l r
schools respectively (Se table 4.6).
Lack of such facilities is a serious constrain to he
teaching and learning of music. Non-avnilabllity of fncillties
11ke music cl e as r ooms , and pr ac t ice rooms in schoo 1s would
100
mean that music students are denied the opportunity for active
participation in music making. Practical music, activities
like playLQg o~mu~cal instruments or voice practice cannot
be carried out comfortably in ordinary classrooms attnched tp
other classes without disturbing the rest of the school. In
schools where the music rooms are too close to other classes,
the students would therefore simply abstain from prnctising
(Table 4.20).
Most schools surveyed were also found to lack music stores.
~ll they had for the storage of music equipment were nmnJl
cupboards in the music classrooms. Lack of storage facilities
may partly be attributed to the music departments in the
schools having not accumulated enough resources to justjfy
their need for such facilities.
ifnly 4 (25%) of the schools surveyed were found to have proper
music stores with reasonable quantity of equipment.
Table 4.6 further indicates that majority of schools offering
music in Nairobi Province do not have music libraries. What
was found in most of the schools surveyed were small cupboards
which, in mos t cases, contained only a few i e f ereric e books for
the teachers, past examination papers and in some cases, music
cassettes. Only 2 (12.5%) of the sixteen schools had fairly
well-equipped music libraries. Such a situation only bears
iOl
further testimony to the [act that music depei rtmonts in
secondary schools have meagre instructional resources. This
type of finding may lead one to conclude that tho music
departments make very little effort to acquire the resources,
especially after learning that most o[ the school
administrators are supportive towards the acquisition of he
resources, as is gathered Lrom the responses given by the
teachers in the Likert Scale (see responses [or statement 28,
Page 39).
5.2.2 The Textbooks Used By Most Teachers.
In table 4.8, (Chapter 4), the music teachers I responses
regarding the textbooks they used most in their teachinq, were
analysed. It was interesting to note that despite he Lac t;
that the Ministry of Education does not recommend allY music
books for secondary 'music euucation, there was some
consistency in the ranking of the textbooks in ol-der of
prc f erence by the music teachers.
"
Fol k Music of Kenya, by
G.Senoga Zake was recorded as beinythe most used textbook [or
African music. The use of the book was recorded by 7.7(100%)
of the music teachers. For Western music, Dasic Music
Knowledge by A. Warburton emerged to be the most preferLed by
the music teachers. The other textbooks used for Western
Music were;...Rudimen&6 and Theory of Music by AURSM and Graded
Music course by Warbuton, A.
102
The Folk Music of Kenya by G.Senoga Zake was the only locally
published book
~,.,..
listed by the teachers. The finding is an
indication that the secondary school teachers mostly depend on-
foreign publications which are too costly and most tim s out
of stock. It is no wonder then, that there has been a
consistent outcry from the teachers regarding lack of music
textbooks. Another implication of the finding is that there
may be no comprehensive coverage of African music, as this
would not be possible with the use of only one text book.
5.2.3 Adequacy Of The Music Textbooks
It is evident from table 4.9 (chapter 4), that there is a
serious inadequacy of music textbooks in secondary schools.
Such a trend may cause a great hindrance to the teaching and
'learning of music. In the course of this study, some of the
teachers observed that many times they were not able to assign
th~ir students homework due to shortage of textbooks in the
schools. The teachers further pointed out that the school
administrators could not acquire some of the textbooks in
adequate numbers, claiming that the books were either too
expensive, or out of stock, in the local bookshops.
In some of the schools, there was found to be only two music
textbooks which were used by the teachers for reference. The
students, therefore, depended solely on the notes written on
103
the blackboard by the teachers. Only a few students could
afford to purchase all the required textbooks.
5.2.4 Availability Of Instructional Resources For Music
Education
From the analysis on table 4.10, (Chapter 4), it is evident
that high percentages of the teachers reported non-
availability of certain essential instructional resources for
Music Education~ Musical instruments and textbooks, for
example, are very crucial in the teaching and learning of
music, yet many teachers reported their non-availability in
the S9hools. African musical instruments, especially, were
lacking in most ~chools. For instance, 23(85.2%) of the music
teachers reported insufficiency of African string instruments,
21(77.8%) reported non-availability of African wind
instruments, and 19 (70.4%), .ind i cated non-avai lab' 1ity of
drums.
-""Ill&' .;;;r..i-'
The non-avai labi 1ity of Western string and wind
instruments was recorded by 21(77.8%), and 17(63%) of the
teachers respectively.
Though only 8(29.6%) of the music teachers reported that they
lacked pianos in their schools, observation and interviews
revealed that majority of the schools had only one piano that
served all the music students, regardless of their numbers. In
most cases, the pianos were found to be completely out of tune
or order.
104
On the other hand, it is interesting to note in table 4.10,
that items such as pre-recorded music cassettes, music scores,
instrumental music sheets, vocal music sheets, KCSE past
papers, and school test past papers were reported as available
in all the schools. The items are coincidentally those that
are complert!ly "f"'fldispensablefor teaching examination classes.
This may be a pointer-to the fact that the teaching Qf
secondary school music has become purely examination-oriented.
certain schools seem to be keen on availing only the items
that must be used in preparing students for examination.
In most of the schools surveyed, the use of instructional
resources in music lessons was found to be totally ignored in
the lower classes. The music schemes of work which were being
used by some secondary schools acted as a testimony to the
fact that the teaching and learning of music in lower classes
in the secondary schools was basically theoretical (see the
resource column of the schemes of work in Appendix K).
It may further be noted from table 4.10 that certain items
which are necessary for a well-equipped music department were
found to be lacking in most of the schools. These include
music stands,and staff-lined boards. Availability of these
items in sch60ls were reported by only 7(25.9%) and 5 (18.5%)
of the music teachers respectively. Such items can easily be
constructed in the school workshops as was found to be done in
105
some schools. Their non-availability in majority of schools
may indicate laxity in part of the music departments towards
acquisition. of the resources.
The lack of vital instructional resources as has been
discussed in the preceding sections causes a serious
constraint to the learning of music in schools. Music
requires constant practice, and hence easy access to resources
like textbooks, ~usical instruments, and other instructional
materials. This is in agreement with the sentiments expressed
by Snyder (1965:161) who stated that:
A great deal of physical paraphernalia is needed in
schools that offer music, in order to bring the
learning process to complete fruition.
In order to bring the teaching and learning of music to
complete fruition in Kenyan secondary schools, we must realize
that some aspects of music education require the use of
,..
diversified teaching resources and not just a few resources
used for drilling students for examination purposes. The
teaching and learning of music must be well-catered for at all
levels in terms of provision for relevant instructional
resources.
5.2.5 A~equACY Of The Instructional Resources
Adequacy of materials, equipment, and facilities for teaching
and learning music in secondary schools is another basic pre-
requisi te to effective teaching of the subject. The
106
information given on table 4.l1 of Chapter 4, indicates that
there is a an acute inadequacy of most instructional resources
in the schools. Most of the music teachers, either reported
that the resources were inadequate or "not applicable." The
teachers who responded with "not applicable" phrase, pointed
out that such resources did not exist in their schools. The
teachers further observed that inadequacy of the instructional
FesourceS greatly hampered the teaching process, just as much
as their non-availability, add inq that it was impossible to
use any available resources if they were far too few for the
number of students enrolled for the subject. Inadequacy and
non-availability of the instructional resources are,
therefore, two compromising hindrances to the use of the
resources in the teaching process.
Inadequacy of textbooks and musical instruments especially,
cre~ted a major concern in this study, since these are
considered "'eobe"·the~most essential resources in the teaching
and learning of music.
The data on the table 4-11 indicate that 20(74.1%) of the
music teachers in the surveyed schools lacked adequate music
textbooks for themselves and their students (see paragraph
5.2.3). It is again worth noting that the items that scored
high level· of adequacy are; music cassettes, that were
reported as more than adequate by 5(18.5%), and adequate by
107
17(63%) of the teachers. Vocal music sheets, were reported as
more than adequate by 19(70.4%), and adequate by 8(29.6%),
while 22 (81. 5%) of~ the teachers reported that school test
papers were adequate and 5(18.5%) inadequate. KCSE past
papers were reported as more than adequate by 14(51.9%) and
adequate by 13(48.1%), and music scores were reported as more
than adequate and as adequate, by 8 (29.6%) and 15 (55.6%)
respectively.
The instructional resources refered to in the preceding
paragraph are those that are crucial for the teaching of the
KCSE examination classes. The remaining items scored very low
level of adequacy.
Table 4.11 further indicates that in most of the schools, the
musical instruments, both of African and Western origin were
reported by ma jority of teachers, either as inadequate or
completely lacking.
In the cause of the study, it was established that most of the
secondary music teachers prepared their students for voice
performance, hence the indifference towards acquisition and
use of musical instruments.
It may be alluded from the above discussion that most schools
are. only equipped with instructional resources that are
108
essential for use in examination classes. In fact, some of the
music teachers frankly observed that slackness at times
prevailed in the teaching of music in the lower forms, and
-that the teaching equipment that were available in schools
were mainly used for teaching examination classes. In
majority of the schools, therefore, the purchase of
instructional resources was done just with the number of KSCE
candidates in mind.
5.2.6: Use Of Instructional Resources For Music Education
Generally, there seems to be a minimum use of instructional
resources in the teaching and learning of music in secondary
schools. This is evidenced by the analysis presented on table
4.12 (chapter 4). Out of the twenty items listed on the table,
only seven were used by a reasonable number of the music
teachers. The items include vocal music sheets, melodicas,
,.,
manuscript papers and pre-recorded cassettes for African and
Western music. As table 4.12 indicates, the use of vocal
music sheets was ~eported by 27(100%), melodicas 19(70.4%),
manu~cript papers, 19(70.4%), and pre-recorded cassettes for
African and Western music by 17(63%) of the music teachers
respectively. It is interesting to note that while 17(63%) of
the music teachers indicated that they used pre-recorded
cassettes, only 14(51.9%} of the teachers reported they used
cassette players, yet the two equipment are usually used
together. Such a contradiction could have occurred due to the
109
fact that some schools have the pre-recorded cassettes, but
not the cassette players. The pre-recorded cassettes are,
therefore, given to the music students to listen to on their
~ ;;;;;(ji- --=-
own, whenever they have the cassette players.
Another contradiction is that while music teachers reported
that they used the instructional resources listed on table
4.12, students denied their use on table 4.24. Majority of
the students who responded thus, were from lower classe~. The
findings confirm that instructional resources in the schools
are mainly used in teaching the examination classes.
Furthermore, it is worth noting that some items which are
indicated on Table 4.10 (Chapter 4) as available in the
schools, are not made optimum use of as portrayed on Table
4.12. There seem to be certain variables affecting the use of
tl1ese materials. These could possibly include teachers'
qualification, experience, and their attitudes towards use of
instructional resources. The variables are hence examined in
greater depth in the sub-sections which follow.
5.2.7 Teacher Qualification And Use Of Instructional
Resources.
Null Hypothesis 1:H01
The null hypothesis discussed in this sub-section was stated
.thus;
110
"There is no significant relationship between teachers'
qualification and use of instructional resources".
This hypothesis was tested by comparing the observed use of
instructional resources in teaching music between the teachers
holding Bachelor of Education degree, Diploma of Education and
SI certificates holders. Diploma and SI holders were placed
under one category, designated DIP.Ed.
The findings indicated that the difference between the use of
instructional resources among the two groups was not
statistically significant. Table 4.14 shows the number and
percentage_of l3a.che~orof Education graduates that made use of
the resources in their. teaching as 7(25.9%) and Diploma in
Education holders as 2(7.4%). Bachelor of Education holders
that made no use of instructional resources were 6(22.2%),
while the Diploma in Education holders that made no use of the
Lnst.ruct Lona I resources were 12 (44.4). The hypothesis was
."
tested using Chi-square, (X2) which did not reveal any
significant relationship between teacher qualification and use
of instructional resources. Hypothesis HO)., was therefore
upheld.
5.2.8 Teaching Experience And Use Of Instructional Resources
Null Hypothesis 2:H02
The relationship between teaching experience and use of
111
instructional resources in the teaching and learning of music
was analyzed. The null hypothesis was stated as: "There is no
significant relationship between teaching experience and use
of instructional resources." The hypothesis was upheld in this
case too, since no strong relationship was found between
teaching _experience and use of instructional resources.
The analysis in table 4.15 shows that 4(14.8%) of the teachers
who have taught music for many years and 5(18.5%) of those who
have taught for a few years used instructional resources in
the music lessons. On the other hand, 11(40.7%) of the
teachers with longer teaching experience and 7(25.9%) of those
with shorter teaching experience did not use any instructional
resources in the music lessons. One would expect the teachers
with more years in the field to be keener in the use of
instructional resources, yet this was not the case. From the
foregoing, it may be inferred,that it does not require many
years in the teaching profession for one to appreciate the
value of instructional resources. Furthermore, it is
disturbing to note that there were many teachers who did not
use any kind of instructional resources in their teaching at
all. It is doubtful that much can be achieved by teaching all
aspects of music theoretically. The question that arises in
one's mind is whether the importance of use of instructional
resources in teaching music is effectively emphasized by the
112
teacher trainers, or is just casually treated' during the
training period of the studeMt teachers.
5.2.9 Use Of Resources And Student Achievement In Music
Null Hypothesis 3: H03 The null hypothesis tested here was
stated; "The use of instructional resources is not
significantly related to students' achievement in music". The
hypothesis was rejected because, according to the statistical
findings, use of instructional resources in teaching music was
found to be significantly related to student performance. The
schools l-R w~ich ~ teachers consistently supported their
teaching by use of varieties of teaching and learning
resources were found to have more students who performed well
or on average as compared to the schools in which teachers
never used any learning resources at all, or those in which
the.resources were only used occasionally (Table 4.16). It
may, therefore, be concluded that non-use of instructional
resources may lead to lower achievement in music. The most
I'disturbing revelation was that in some schools, certain vital
instructional resources like musical instruments were
available but were never made use of by both the teacher(s)
and students. The reasons for such trends, as established in
the course of the study are discussed later, in this chapter,
under the sub-title, factors that affect the acquisition and
use of t~aching and learning resources for music education.
113
The need to enquire particularly on the use of the
instructional resources as it relates to student achievement
was based on hind-sight knowledge that Availability of the
resources in itself does not just make students learn the
subject and pass it. Hence, the necessity to investigate into
their use. The finding was that the use of instructional
resources was significantly related to student achievement in
music, the hypothesis was therefore rejected.
5.2.10 Teacher Attitude And Use Of Instructional Resources
Null Hypothesis 4:H04
An analysis was carried out to determine the relationship
between teachers' attitudes and use of instructional resources
for Music Education. The null hypothesis tested stated that:-
"There is no significant relationship between teachers'
attitudes and use of instructional resources.
Tpe Chi-square (X2) test on the null hypothesis revealed that
no signif Leant; 'i"elat'1onshipexisted between the attitudes of
,
the music teachers towards use of instructional resources and
the actual use of the resources. The hypothesis was therefore
"accepted. As the analysis on table 4.17 (Chapter 4)
indicates, not all teachers that had positive attitudes
towards instructional resources actually used them in their
teaching. For instance, out of the 21(77.8%) of the teachers
who recorded positive attitudes towards importance of use of
instructional resources, only 7(25.9%) actually made use of
114
them. Nevertheless, it is worth noting that there were a few
teachers who recorded negati vc respons s on use of
instructional resources and never actually used them in their
teaching at. aff. It is however encouraging to note t ha t
majority of the music t.cache r s showed p sitive Cl i t udr-s
towa r ds use of ins t r uc t iona I r onour-ce s in tench i nq mus i c: .
There is therefore need to establ ish reasons why most of tlwm
did not actually make use of t he s e resources in music l cs soru. .
1'his wi )] be rl i.sc us s od comprehens i ve 1y in t.ho noxt suu- sec t ion
under the title, f ac tor s hindering acqu l s i t ion and use of
teaching and learning resources for music education.
5.2.11 Factors Hindering Acquisition And ~se Of Teaching And
Learning Resources For Music, As Perceived By The Music
Teachers.
The secondary schools' music teachers were required to suggest
Narious factors which they thought had negative effects
towards acquisition and use of teaching and learning rf'sour·cs
for music education.
Ap"rt from the quest j onna ire r os pon s es , the r c s portd ent n ,
expressed their views through interviews. The cori.vt r a int
mentioned by the t eac he r s are discussed in the following
par-agraphs _
115
Constraints that topped the list were; heavy teachinq load,
and financial drawbacks. Both of the constraint~ were
recorded by 19(70.4%) of the teachers (Table 4.18). The
respondents argued that at times the teachinq load was simply
unmanageable, sin6e the music teacher ~as expected to teach a
second subject in most schools. ~hat type of arrangemerlt left
very little-timt=!"-for~ the teachers to handle the theor-y and
practical contents of the music syllabus effectively_
Lack of financial resources was said to have adv rsely
hindered the acquisi tion and ma i ntenance of t.each i ng and
learning resources, not only for music but other sub j oc t s 00_
Both the headteachers and the music teachers co nc-u rred on th i«
point. The heads of the schools interviewed pointed out that
the prevailing financial conditions in schools wer ex remely
poor, yet the student population in the schools kept goinq up_
Any funds generated by the school s were, there fore, in mo sr
cases spent on construction of boarding and tuition faci Iities
,-
to accommodate the increasinq number of students.
Unfortunately, while planning for the construction of the
tuition blocks, most of the school administrators do not seem
to bear in mind the need for a conveniently designed and
placed music classroom. Furthermore, most of the school
administrators do not seem to realize that instructional
116
equipment should also be given a serious consideration just
like the buildings.
Such trends confirm the sentiments expressed by Maundu (1986)
when he stated that:
While factors such as availability of teachers,
classrooms, desks, chairs, games equipment and
'buses are by and large the first to be considered
in initiating a school project, or while supplying
materials to a school, little or no consideratjon
is given to instructional resources. Rarely does
it occur to many educational administrators that
these resources are as important as the buildings
and furniture.
Large enrolment"of ~tudents into music classes was another
factor cited by a big percentage of the music teachers as a
major hindrance to proper utilization of teaching and learning
resources. As indicated on table 4.18, 17(6]%) of the
teachers recorded this factor. Through observation, it was
noted that some schools enrolled a~ many as 69 music students
per class. The trend was especially found to be common jn the
lower classes. The teachers concerned said they found it
impossible to share the limited resources among such a large
number of students. While observing music lessons in some
schools, it was actually noted that students could even be
made to share instruments like recorders, since the school did
not have enough.
Lack of proper training was named by 14(51.9%) of the music
teachers as a hindrance to' use of instructional resources.
117
Majority of the music teachers, for instance, reported that
they were unable to· handle the teaching of any musical
instruments,· yet the instruments are among the most vital
instructional resources for Music Education. In fact a
teacher's competence in the use of instruments is among the
importarit factors ln determining teaching effectiveness,
especially in the practical aspects of Musjc Education.
Lack of parental support was reported by 11(~O.7%) of teachers
as a hindrance to acquisition of teaching and learning
resources. Some of the music teachers maintained that certajn
students take music against the parents' wishes. r n such
cases, if there are instructional resources which the schools
advise the students to acquire for themselves, the concerned
parents do not co-operate in buying the required instrument .
This trend causes a great handicap to the teacher and students
whp lack the instruments. Some teachers therefore make the
students share the instruments.
Lack of support from school administration was reported by
only 5(18.5%) of the music teachers. This finding was quite
unexpected, as teachers often complain about the disinterest
and lack of enthusiasm by school administrators towards
acquisition of teaching and learning materials.
118
Teachers' lack of iriterest was not considered as major
drawback to the acquisition and utilization of teaching and
learning resources. Table 4.18 shows that the respondents whG
viewed it as a coristraint were only 4(14:8%).
5.3 Discussion Of The Results Of Data Provided By The'
Secondary Music Students.
The data that was collected from the music students, and which
had been analysed in the previous chapter, is discussed In
this section. The discussi01.1 concerns frequency of use of
various teaching and learning resources available in the
schools, the accessibility of the r~sources to the students,
and ways by which the students cope without essential teaching
and learning resources.
5.3.1 Frequency Of Use Of Musical Instruments
Tl1e data provided by the secondary schools music students
regarding the frequency of use of the musical instruments
indicate that there is minimal use of these resources. The
music students were required to indicate how often they make
use of musical instruments for their own practice. Majority
of the students responded that they used the instruments once
in a while. Those who responded so were 215(65.2%). Only
78 (23.6%) of the students reported that they often used
musical instrum";;ts:= The remaining 37(11,2%) indicated that
they never used any musical instruments at all.
119
It was established during the study that the musical
instruments were either not available in some schools, or were
available but not adequate for use by all students, hence some
students only got access to them once' in a whi le. It was
further established that some schools lacked areas where
students could make music without disturbing the rest of the
school. In one school, the music teacher explained that his
students practised playing the instruments under the trees,
far from the-plas.sTooms to avoid disturbing others. This'could
however not be done during rainy periods, during which time
the· students avoided practising altogether.
A number of schools were found to posses pianos which were in
good shape, but which could not be used by the music students
during the lessons or ~ree times since the rooms in which the
.pianos were placed were next to other classes. Day schools
wer~ the most disadvantaged. Students in such schools could
not have the opportunity of using the instruments after school
or early in the morning before lessons begun as some of the
students in the boarding schools did. This situation may also
partly explain why a big proportion of teachers indicated that
they never made. use of the musical instruments in their
teachin9 (Table 4.13)
120
5.3.2 Responses On Where The Instructional Resources Are
Kept, In Schools.
Lack of space for keeping instructional resources was found to
be another major problem facing most of the schools surveyed.
Finding like this one should not be treated lightly, as lack
of stor?ge facility is capable of throwing a music department
into total confusion. As was observed by Hart (1974:72), "the
problem of lack of proper space for keeping instructional
resources is one that confronts many music teachers and must
be dealt with urgently if possible, whenever it occurs, since
it may lead to underuse of the music equipment. The
statement by this educator is really applicable to the
situations observed in some of the secondary schools, where
instructional resources were found to be kept in places not
.
easily accessible to both music teachers and their students.
For instance, the analysis on Table 4.20 shows that 33(10%) of
I'
the music students indicated that inst~uctional resources for
music were kept in various places within the school compounds.
An enquiry revealed that such places included, assembly halls,
teachers' offices, stores and music rooms. Another 69(20.9%)
of th~ students responded that the instructional resources
were kept in stores, which in some cases were far away from
~ ~ ..the music rooms.
121
The most appropriate place to ~eep the materials and equipment
that are frequently used in teaching and learning music in
schools would be within the music departments. This makes it
convenient for the music teachers and students, since they
have the resou.rces within easy reach whenever they need to use
them. This means that even stores containing the music
equipment should be within·the music department. However,
this would require that a school sets apart a room
specifically meant for music activities and for housing the
music equip~nt.~~_Th~room should be conveniently placed, well
lit, cool, free from dust and well guarded to avoid loss or
damage to the equipment. Though 228(69.1%) of the students
indicated that instructional resources in their schools ar~
kept in the music rooms, an observation revealed that most of
the music rooms were virtually empty.
Furthermore, most of the schools did not seem to have any
proper protection for whatever little resources they
,-
possessed. In most cases, what was referred to as the music
classroom, was an ordinary classroom, used by other subjects,
an assembly hall, or even a workshop. The music equipment
kept in such rooms are likely to be vandalized by anybody
having access to the room. It was not, therefore, surpri~ing
to note that the music equipment available in most schools
were out of order.
122
In some cases the equipment were kept in a store far away from
the music class, or were scattered in various places as
described earlier. The inconveniences caused by such trends
became evident through some teachers who taught without them
although they were available just because they were kept too
far from the music rooms .•
The value of instructional resources does not lie in
possessing them, but in their use. They must therefore be
kept in a place where they are easily accessible to both the
teachers and students.
5.3.3 Instruction on Musical instruments
The analysis presented on table 4.21 (chapter 4) revealed that
majority of the music students in secondary schools learn the
playing of musical instruments on their own. As the table
indicates, 200 (60.6%) of the music students responded so.
I'
Only 63 (19.1%) of the music students reported that they were
instructed by the music teachers.
A few schools have made special arrangements for a hired tutor
to instruct the students in the playing of musical
instruments.
4
IDuring interviews with some music teachers, it
was established that such hired tutors were usually brought
into the schools through special arrangements wi-th those
parents who would like their children to learn playing certain
123
i nrtrurne nts which the regular music teachers are not competent
Ill. Some 20(6.1%) of the music students indicated that they
\-l(, r.e instruc ted by such hired tutors.
Thp large number of students that indicat-ed that they were not
illstructed by their music teachers on the playing of musical
irl~truments, prompted a desire in the researcher to find out
\"hy teachers neglected t.hei r students during the practical
1(" ;SOI1;-;. t1ostof the teachers interviewed revealed that they
I (lr;kecj competence in playing the musical instruments. Some
t~p.'1chers, however, responded that although they I were
comfortable with the techniques of playing most of the
instruments, the teaching load they had, denied them time to
(live individual attention to the music students. This finding
implies that majority of the music students will hardly get a
('h;lI1CC to master the skills of playing the musical
i,./1;.;trumellts.In order to help such students, schools must make
spdcial arrangements to hire'a resource person to cater for
whClt the music teachers cannot handle, or to share the••
tC'1ching loads so that those teachers who are skilled in the
piavinq of the instruments may have time to help the students.
124
5.3.4 Ownership Of The Essential Music Textbooks
From table 4.22 (chapter 4), it is evictent that majority of
the music students do not have the textbooks which had been
indicated on table 4.8 (Chapter 4) as used frequently by the
music teachers. For instance, regardless of the fact that
27(100%) of the music teachers had indicated that they used
Folk Music oi: Kenya by G.Senoga Zake frequently, only 132
(~O%) of the music students admitted having the book.
Ownership of Basic Music Knowledge by A. Warburton was
recorded by only 98 (29.7%) of the students. Ownership of
Rud i.metit.e and T.heory of Music and Graded Music Course were
recorded by 111 (33.6%) and 56 (17%) of the students
respectively.
Lack of adequate textbooks as was established in the study, is
a serious ctrawbc;'~k-to the teaching and learning of music,
s ii«:e t.ext.books are viewed as crucLa I resources in determining
learning outc()mes.
Owning personal textbooks was found to have a positive
relationship to performance by Eshiwani (1983), and Kiragu
(19B6). Similarly a study conducted in various developing
coun-tries like Uganda, India, Ghana, Br-a zi.'l and Malaysia
indicated that access to reading materials was positively
related to student achievement (Farrel 1989). Though these
studies were conducted in other subject areas, they concur
~ith the finding of this study, that the instructional
125
materials, like books, when available and made use of,
enhances student learning.
5.3.5 Ways Of coping without Music Textbooks
On table 4.23, the music students were asked to indicate ways
in whicih they coped without the textbooks that are frequently
used by the teachers for music lessons. Table 4.24 (Chapter
4) indicates that majority of students in the schools rely on
notes written .on the blackboard by the teachers. As given in
the table, 201(60.9%) of the students responded so. The table
further indicates that 83(25.2%) of the students share the
textbooks with those who have. It is assumed that only
46 (13.9%) of the students that gave no response comprise
those that owned all the textbooks. The insufficiency of
textbooks in the school was confirmed by taking inventory on
textbooks arid. other instructional resources and, through
lesson assessment. It was established that in some schools, as
I'
many as four ~tudents could be made to share one textbook.
According to the music teachers such a situation arises
maiorly because the schools depend almost entirely on imported
textbooks. When such textbooks get out of stock, it takes time
before the bookshops organize for their importation. Moreover,
the imported books are too expensive for some schools to buy
adequate copies.
126
5.3.6 Frequency of Use of Instructional Resources In The Music
Lesson
As evidenced on table 4.24 (chapter 4), the teaching and learning
of music in most secondary schools is not supported by optimum use
of instructional resources. The percentage of students recording
non-use of some vital teaching and learning resources was quite
high. Results further indicate that musical instruments, both of
African and Western origin, are never used in music lessons in
most schools. _A part from the musical instruments, other
equipment that are essential to the teaching and learning of music
were reported by a large section of the music students as rlever
used in the music lessons at all. The resources cited by the
students included vo~al music sheets, music scores, pre-recorded
music cassettes, pianos and instrumental music shee-ts. It is
worth noting that these same instructional resources had been
-reported by a large number of the music teachers as available,
adequa~e and utilized in various schools (see tables 4.10, 4.11
and 4.12).
The fact that a large number of the music students responded that
they never used the resources in their lessons is therefore rather
surprising. Based on the findings of the study, two possible
explanations may =oe tf±Vetrto this contradiction.
127
First, in majority of the school, the instructional resources
were availed only to a section of the music students, in most
cases, the examination classes_ Hence, even though the
resources were reported as available, adequate and utilized in
such schoo~, ~ a~ students would acknowledge their use_
Second, it seems that some teachers were avoiding the use of
the instructional resources in all cLasses , regardless of
t.hr-i r ava i labili ty and adequacy in schools _ Such a trend
resulted maillly'due to lack of competence or due to the heavy
teaching loads, that most of the teachers complained ~bout.
Unfortunately some of the instructional resources that were
not used, are very useful in teaching the areas of music
syJ labus in which candidates perform poorly, as has been
observed by the Kenya National Examinations Council. The
areas include music aurals, performance in both African and
Western inst uments, and analysis of prescr-bed African and
Western pieces of music (KCSE'Music Report 1994).
From the foregoing, dis6ussion, it may be inferred that the
neqliqence in use of some essential music resources could be
one of the contributory factors to poor performance by some
candidates in the practical music paper, as has been observed
by the Kenya National Examinations Council (KNEC Music Report
1994).
128
CHAPTER 6
6.0 SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS, AND SUGGESTIONS
FOR FURTHER RESEARCH
6.1 Summary
This "study focused on the survey of availability and
utilization of teaching and learning resources for music
education. Particular emphasis was put on the instructional
resources, though availability of facilities like classrooms
libraries "aridstores was also investigated.
An attempt was made, not only to investigate the availability
of the instructional resources, but a1so their use in the
teaching and learning process. The use of the resources was
examined on the basis of teacher qualification, experience,
and attitude towards use of the resources. The study also
attempted to establish if any relationship existed between usp
I"
of instructional resources and students' achievement in music.
Use of the instructional resources was found to have a
posi tive relationship to student learning and achievement.
However, teach~r qualification, experience and attitude were
,
not found to have any significant relationship to the use of
instructional resources.
129
It was established that all music teachers rea] ized the
necessi ty of instructional resources in music lessons and
nearly all of them regarded the resources as important
vehicles in the learning process. However, not all teachers
who acknowledged the importance of instructional resources in
the learning process, actually made use of them in the music
lessons.
6.1.1 Literature
A number _of library resources were consulted to provjde
literature that was used in the study. These included
varieties of textbooks, journals, newspapers, encyclopedias,
Research documents, and Kenya National Examinations Council's
Annua 1 Reports, among others. The literature review was
divided in three sub-sections. These were:-
(i ) Review of literature focussing on the importance of
teaching and learning resources in general
(ii) Review of literature highlighting insufficiency of
the resources or inappropriate use of the available
ones, and,
(iii) Review of literature showing the need for
acquisition and use of varieties of resources for
Music Education.
-
130
6.1.2 Methodology
The study focus sed on all Government schools that offe music
in Nairobi Province. Simple random sampling technique was
used to select the study sample. Data was collected from the
selected sample using questionnaires, interv'ews and
observation. The data was analyzed using frequency tables,
percentages and the Chi-square (X2) test.
6.2 Conclusions
The following are the conclusions drawn from the study: The
study revealed a number of factors affecting the acquisitjon
and use of teaching and learning resources for Music Education
in the secondary schools. The factors are given be ow:-
1. Many school administrators lay greater emphasis on appeal
for funds to improve or expand boarding and tuition
facilities for the growing student populat'on, and put
less stress on acquisition of instructional resources.
Music is one of the subjects that is greatly affected by
acute lack of instructional resources jn most schools.
2. There is acute lack of teacher's reference books and
students' reading materials in scho Is, a trend hat is
partly caused by over-reliance on foreign publications,
3 .
4.
5.
131
which are too expensive for ~ost schools to acquire in
adequate quantities and are many times out of stock in
the local bookshops.
There is little co-operation between the schools and the
community. Most schools do not seem to realize the
importance of using resource persons, for instance,
traditional musicians from the school community to help
the. students in skill areas where the teachers are
incompetent.
Teachers and students make almost no use of African
indigenous instruments which are cheaper, and easier to
acquire, and readily available in our locality, as
compared to expensive imported musical instruments. The
playing of African instru~ents is, therefore, completely
neglected in the secondary schools.
Most music teachers concentrate on the use of the few
instructional resources they have in schools for drilling
the examination classes. Use of instructional resources
in lower classes is, therefore, virtually ignored in many
schools, yet it is in the lower classes where the
learning foundation should be set.
132
6. Lack of instructional resources for music in some
secondary schools has led to certain teachers making
their approach to the teaching of music purely
theoretical. The trend leads to imbalanced coverage of
the music syllabus, which emphasizes both theoretical and
practical aspects of music. Less emphasis put on
practical music is testified to by the fact that music
candidates consistently potray '.veaknesses in the
practical paper (KNEe, Music Report 1994).
7. Teaching load allocated to majority of the music teachers
is unmanageable. This impedes proper planing and
utilization of teaching and learning resources for Music
Education.
8. Lack of frequent exposures of teachers to music seminars,
in-service courses and other programmes that could update
their knowledge, skills and competence in use of the
instructional resources acts as a serious handicap, to
effective teaching and learning of music.
9. Lack of support for· the music teachers by the school
administration is a drawback to acquisition of the
teaching and learning resources for Music in some
secondary schools.
133
6.3 Recommendations.
From the findings of the study, the following recommendations
are made:
1. One of the findings of this study is that the use of
instructional resources is significantly related to
student achievement in music. All schools that offer
music should therefore make provision for acquisition of
adequate and relevant instructional resources for use in
the teaching and learning of the sUbject.
2. The Ministry of Education should support seminars,
workshops, or in-service courses geared towards updating
the teachers' competence in skills related to proper
utilization of teaching and learning resources.
organizations whose goals are to promote music education
.such as the Kenya Music Teachers' Association (KEMUTA)
should be encouraged, as such forums give the teachers
opportuni ty for developing and sharinq resources, besides
providing professional experience.
3. Attempts should be made to provide more instructional
resources, especially suitable and relevant textbooks for
music teachers and students. This could even call for a
joint ventur~ between parents and teachers. For instance
the Parents Teachers' Association may consider raising
134
funds to acquire equipment, materials and other supplies
for teaching and learning music in secondary schools.
4. Workshops for writing textbooks ~hould be considered and
encouraged, to provide adequate local publications on
music. Shortage of locally written textbooks for
secondary school music has led the Kenyan teachers and
students to depend on foreign books, which are too
expensive, and many times not available in the local
book~hops.
5. There is a need to develop well-equipped resource centres
for music in all districts in Kenya. From such centres,
the music teachers would be able to borrow or hire the
instructional resources. At present, many teachers
travel long distances to acquire teaching resources from
other schools. This is an expensive undertaking and also
wastes a lot of time that would be used in helping the
students.
6. Instructional resources which could be constructed using
the local materials should be made in school workshops as
,
much as possible. For instance, resources like African
musical instruments, music stands, staff-lined boards can
easily be constructed by students if they are guided by
a specialist. In any case, such activities are part of
135
the general objectives of 8-4-4 System of Education, that
aims at making the learners to acquire musical skills to
contribute to their well being and welfare of their
society.
7. Music student should be encouraged to learn the playing
techniques of African traditional instruments, which are
readily available in our locality. Schools should make
arrangements to acquire the instruments in reasonable
quanti ties. A specialist may be hired to teach the
students the playing techniques in cases where the
regular music teacher(s) lack the skills. Some people in
Kenya are now earning a living by playing the indige~ous
instruments in tourist hotels. The instruments should
therefore not be ignored in music education. The playing
of indigenous music is in fact one of the requirements
suggested under the general objectives of 8-4-4 System of
Education. Music students are expected to perform
indigenous musics from all parts of Kenya (The Kenya
Secondary Music Syllabus, 1992).
8. Before the implementation of music curriculum in any
school, funds, facilities, equipment and qualified
teachers should be put into consideration in relatio~ to
learning objectives contained in the music syllabus.
136
9. Schools should regularly acquire the evaluation reports
prepared annually by the Kenya National Examination
Council. The reports are very valuable as they
comprehensi vely analyze the performance by the candidates
in each subject examined. Thus, the documents direct the
teachers on which parts of the syllabus to put more
emphasis in order to improve the students' performance .
.10. Schools should hire specialists from the surrounding
community, to assist the music teachers in areas of the
curriculum that pose difficulties to the teachers.'
11.
6.4
Teacher {raining institutions should structure their
courses such that more emphasis is given to the
production and use of instructional resources. The
student-teachers should be fully drilled in such skills,
since this will help them in future, to handle the music
syllabus more efficiently.
Suggestions For Further Studies
The study was not exhaustive due to the obvious fact that
the academic field is vast and deep. Even in the area of
teaching and learning resources for Music Education
alone, the existing phenomena and the knowledge yet un-
investigated is enormous. This realization became very
clear in the course of the study. Very many gaps emerged
137
that the researcher felt needed to be filled. The
following are such areas that need further research:
1. There is need to conduct an in-depth research dealing
solely with the relationship between availability, use of
instructional resources and performance in music (ln
secondary schools.
2. A study should be conducted to determine the type of
resources that would be most appropriate for teaching
music in Kenyan secondary schools in view of the
prevailing financial realities.
3. There is need to conduct a research with an intention of
coming up with a proposal for the most suitable in-
service courses that would uplift the teachers' skills in
~ the appropriate use of instructional resources for Music
Education.
4. A study may also be carried out to investigate 'nto the
effect of attitude of teadhers, head~eachers and students
on acquisition and use of teaching and learning resources
for music education.
138
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142
APPENDICES
APPENDIX A
QUESTIONNAIRE I: SECONDARY
(SHTQ)
HEADTEACHERS' QUES'I'IONNARE
Please answer the following questions to the best of your
knowledge. Tick ( ) appropriate answer(s) or fill in your·
opinion where applicable.
SECTION A
1. Name of the school
2. For how long have you headed the school?
a) Below 1 year [
b) 1-2 years [
c) 2-5 years [
d) Above 5 years [
3. Do you annually budget for the music department in
your school?
a) Yes
b) No
4. How would you assess the adequacy of text books for music
students in the school?
a) More than adequate
b) Adequate
c) Inadequate
d) Any other, specify
5. How would you asses the general adequacy of musical
instruments in the school?
a) More than adequate [
b) Adequate [
c) .Inadequate [
d) Any other, specify [
\
143
SECTION B
6. What usually is your major purpose for allocatin
fun d s tot hem u sic d e par t men t ?
7. How do you cater. for the areas in the
which your music teacher(s) can
music
not
syllabus
handle?
144
APPENDIX B
QUESTIONNAIRE 11: SECONDARY MUSIC TEACHERS' QUESTIONNAIRE
(SMTQ)
Please answer the following questions to the best of your
knowledge. Tick ( ) appropriate answer(s) or fill in your
opinion where applicable.
SECTION A
1. Name of the school
2. What is your professional qualification?
a) SI [ ]
b) Dip. Ed. [ ]
c) Trained graduate (B.EO, M.ED,BA, MA) . [ ]
d) Other, specify ( ]
3 . What is your teaching experience?
a) Between 1-2 years [
b) Between 2-3 years [
c) Between 3-4 years [
d) Between 4-5 years [
e) Over 5 years [
4. What classes have you taught music?
a)
b)
c)
d)
Form 1
Form 2
Form 3
Form 4
5. Which of the following facilities are available in your
school?
a) Rooms specifically meant for music [
instruction
b) Practice rooms for voice and instruments I,
c) Music stores [
d) Music Libraries [
145 /
6. If you have a music classroom in your school; which of
the following statements best describes it?
a) Too small for music classes
b) Too close to other classes to
accommodate practical lessons
c) Well situated and serves well as
a music classroom
146
6. Below are some of the instructional resources used in
teaching and learning music. Please indicate by a tick
( ) in appropriate box if they are available in your
school or not.
ITEM AVAILABLE NOT AVAILABLE TOTAL
Piano(s)
Pre-recorded cassettes
for prescribed music
Music. scores
Manuscript papers
Recorder instruments
stringed instruments
(African)
Wind instruments
(Western)
Music stands •
Instrumental music
sheets
Vocal music sheets
Melodica
KCSE past papers
School test past papers
Staff-lined board
Drums
Metronomes
Cassette Players
Xylophones
147
7. Indicate by a tick ( ) whether in your opinion, the
following resources are more than adequate, or inadequate
in your schools.
INSTRUCTIONAL MORE THAN ADEQUATE INADEQUATE TOTAL
RESOURCES ADEQUATE
Piano (s)
Music cassettes
for prescribed
African and
Western musics
Music scores
Manuscript
papers
Record~r
instruments
String
instruments
(Western) •
Wind instruments
(Western)
string
instruments
(African)
Wind instruments
(African)
'"Musicstands
Instrumental
Music sheets
Vocal music
sheets
KCSE past papers
School test past
papers
Drums
148
8. Indicate by a tick ( ) which of the instructional
resources listed below, you use in teaching mus'c
INSTRUCTIONAL RESOURCE USED NOT USED TOTAL
Piano(s)
Pre-recorded cassettes
for prescribed music' .
Music scores
Manuscript papers
Recorder instruments
Stringed instruments
'(African)
Wind instruments
(Western)
Music stands
,
1'\Instrumental Music sheets
Vocal music sheets
Melodica
KCSE past papers
School test past papers
Staff-lined board
Drums
"Metronomes
Cassette Players
Xylophones
9. Has your training as a music teacher given you enough
competence to handle the musical instruments?
a)
b)
Yes
No
[
[
149
10. Put a tick ( ) against any of the textbooks listed below
that you use in your teaching.
a)
b)
c)
d)
Basic Music Knowledge by A. Warburton
Folk Music of Kenya by G.S. Zake
Rudements and Theory of Music (ABRSM)
Graded Music Course by A. Warburton
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
11. Indicate by a tick
below are adequate
) to what extent the books listed'
.
BOOK TITLE ADEQUATE INADEQUATE
Basic Music Knowledge ,by A. Warburton
Folk Music of Kenya by
G. S. Zake
Rudim~nts and Theory of
Music (ABRSM)
Graded Music course by
A. Warburton
SECTION B
In this section you are given a series of statements with five
possible answers; Strongly Agree (SA), Agree (A), Undecided
(U), Disagree (D), Strongly Disagree (SD). You are expected
to tick
( ) any of these which closely approximate your opinion
regarding each statement.
,.
12. I have always taught music using chalkboard only, and the
learners understand all the concepts well
SA A U D So
[ [ [ [
13. Use of varieties of teaching and learning resources
enriches the music lessons
SA A U n So
[ [ [ ]
150
14. It is the type of learner, (i.e bright or poor) rather
than the use of teaching and learning resources that
matters in music.
SA A U D SD
[ [ [ [
15. I frequently support my music lessons with the use of
varieties of instructional resources.
SA A U D SD
[ [
16. I put more emphasis on the content of the music lesson ~
than on use of the instructional resources. ~
SA U D SO
[ ] [ [
17. Without the
instruments,
fulfilling.
use of learning resources like musical
most students would not find music lessons
SA U o SO
[ ]
18. I have no interest in using instructional resources in
teaching music.
SA U D SD
J ]
19. I always make use of piano when teaching topics like
harmony, intervals modulation, cadances and other topics
in which it is necessary.
SA A U D SO
] ] [
20. Use of instructional resources in teaching and learn,ing
music waste a lot of time.
SA A U D SO
] ] [
151
21. Use of instructional resource~ in music lessons is
important because it accords the learner ac ive as
opposed to pas ive participation 'n the lesson."
SA U o SO
[
22. My students prefer learning by li~tening than doing.
SA U o SO
23. I make use of any available instructional resource
mostly for the examination classes (i.e Form IV)
SA U o SO
24. The school is unable to acquire necessary resources for ~
teaching and learning music because of financialV
constraints.
SA U o SO
[ [
25. I regularly make use of National Examjnation past papers
and school test past papers because they are valuabJ e /
teaching materials.
SA A U o SO
26. Heavy teaching load makes it hard for me t:oorganize and /
use varieties of learning resources.
SA A u o so
[
152
27. Students should be exposed to the type of learning in
which they participate actively through manipulation of
varieties of learning resources.
SA A U o So
28. The school administration is not supportive towards the .~
acquisition of the equipment, facilities and materials
needed for use in teaching and learning music.
SA A U n So
-29. Use,of instructional resources makes no difference in
learning, there is, therefore, no need to acquire them.
SA A U o So
30. I feel competent in handling all the practical aspects of I /
the secondary music syllabus. ~
SA A U o So
SA A U
of any musical instruments /
prepare me for their use. ~
n So
31.
"
I am not able to make use
because my training did not
J
153
APPENDIX C
QUESTIONNAIRE Ill: SECONDARY MUSIC STUDENTS' UESTIONNAIRE
(SMSO)
Please, answer the following questions to the best of your
knowledge. Tick ( ) appropriate answer (s) or fill in your
opinion where applicable.
SECTION A
'1. Name of school _
2. How 'often do you make use of musical instruments both
African and Western (if there is any in your sChool) for
your own practice?
a) Often
b) Once in a while
c) Never
3. Where are the instructional resources kept in your
school?
a) In a store [ ]
b) In music room [ ]
c) In t~e music teacher's house [ ]
d) In various places within the school[ ]
e) Any other, specify [ ]
4. Who instructs you in the playing of musical instruments?
a)
b)
c)
d)
Music teacher
Hired tutor
I learn by myself
Any other, specify
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
[ J
154
5. Indicate by a tick ( ) to what extent the following
learning equipment are used during your music lessons.
ITEM FREQUENTLY OCCASIONALLY NOT TOTAL
USED USED USED
Pre- recorded
cassettes for
prescribed music
Music scores
Manuscript
papers
instrumental
music sheets
KCSE past papers
.
School tests
past papers
Recorder I
instruments
,
African string
instruments
Western string
instruments
Western wind
instruments
Melodica
Staff-lined
board
Drums
Xylophones
Metronomes
155
SECTION B
6. Please list the textbooks that you have, and
frequently use in your music lessons
7 . In case you do not have any of the textbooks used
frequently in music lessons, how do you cope?
156
APPENDIX D
LIST OF SCHOOLS SURVEYED IN THE STUDY
1. LENANA SCHOOL
2. BURUBURU SECONDARY SCHOOL
3. STATE HOUSE GIRLS' SCHOOL
4. MOl GIRLS SCHOOL, NAIROBI
5. MOl FORCES ACADEMY
6. HURUMA GIRLS SCHOOLS
7. UPPER HILL SCHOOL
8. STAREHE BOYS CENTRE
9. NAIROBI SCHOOL
10. KENYA HIGH SCHOOL
11. ST. GEORGE'S SECONDARY SCHOOL
12. NGARA GIRLS HIGH SCHOOL
13. MAINA WANJIGI
14. DAGORETTI HIGH SCHOOL
15. LANGATA HIGH SCHOOL
16. SUNSHINE SECONDARY SCHOOL
157
APPENDIX E
15th Sept., 199.5
Fllot"': Chad rpe ruo n , Hun I.c Do p t ,
T'",.. 1~~ Uir~ctor, 80nrrl nf ~ost~raduate
Studfer<
Attn: LN. KARIUn
-------- _._-_._ ..---_.
f,U\\JI~CT: JlEJ\TRICE lHG'JUI':) a.A. RJ~Sf\RCI! ENTiTLED "J\VAILAHILITY AND-----.---~-_ ..------ .---------~----.-
USE OF TI~AC1UNG AN)) LEARN [NG RESOURCES FOR M.IJSIC EDUCATION
TNifNYA:h SURVEY (iF ~;EcotiDARY'sCiiOr5i.:srNNAIROBl PROVINCg"
Th Ln is t;o c on f Lrrn that the nbov» nnme d H.A. c and Ldn t e l n lCPHcnrch
p r o po s a I wan ncceptpd by the Fe cu Lt y Postgraduate StUrito8 Committee
on Augu s t 10, 1995 ~uhJ()ct to !~[fectlng a few corrections. Ho~.,~ver.
for the c and Ldn t e to be ub Le tl) ,.to t h I« nhp. ne e dn to ob t a Ln c rucIn I
da,?a f r orn t.he 1~!:'IlY:l Na!:'-ol1r1l E):<'mir.;ltiow; Counc I l ,
PLe aue a s s f s t he r by way or Lu t r oduc Lng her t o the Office or Th«
Pr o a Lde n t .
158
APPENDIX F
KENYATTA UNfVERSITY
FACULTY OF ,-\RTS
PO Box dJ84d
Nairobi, Kenya
Telephnne 8 ,OQ()
Y0tH Ref.
F fillll : THE rHAJr~PERSON. FnCUL TY OF ()RTS
PUS·lGPfWUf.HE cTUDH-'S C[Jr11'1I r lEE
13/9/95
r n . THE Dlf<ECHJR, BOARV OF PO~~1GriADu(nE
STUDIES
_. -_._. ..---.-------
SU8.1 F r r . RE 01f~J C.~. ~~)GOl.cP ~ s _ ._.""': e_.'... _. RF SFJ.'!nCI~1_.f:~~JLI.Ll..Q
~:..e~0)JfH.'llL J I..'!~_,_q':!!L_U~~L.CIF.: ... "'!£.8.P~J r~[;.,JINQ_.J Eer~f'J1.lJ~
C~~SP!-'~1~Js __~p~~.J!\-.J~.1c q~~'r;.0.I,U~~__.}~. !\:~':I) 01 ._J , SUf<vE;.Y.
(1r_ ..~:;r::CUN/.l00'y..__S~I~ID(J~S 1~ N.0 J..!~ql:lJ_E!~9_VJ~[E'~
Thi<;=. 1'7 to rn"flrm th",l thE' ",bo\·(.' l1,lIJ1Fd ~LA. C-"1nclicl-'1tp'c;
" pc. F i1 r: C h pro po C. ~ 1 \'1i'1 S Nee e-(' t p cl by t"F., r ,::t c u l t v r' r <: t 9 r: ;, d 11 i'1 t E'
Sh,d\re, CQ"l<"itt~·p c'n ,:'I\1r;l'...l,=,t "',0, 1Qq", c.llhi~ct tr ",dfectlno ,;I
fr'" 't'rr •..•cttC)rl",. H['1"IE' .••."'r. fpr thr- C'~fl(hrl tr l o t"p ~t'lf" tC1
rir' thl'" "'-hE' rlFPC""" to (Ibt~jt1 '''rl.."j,:t1 d;1t~ frpm UIE' "'F'11Y'"
N."tlC"'c~l E·.",mi"",tlc'no:. Cc'uncil.
159
APPENDIX G
KENYATTA UNIVERSITY
6
OFFICE OF THE DIRECTOR, BOARD OF POST GRADUATE STUDIES.
. P.O. Box ;!:J8~1\
NAlnOBl, l<enY::I
Telegrams:
Tel: 810901 - 19
Telex: 25483
Fax: 810757
•
..............~.S.9./.~Q1G.f.93 .
Onto... 15. 9. 1995................................................
Thl" Permanent Secr e tar y ,
Office of the President,
P.O. Box 30510,
NAIROBI
Dear Sir ,
REF: RESEARCH AUTHORIZATION
I wd~e to intr-oduce Mrs. Beatr lce A. Obonyo Digolo who is a Post-
graduate Student of this University. She is registered for a M. A.
(Master of Arts) pr oqr'amme in the Department of Music.
Mrs .Digolo intends to conduct research for a thesis entitled:
"Availability and Use of Teaching and Learning Resources for Music
Education: A Survey of Secondal-y Schools in Nairobi Province",
on par tla l fulfilment of the requit-ement of her degree programme.
~
Any-assistance given to her will be highly app reciat ed .
Yours faithfully.
/'
,/ .~
(
' ;:>7,. "( ..,(<tUn' ~r; >1 ~ t~·
I.~/I<ARIU\(I
- ..:FOR: 01RECTOR BOARD· OF POSTGRADUATE STUD IES. --~-----
INK :sa
- -,-
PAGE 2
.. 'Tuts IS TO CERTIFY THAT:
l ,R~X./Mrs./MX.$X BEATRICE .
:: ' A. 0 .. OIGOlO
i' I ~ • .- ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
\ . of (Address) P.:.9.: ..~~~.J~~~~ .
l : . NAIROIHt .' I •••••••••••••••••••••••.•• ~••••••••••.••••••••••••••••••.•••.•..•
~'<," has been permitted to conduct research ill .
b:;: .(~~ : Location,
V; ~.~~~~~ Bistrict,
•... NM.B..QJU ; : Province,
. AVAILAOILITY AND USE oron the ItOPIC .••..•............................•.............
., . n:ACHING AND. LEARNING RESOURCES rOH MUSIC..................................................................
.EO.UCf\TlOH: f\ SURVEY OF SECONUf\RY SCHOOLS
:.~;~:m.NAIROni::::::: ::::::::: ::::::::::::: :::::::::: ::::::::
;: \).
~: .
Ior a period eliding ~~!.~.~~~~ , 19 ?6 .
, .
. 160
APPENDIX H
• 1~..
PAGE 3
Research permit No, : OP/13/001 /25C 248". ," r" t ••••••••••.•• ~ J •••••••••••••••••
• ::.1.',: 16TH OeTOBEn l' 9Date of 'issue ;;.:'; :l•.; ....•...... ~~, ~~.
Fee receivod KSHS.l00/= .. .
.1
1
1-.I
.e.i\.~l.~:r.)':~;;;
Applicant's o ';f
Signature or:
I
j
161
APPENDI~
Ml~TRY4)F EDUCATION
'nooe: Nairobi 22~344-9
- !t>ply~ please OUOle
INS/A/7/13/Vol 11No, , .
, and dolo
rnrt r INSPECTOH or SCIJOOLS
INsrECTor~ATE
P,O, Brrx ::\O-'2G
NAIROBI
"" ,1,0,'-'1 Ja,nLla,ry", J9,,~,6,
Be a t r ice A Obonyo Digolo
1<enya tta Un iv e r s i t~,
Music Depar t merit
P 0 Box LI3844
NAIROBI
De ar Madam
RE: AUTHORITY TO CONDUCT A RESEARCH IN SOME SECONDARY
SCIIOOLS IN NI\I ROI1I PROVINCE
You al-e -ire r e bv ~:r:jntcd r'~I'll1i::;si(j:l to corirluc t r esear ch in Secorida r y
Schools in Na i r ob i that o f Ie r Music,
Please avail a copy of v ou r r esear ch to the Minist.ry upon completion.
Wishing you success.
YOUI'S faithfllll~'
fL<~~,
E S MASIGA (MRS)
CHIEF INSPECTOR OF SCHOOLS
C C The Pr ov in ci a l Dlr ec tor of Education
Nai r o bi Province
NAIROBI
162
i\prENDIX ,)
KENYATTA UNIVERSITY
DEPARTMENT OF MUSIC
Our Rei .
r () Box .no·1 1
N;)irnbi. KenY;l
I ('I"phone 81 (lOOO
Your nrf
I)p.l r ~;i r "'1:1<1;1(11,
In: ,\\',\11"'If 1.1TY AND PSI-: OF TEACIII.NC A III LEAHN IN(:
IU':~;Il\IRCE fOR ~fUS It: ElltICAT1 ON- --.------. ------
1.1111 :111 ~·I.". s t ud e n t n t Ko n v n t t a III1i.ver'.;ity, Fnr u l t v of AI-tS,
\)('I':lrtlll"1I1 of Hu s l c . 111(1'11<1to c n r r v (Jilt ,1 r e s o n r r h nil LhC'
"Av:I f I :1h i 1 f t v ;111d u r;P 01 t (>;1r h , 11g <111cl le;! r n i 11r. r (' <; (111r c r s I (11-
l11U::' (" ,,·I'I.·.1l 11111 In s('cPI"I;1 r v school s '11 Na l r o h I "r(lv f 11("('''.
"
Y()tI r se Ill'" 1 h., s h e P11 Sl' 1(> (" t· r d tor.' r t i (.i1''' t e l n t h I'~ s t "cl v , I,'h (1Se
findings .r r c hoped to h(' (If immense v a l uc to tIJ0SC' i nv o l v o In mu s I c
t ea rh Lng . f Intend to v l s l t YOIII- school on '" .
In ("01 IC',·t SOIl1C rln t n . 'lh l s I" t hc r e I o r o to no rt f y you of the l n t e nrlc d
v i « i t n n rl I' Cl k j n cl 1.y r (> q 11(' :, t V()! 1 t Cl [1 I.p r l r ho SC' w h Cl \~ I lIb C' f 11v o I 'l' cl
111 till" i nv c s t Lp n t f o u , :llId 1II;"<l' ;IIIY IIl'("' ..··s,1rv ;lrr:JIII~t'IIH'lItS.
"I l . I ("11•.cl, fIn d ;1 ("(l PY n f ;1 I' C' Sl':1 re h per III i t f r Cl m t h l' Cl f fie t' 0 f I he"p ..""",,! .m d ;J l e t re r I r om t lio Ch Le f l ns pe c t o r of Srh"pl".
You r s r:Jithflllh',
Enc I .
1.63
APPENDIX K
A SAMPLE SCHJ:MI:S OF WORK USED BY SOME SlCCONDARY MUSIC TEACHERS IN NAIROBI 'PROVl:NCE.
- ---- - - -~---=-
Form :Ol'i"E TERM :THREE - !I1VSIC Scheme OrWork . --- ·PageNo, 1
Wee]: Lesson Content Objectives Resources I Teaching, , I EvaiuaIion ii
I Learning Acts i
1 3 THEORY: Go over work covered. <Confidence. Teacher. Read Write. Clap. Beat. ,1
AURAL: Intervals. Rhythm. Sing. !
melody.
I1AFRICAN:.Dance. Perform a Perform a variety of dances, , Own repertoire. Sing songs to "
dance of any Kenyan Society. accompany dance and 11
1II WIlllSTORY: . dance steps.
I!
2 '3 THEORY: Revision work. 100% for all. 1 Teacher. 1 Read. Wrrte, Sing. I;
AURAL: Rbythm. Melody.
ilIntervals. .AFRICAN: Analysis. Vocal music . Be able to respond to different Listen and participate ,I
of the solo type. types of music. where possible. 1I
11
WIHISTORY:
1I
. I
1
13 13 THEORY AND AURAL:TESTS. I I
I:
AFRICAN: Revision. Vocal solo.
jj
1 Be ab le to respond to different Sing Songs. I'I
11
WIIDSTORY: types of music.
I 11
\4
I Beginners' Theory of
'I
3 THEORY: I IV and V Triads in Harmony. Wrlte. Play. rI
major keys. Music. I
AURAL: Solfa work. !
I
i
AFRICAN: Composrtion, Compose Enjoy music. pupils. Sing some of the songs. !
simple songs. 1
I
WIIDSTORY: I I:,. 11
1
5 3 THEORY: I IV and V Triads. Confidence. Teacher. Write. Play. /:I!
Terms and signs: .: '.,c<""'· -;: " 7'
,
11-~
AURAL: Simple and compound 1
1
I
1 rhythms. Intervals. i
1 AFRICAN: TEST on the work Respond posrttvely. Teacher. React posttrvely.
Icovered to date: ' .
0
0" ~.~
WIHISTORY: .
. , -- ,'0 , ,,.
"- I..'
'-------_._._---------------
164
Form :ONE TERM':THREE MUSIC Scheme O[Work
I Week
3 THEORY:Revlslcn, Confldence.l00% Teacher. I Sing,Write; I:
AURAL:Solfawork-Intervals. - I,
Rhythm. I,
AFRIcAN:Performance,Folk Beableto perform. Slng and appreciate. 1I
I~ r- -+_s_o_n_g~_ . ._. +- -+ ~------------------t_----~II:,·I11 WIIllSTORY:
7 3 EXAMS.
8 3 THEORY:Creating 4 bar Composition. Teacher. Sing. Write. 11
melodies, 11~iAURAL:Solfawork.Sing songs.
AFRICAN:Performance. Respondpositivelyto other Makemusicon the i
Instruments that accompanyfold peoples'music. availableinstruments. !
I~~ I
1r-__~-- __-'rlW.~IIll~S~T-O-RY--:------------~----~~------------_+--------------_+-------- ~----------~I
9 3. . THEORY:Scaleand time- Goodbasicknowledge. Teacher. Clap.Write.Play. i
signature work. _" ~. .
AURAL:songsand compositions.
AFRICAN:Composesimplesongs
and accompanywith instruments.
WIIllSTORY: ._ ~,
1~1-0---r-3----~-THE---O-·--R-~-:-~-~-:In--S-an--d-s-lgns-·--j~~:-'--+-g-OO--d-b-a-si-c-kn--o-vn-e-d-g-~----------+-T-ea--c-h-er-.----------~~S-in--g-.-w--rt-t~----------+-------------~I
Intervals; Triadswork. -< . . I
AURAL:Sight-singandWord
.rhythms work, -~
AFRICAN:EXAMS. .-~.: :...
WIIDSTORY:
6
11
Objeaives Resources
,I
Teaching Evaluation j
Learning Acts 1
Lesson COnIenI
Singthrough their
compositions.
Comparesongs.
REVIEWOFTHISYEAR'S ..
WORK. ';' .... :
3
:r . -,
Form: TWO Term :ONE 11fVS1C
16
Scheme O(TForJ: Page No. 1
~~~~==T===================~====================~~==========~~~~========~~~~--====
Wee): I Lesson I Content I Objectives . .;1 Resources Teaching I Evaluation
Learni Ilg Acts '
I
TIIEORY: Revision of Form One Thorough kno\".-iedgc I Beginnrn' Theorv or Sing.Wdlc.
'Work. I' Iusic,
I
AFRICA1\(: Revision. Questions on To anwer questions posili\·"'~. Own repertoire Give' anwers 10
work covered previous year. I questions orally
'., AURAL: Rhvthm, melody, !
Intervals. !
WIWSTORY: Iutroductiorr- The I
major ieriods in-music; I
,,.,
;::.
I
I
!~, THEORY: ,\01<.' valuesRests
Time signa!ures and groupings
AFHlCAj"i: The Tuned Drum. The
Sukuti.
11 3
1I
I
I
I
THE 0 RY: Cycle of Fllths .work.
8ve transposition.
AFRlCA"N: A study of a five .- .. '~'
stringed instrument. - The
Adeudcu. _ ~
AI.TR~L:Solfa Work, Song. ,".:::'., ..
WIHISTORY: The Baroque Period.
I Time Knowicduc.
1 -
i Teacher.
I
I
Ii Folk i\-j usic of K(,I1~'a.
I l':JF notes
1,
I
I
I,
Clap. Write. I.·1:
I
I
THEORY: Terms and sipnx,
Compound time. ~
.·U·RICA:~: Performance 011 the
drum. .- ..;:~ ... ~:~.;
'AVRAL: Sella work. ..
. ... ~ .~; -:,:..,:~::". ~.
-::-:-.:=:. >..~J::~~~/r ':;'··';~:;~~.:: _.'
W/HISTOHY :Th(' Rcnalssance
.-Period,
.' .
TEST.
Be able to descrtuc the Sukuti
Drums
Discuss and draw the
drums.
1I,
I
Thorough Knowledge. I Teacher.
I
I
i
Clap. Wrile. Sing, !
Everv boy plays I. .. I
different rhvthms OD the !
drullls' I
Be uhl" to pia) simple rhythms.
\.
4 Rev Ision, leacher.
Be able to describe the Instrument
briefly.
Wl'ilc.
Draw the instrument
and make notes.
fonn :TWO Term :0:\[
166
Scheme or Work
Week I Lesson I Resources I Teaching, Learnino Acts
..,
>
I COTUenl I Objeaives
THEOR ' .\!'\D .\nu'L:TEST. ,;I .'\FRIC\N: Listen to arecording of 11 Appreciate the music.
I
IDUSiC from a stringed insrrumcnt. I
WIHISTORY: Tile Baroque
Period: TEST.I '
(. Sil!g, \Y,·iIC.I~
!
I
I llJEORY: r-.nNOR~lc·A E D.
I
T echnical names.
.. \Fl~ICA.t-i: Sin;,!ing. Folk song
I
prcscnrai ion,
. \ 1'R...\L: Scales and i\-J clotly Worl.,
\X'HISTOI,Y: The Cl:I"sic'/
Period.
Understand relative scales. :~l'gillnt.:n' TheOl-;' of
\ l usic,
I;oys' rcpcioue. Learn the rhvtluu of
song.
-V'l0=:
UJ>
Some of the boys be ab le ro reuch a
. folk :;ong.
THEORY: Musica! si~lls and
terms,
AFI~IC\N: YOCIl music. Solo
response.
.\n~AL:SOles anti \Iclotl~: ·,Vorl...
lnrervals
I \Viden .knowledge.
I, Bc ahlc to respond to diff cr enr
rypes or music.
'1e.ichcr.
:~(l.\,S' a n d Icaciu-r»
rcpeuore.
Sillg Ibt' song.,
. I
! , \'\'IHtSTORY: Tuc' Classic:ll I
I
i ,
I Period. 1utrouuction to score
, 1
II I I ;i ! 11 readine. II II I I!' s " THEO RY: Melodv work with COlllposi!:g 1 Teacher 1 Sill6 ~y~·i~('. ;:>
41h,5th.6Ih,S,'e I~P~ UJI to 4 ~rs~.
I , j'
\:
! ! 1 .AFRICA!'1: lUlal~'si!;. Vocal music. ,\.ppreci:lIe rliffcro nt music.
AliRAL: i\lelouy and Interval 1 i.I: I
I
I.
work. ~:~. I I-
I
j,I:
\YIl:lISTORY: TI!e RomanticI , I1I Pc-riod. ~~,.,'\..~-:- '" . I
!, 9 I~ lliEORY AND AURAL: TESTS. i I ,
\!
I
AFRI(,_~'i: Dance. Sulartl dance. Be ahlc tu disJlby :l sense of I
I
I
I
,
!\VIHlSTORY: Tbe Romantic coor-dinat ion .
Period TEST>
.- .....-.1'"-.-
.~.
CHAPTER SIX
Humanistic Ethics as a Source of Social Education
and Ethics in Post-colonial Kenya
1. Introduction
The purpose of this chapter is to determine the extent to which humanistic
ethics can be used in the task of improving the content of our social education and
ethics programme. In order to achieve this objective, the chapter sets out by
examining the views of four humanistic movements with regard to morality, namely,
Marxism, existentialism, Western liberal humanism and third world humanism. Our
consideration of the Marxist ethic is limited to an examination of Marx's thought
alone, due to the space available, and due to the fact that most other developments
in Marxist ethics are influenced by Marx's thought. Our consideration of
existentialist ethics chooses to make specific reference to Jean-Paul Sartre, for the
reason that he lucidly represents the avowedly atheistic section of existentialism.
Under Western liberal humanism, we have made reference to the thought of A.J.
" Ayer, H.J. Blackham, H.J. Eysenck, A. Flew and H. Hawton, among others. Under
third world humanism, we have chosen to examine the thought of Julius K: Nyerere
and Kwame Nkrumah who are the first presidents of the United Republic of
Tanzania and Ghana respectively, the thought of the Algerian nationalist of
Caribbean origin, Frantz Fanon, and the thought of the Latin American
educationalist, Paulo Freire.
This chapter deliberately chooses to consider the secular side of humanism
in order to provide a contrast between this trend of thought and the traditional
184
African, Christian and Islamic ethics. This is because traditional African Morality
appeals to religious sanctions, and Christian and Islamic ethics are religious in
character.
2. Exposition of the Humanist Ethical Outlook
'Humanism' is a term that has been given a wide variety of often very vague
meanings. There are however two important meanings of this term. The first is
that humanism is the intellectual movement that characterised the culture of
Renaissance Europe. Renaissance students of the literature of classical Greece and
Rome - especially Greece - were called humanists. Such students were optimistic
about human possibilities, attended enthusiastically to human achievements, and
eschewed refined enquiries into theology. However, in this sense, humanism was
perfectly consistent with belief in God and a particular Christian devotion (Flew Ed.
1984, 153). The second important definition is that humanism is any philosophy
which recognizes the value or dignity of man, and makes him the measure of all
I" things or somehow, takes human nature, its limits or its interests as its theme
(Edwards, Ed. 1967, 69-70). In this chapter, humanism as given in the second
defini IOnwill be our focus. Looking at this second definition, it becomes clear that
.
there are many philosophical systems that would fall under the term 'humanism'.
We shall however, examine four types of humanism which exclude religion from
their scheme of things.
As Smart points out, modern man has come increasingly under the spell of
non-religious and anti-religious ideas. Many people hold ideas that exclude God
and the invisible world from the realm of reality. In the modern period, powerful
185
statements of atheism and agnosticism have had wide success. Social and
intellectual forces have combined to promote a widespread practical atheism (Smart
1969,647). In this section, we shall outline the ethical views of four types of secular
humanism, before going on to identify elements which are common to these four
trends of thought. The four trends of secular humanist thought chosen for
consideration are Marxism, existentialism, Western liberal humanism and third
World humanism.
A Four Typesof SecularHumanism
(i) Marxist view of ethics
Marx's view of morality is bound up with his VIew of human history.
According to this view, as the economic basis of society alters, so all consciousness
alters. Egoism and greed are not ingrained for ever in the character of human
beings. They would disappear in a society in which private property and private
means of production were replaced with communal property and socially-organised
I' means of production. In such a society, men would lose their preoccupation with
private interest, and as citizens of the new society, would find their own happiness
in working for the good of all. Hence a communist society would have a new ethical
basis.
In the Communist Manifesto, the capitalist institution of morality is listed
together with the capitalist institutions of law and religion as "bourgeois prejudices,
behind which lurk in ambush just as many bourgeois interests" (Marx in McLellan
(ed.) 1977, 230). For Marx morality is part of the ideological superstructure of
society, being determined by the economic basis and serving to promote the interests
186
of the ruling class in any society other than the communist one which has no ruling
class. Marx therefore called for the rejection of morality that serves the interests
of the ruling class. Once communism has been established and classes have
disappeared, we can pass from class morality to a really human morality. However,
as with communism in general, Marx did not give details concerning the content of
communist morality.
Communism would differ from all other societies in that there would be no
false consciousness. False consciousness involves failing to see things as they really
are. This comes about because a society's superstructure can conceal its real basis.
Class morality adds an extra layer of false consciousness, leading the worker to
believe that, for example, the capitalist has a moral right to the proceeds of his
investment. With communist production, there would be no exploitation to be
concealed. Everything would really be as it appeared to be. Moral illusions would
crumble along with the religious illusions. The new morality would genuinely serve
the interests of all human beings.
,.. One of the most important concepts in Marx's analysis of the development
of human society is that of alienation. Alienation is a condition where an effort to
achieve a certain goal backfires, and succeeds in producing the opposite of what was
.
intended. For Marx, an individual living in any society other than a communist one
is alienated from the products of his labour, from the activity of production, from
other men and from his species, that is, his essence. In such a society, work
backfires and produces the opposite of self-realisation by negating man. In the
communist society on the other hand, man realises himself, that is, objectifies
himself, through work. (See the Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts of 1844,
187
written by Marx, for a further discussion of 'alienation').
According to Marx, in capitalist society, to propose that people act for the
general interest is often to propose that they work against their own interests as they
conceive it. Under such conditions, the very idea of morality implies something
burdensome and contrary to our own interests. However, under communism, this
aspect of morality will vanish as the gulf between individual interest and universal
interest vanishes. Morality will cease to be a dictate from without, and become an
expression of our chief wants as social beings.
Marx's account of religion is also tied up with his theory of work and
alienation. For Marx, man's basic alienation is that which is caused by the capitalist
system: an alienation of man from himself and from nature. In this state of
alienation and misery, man projects his hope for a better life into a future life in
heaven. In other words, man, seeing no way out of his misery, gives up his hope for
a better life on earth, replacing it with a hope in an after life. He thus called
religion "the opiate of the people". The following passage seems to summarise
Marx's position on the relationship between actual material conditions and man's
I'
consciousness which includes the place of morality and religion in that
consciousness:
... we do not set out from what men say, imagine,
conceive, nor from men as narrated, thought of,
imagined, conceived, in order to arrive at men in
the flesh. We set out from real, active men, and
on the basis of their real life-process we
demonstrate the development of the ideological
reflexes and echoes of this life-process. The
188
phantoms formed in the human brain are also,
necessarily, sublimates of their material
life-process, which is empirically verifiable and
bound to material premises. Morality, religion,
metaphysics and all the rest of ideology and their
corresponding forms of consciousness no longer
seem to be independent. They have no history or
development. Rather, men who develop their
material production and their material
relationships alter their thinking and the products
of their thinking along with their real existence.
Consciousness does not determine life, but life
determines consciousness (Marx in McLellan (ed.)
1977, 160, 164).
From all that has been outlined above, it becomes clear that Marx's approach
to morality is solely materialist, that is, the view that whatever exists is either matter,
or entirely dependent on matter for its existence. Moreover, Marx's account of
morality is bound up with his 'historical materialism', that is, Marx's theory of
" history which deals with particular laws governing the development of human society
and thought, and accounting for such development in materialist terms.
From our outline of the Marxist ethic, we can deduce that the Marxists in
post-colonial Kenyan society would favour a moral education programme that does
not appeal to the supernatural realm as a source of the content or sanction for
morality. Moreover, such Marxists would insist that it is unacceptable for the
education system to impart those moral values that are presently upheld by various
sections of the society, since for them such moral values do not serve to promote the
general good in the society, as they are the result of an unjust social order. The
tI
189
Marxists would therefore recommend that our education system be used to hasten
the inception of the classless society by creating an awareness of the need for such
a society among our youth.
(H) Existentialist ethics
As Macquarrie points out, when we try to say what existentialism is, we are
confronted with a certain elusiveness. This is partly because a kind of elusiveness
is built into existentialism itself. The advocates of this philosophy deny that reality
can be neatly packaged in concepts or presented as an interlocking system. In the
existentialist view there are always loose ends: our experience and our knowledge
are always incomplete and fragmentary. There is no common body of doctrine to
which all existentialists subscribe. For this reason, Macquarrie describes
existentialism not as a 'philosophy', but rather as a "style of philosophizing"
(Macquarrie 1972, 1-2). Yet however different the outlooks of the various
existentialist philosophers may be, there is a resemblance among them in the way
they "do philosophy". It is this shared style of philosophizing that permits us to call
I'
them "existentialists" (Macquarrie 1972,2).
•One basic characteristic belonging to the existentialist style of philosophizing
IS that it begins from man rather than from nature. In other words, it is a
philosophy of the subject rather than of the object. For the existentialists, the
subject is the existent in the whole range of his existing. He is not only a thinking
subject, but an initiator of action and a centre of feeling. It is this whole spectrum
of existence, known directly and concretely in the very act of existing, that
existentialism tries to express. Sometimes therefore, this style of philosophizing
190
appears anti-intellectualist. The existentialist thinks passionately, as one who is
involved in the actualities of existence (Macquarrie 1972, 2). Existentialists claim
to found their philosophy on a broad existential basis, and eschew any narrow
rationalism or intellectualism. In stressing existence, it is also implied that one
cannot posit a 'nature' or an 'essence' of man, and then go on to make deductions
about him. It is perhaps this approach that above all gives to existentialism its
somewhat elusive character (Macquarrie 1972,2-3).
Although not all existentialists categorically deny the existence of God, yet
because of their emphasis on the centrality of man as the starting point for
philosophical investigation, God is excluded altogether by some existentialists, or he
is given a peripheral position in the philosophy of others. For the purposes of this
chapter, we concentrate on that kind of existentialism which totally excludes God
from it. This kind of existentialism is most articulately stated by Jean-Paul Sartre:
Existentialism is nothing else but an attempt to
draw the full conclusions from a consistently
atheistic position ....Existentialism is not atheist in
the sense that it would exhaust itself in the
demonstration of the non-existence of God. It
declares, rather, that even if God existed that
would make no difference, from its point of view.
Not that we believe God does exist, but we think
that the real problem is not that of his existence;
what man needs is to find again himself, not even
a valid proof of the existence of God (Sartre, 1973,
56).
191
According to existentialism man is free to create his own world. This
freedom is relevant to the realm even of man's morality. Man's ethical freedom is
unrestricted. As man 'creates' his own world, he 'creates' his own values as well.
A value, according to the existentialists, is that which man chooses as an end for
himself. There cannot exist an objective order of values simply because man is
unable to know reality objectively, that is, as it is in itself. Thus man has no option
but to create his values. These notions of man's basic freedom, and of man's ethical
freedom which is equally unrestricted and creative, leaves no room for a moral
obligation of man towards a transcendent God or towards any other authority.
Existentialist ethics turns away from any kind of legalism. Laws and rules are
considered to be external impositions, forcing the existent into a predetermined
pattern and so preventing him from realising his unique authentic selfhood. Thus
existentialism tends to encourage what is usually called a 'situation' ethic. In such
an ethic, the course of action is determined by the unique situation in which the
agent finds himself. What is important is how the agent is true to himself in each
situation. This position must not, however, be interpreted as an advocation of
,-
extreme individualism which disregards the interests of others. On the contr~ry,
existentialism acknowledges that authentic selfhood has its communal dimension.
(Macquarrie 1972, 213-214).
The above then is the existentialist position on morality, stated in very general
terms. It is a position that emphasises the centrality of man who is seen as a free
agent in the world. Consequently, existentialist morality excludes the authority of
God and of society, even though it acknowledges that the moral agent cannot ignore
the fact that he exists in a social situation. The atheistic existentialist would
192
consequently prescribe for Kenya a moral education programme that seeks to
encourage the individual to use his freedom in making moral choices. Moreover,
the avowedly atheistic existentialist would advocate the exclusion of religion as a
source or sanction for morality, since he would view religion as an obstacle to the
individual's freedom. What is more, the existentialist would recommend that
Kenya's moral education programme be one that helps the learner to appreciate the
unique situations which he encounters, and which call for him, as far as possible, to
make moral decisions without appealing to any moral authority apart from himself.
(iii) Western liberal humanist ethics
Western liberal humanism, hereafter simply termed as 'liberal humanism', has
greatly influenced the English-speaking world, and according to Smart, it is rooted
in the scepticism of the 18th Century (Smart 1969,647). Liberal humanism derives
mainly from the French revolution and the Enlightenment. While liberal humanist
ideas are found in isolation very much earlier, it was in the 18th Century that they
became more coherent because they were allied with powerful social forces.
Through the utilitarians and radicals, they influenced social movements in Victotian
England. During that period, "what was old in this family of ideas was the notion
that all human beings, not a favoured few, have an equal claim to happiness; what
was more novel was the belief that the happiness of the mass of mankind could be
increased by creating a new social order and placing scientific knowledge at its
service" (Hawton 1963, 13-14). Liberal humanism still flourishes in the English-
speaking world to the present time.
193
Hector Hawton, an avowed liberal humanist and a one time director of the
British Humanist Association, stated in the preface to his book (1963) that the aim
of organised humanism is to stimulate independent thinking and reject reliance on
authonty. Hawton went on to point out that starting from the premise that man
must solve his problems with his own unaided resources, humanists have to work out
for themselves their answer to the questions which have inspired the great religions:
What can I believe? what can I hope for? What ought I to do? Hawton went on
to assert that the humanists cannot expect to arrive at identical conclusions, but
there is a sufficiently broad agreement about the choice of ends and the method of
approach to provide a bond of unity among them.
The bond of unity which Hawton speaks about among the liberal humanists
has a number of aspects. One such aspect is the humanist assertion that human life
ends at death. A.J. Ayer, another avowed humanist, holds that because human
existence ends with death, our accounts of happiness and self-fulfilment are closed
at death. Ayer admits that this has the harsh consequence that very many people
" are left with an unfavourable balance which will never be redressed. Partly for this
reason, holds Ayer, it is morally incumbent upon humanists to do everything in their
power 0 bring about the material and social conditions in which the great majority
of people will have a fair opportunity of finding satisfaction in their lives.
Moreover, so far as possible, the liberal humanists' concern should extend beyond
the national or professional groups of which they happen to be members, to
mankind as a whole (Ayer 1968, 9-10).
Liberal humanism holds the study of the natural and social sciences very
highly. This is not surprising, seeing that the liberal humanist excludes supernatural
194
accounts of man. Scientific inquiry presupposes the situation of human beings
confronting objects in this world. Anything supposed outside this condition is not
open to its inquiry. Anything totally transcendent, encompassing both subject and
object for example, is beyond such an inquiry (Blackham 1963, 13-14).
Because of their emphasis on the natural and social sciences, liberal
humanists abhor indoctrination - the process of imparting beliefs and information
without taking the trouble to prove the tenability or validity of what is being
imparted. Thus Antony Flew urges that parents (and others) have no moral right
to indoctrinate (or to arrange for other people to indoctrinate) their (or any)
children in a religious or political creed of the parents' (or anyone else's) choice.
(Flew 1968,79).
The liberal humanists' emphasis on science also leads them to greatly value
human inventions. According to Longuet-Higgins, there is no need to fear human
inventions such as computers, which some have seen as being man's rivals. Thus
Longuet-Higgins writes:
Each of the great scientific revolutions of the last
five hundred years has given man a new view of
'" himself. The Copernican revolution placed him in
a much bigger universe, though not at its centre.
The Newtonian revolution established the
faithfulness and universality of natural law, so that
he could feel secure against the arbitrary whims of
supernatural forces. The Darwinian revolution
placed him at the peak of a vast evolutionary
development. Relativity and quantum mechanics
re-established him as the observer who cannot be
195
omitted from any complete account of matter and
motion; and the computer revolution enables him
to think of his own mind in a logical and
systematic way rather than in terms of dark,
nebulous concepts such as the ego and the id
(Longuet-Higgins 1968, 209-210).
The liberal humanists' preoccupation with science greatly informs their views
on morality. According to Eysenck for example, humanism is not a feasible doctrine
unless it rests securely on science. Moreover, the science most relevant to humanist
aspirations is psychology (Eysenck 1968,265). For Eysenck, however desirable the
elaboration of a liberal humanistic ethic may be, the accomplishment of such an aim
depends entirely on the development of the scientific knowledge of psychology. To
wish to work out in any detail a humanistic ethic at the present stage of human
development "is equivalent to asking for television, flying machines and laser beams
at a time when men still thought that the earth was shaped like a saucer and carried
on the back of a gigantic elephant; the future of humanistic thought on this subject
I'is completely bound up with the growth of psychological knowledge ...." (Eysenck
1968,271).
"The liberal humanistic ethical outlook emphasises the importance of tolerance
among men, this again being in line with its scientific outlook. Thus Ayer states: "In
common with other humanists, I believe that the only possible basis for a sound
morality is mutual tolerance and respect: tolerance of one another's customs and
opinions: respect for one another's rights and feelings; awareness of one another's
needs" (Ayer 1968, 10).
196
Other liberal humanists hold that all of man's moral values are his own
creation. Concerning this Hawton writes:
What Nietzsche was almost the first to see was that
. if God does not exist moral values have always
been created by man. .... Yet, ..., humanists are in
no worse predicament than anyone else. All
morality is a human creation ..... There is no way
round this necessity of devising our own standards.
Hawton points out however that to state that morals are of our own making
is obviously a simplification in view of the fact that we are born into a society which
has its moral code (Hawton 1963, 12-13).
Because of the humanist abhorrence of both the use of indoctrination and of
authority, there is no supreme exemplar of humanist ethics. As Blackham states,
"there is no supreme exemplar of humanist ethics, because, on humanist
assumptions, there is no summum bonum, no chief end of all action, no far-off
crowning event to which all things move and for which all things exist, no teleology,
no de!initive human nature even. Instead there are many possibilities, better and
worse, 'and ways of avoiding the worse and realizing and increasing the better. Thus
there are many patterns of good living, which can be exemplified, and none that is
best or comprehensively or exhaustively good" (Blackham 1963, 18-19).
All in all the liberal humanistic view of morality is clearly characterised by
internal divergence. Despite this internal divergence however, it is clear that there
are common characteristics in the ethical thought of the various humanistic thinkers:
God and religion are excluded from the realm of human existence, including man's
197
morality; the importance of individual reflection is emphasised; the importance of
scientific investigation is stressed; optimism in man's intellectual ability is expressed.
Consequently, the liberal humanists, like the Marxists and existentialists, would
prescribe for post-colonial Kenya a moral education programme that excludes
religion as a source or sanction for morality. Moreover, the liberal humanists would
recommend that Kenya's moral education programme encourage Kenya's youth to
undertake individual reflection and scientific investigation. Furthermore, the liberal
humanists would insist on the need for Kenya's moral education programme to
develop optimism in man's intellectual ability among the youth.
(iv) Third World humanistic ethics
'Third world humanism' is a phrase which is used in this chapter to refer to
the thought of third world thinkers who attempt to use purely human intellectual
and physical resources to ameliorate the social, political and intellectual
impoverishment of the third world. Some of these thinkers have been politicians,
I' and have been preoccupied with political issues, while others have been professional
educationalists, whereas others have been academicians, specialising in disciplines
such as history and philosophy. We shall consider in some detail the thought of
four such third world thinkers, who in the view of this study, are representative of
the considerably large group of third world thinkers. The four thinkers whose
thought is examined here are the first president of the United Republic of Tanzania
- Julius K: Nyerere, the first president of Ghana -Kwarne Nkrumah, the late
Algerian nationalist - Frantz Fanon, and the South American educationalist - Paulo
Freire.' Three of the four thinkers chosen have drawn most of their practical
198
experience from conditions in African countries, for the simple reason that this study
is aimed at reflecting on means of improving the content of the moral education
programme in Kenya.
Julius K Nyerere
Nyerere is preoccupied with the need to create a Tanzania which is just and
egalitarian (Nyerere 1979A, 32). This is clearly an ethical aim. He sees education
as one of the main means of achieving this aim. Nyerere is very aware of the social
nature of education. Thus in 1967Nyerere stated that the purpose of education is
"to transmit from one generation to the next the accumulated wisdom and
knowledge of the society, and to prepare the young people for their future
membership of the society and their active participation in its maintenance or
development" (Nyerere 1979A, 17). Nyerere went on to urge that "The education
provided by Tanzania for the students of Tanzania must serve the purposes of
Tanzania. It must encourage the growth of the socialist values we aspire to. It must
"encourage the development of a proud, independent, and free citizenry which relies
upon itself for its won development, and which knows the advantages and the
problems of co-operation. It must ensure that the educated know themselves to be
an integral part of the nation, and recognize the responsibility to give greater service
the greater the opportunities they have had" (Nyerere 1979A, 32).
In the 1970s, Nyerere continued with his preoccupation with the creation of
a just and egalitarian society, and with his view of education as a catalyst towards
this process. Moreover, Nyerere's humanistic outlook became more articulate, as
is evidenced by his modified view of the purpose of education as being the
199
liberation of man (Nyerere 1979B, 43). The humanist outlook in Nyerere in the
1970'sis clearly seen when he writes concerning the liberation of man that, "The first
essential of a liberated man is an awareness of two things: his own manhood, and
the power of man to use circumstances rather than to be used by them. He must
have overcome any ingrained feelings of inferiority, or superiority, and therefore be
able to co-operate with other men, of the basis of equality, for their common
purposes" (Nyerere 1979B, 43). Nyerere strongly condemns any education system
which inculcates into its students a materialistic and selfish outlook. He condemns
any education system that leads its students to view education as a means to higher
salaries, since for him such a view implies that education turns people into
marketable commodities. For Nyerere such a View is held by exploiters of society
(Nyerere 1979B, 45-46).
Nyerere has also constantly affirmed the equality of all mankind. Nyerere
holds that despite Africa's history of being a humiliated continent, while Africa must
refuse to be humiliated, exploited and "pushed around", she must refuse to
I' humiliate, exploit and "push others around". For Nyerere, the exploitation,
humiliation and suffering of men anywhere is the plight of all mankind (Nyerere
1974,188-109).
We therefore see that while Nyerere claims that his Ujamaa (socialism) is
deeply rooted in traditional African political philosophy, it is clear that for Nyerere
traditional African political philosophy was essentially humanistic, being based on
the belief in man's dignity without reference to religion for the justification of such
a belief. Nyerere would consequently recommend for Kenya a moral education
system that seeks to help the youth to appreciate the dignity and equality of all
200
human beings. Moreover, for Nyerere, such a moral education programme should
seek to help the youth to appreciate the need for the total liberation of the
individual and the society from all forms of exploitation. What is more, Nyerere
would recommend for Kenya a moral education programme that seeks to create
awareness of the common destiny of mankind everywhere, in order to help the youth
to appreciate the need for collective responsibility on a global scale.
Kwame Nkrumah
Nkrumah wrote widely, and in the space available full justice cannot be done
to his vast contribution. We therefore highlight only those points in Nkrumah's
thought that are directly relevant to our present purpose.
Nkrumah, like Nyerere, was deeply concerned about the total liberation of
Africa. While in his earlier writings he held what might be termed as liberal ideas
in the fashion of the liberal humanists earlier discussed, in his later writings
Nkrumah borrowed more and more from the Marxist analysis of human history.
<Taking religion for example, Nkrumah holds that it is used by colonialists and
imperialists for subjugation (Nkrumah 1970, 12-13). Nkrumah cautions African
leaders of the danger of yielding to the temptation of using religion as a cohesive
force for their nation. For Nkrumah, such a use of religion can only create more
problems than it promises to solve: "For certain, it will check the advancing social
consciousness of the people. Besides, in the long run a dialectical opposition
between church and state will be recreated through what begins by being a tactical
move becoming entrenched.... When the relative political consolidation aimed at
is achieved, the tactic is dropped, but the religious revivalism which it has fomented
201
and exploited cannot be so easily checked. It is essential to emphasize in the
historical condition of Africa that the state must be secular" (Nkrumah 1970, 13).
Moreover, for Nkrumah, people who are most aggressively religious are the poorer
people. For him religion is social, and contemporary religious forms and practices
have their main root in the social repression of workers as is confirmed in Africa,
Asia, Latin America and among the people of African descent "inAmerica and the
Caribbean: "Fear created the gods, and fear preserves them: fear in the bygone
ages of wars, pestilences, earthquakes "andnature gone berserk, fear of 'acts of God';
fear today of the equally blind forces of backwardness and rapacious capital"
(Nkrumah 1970, 14).
From Nkrumah's views on religion outlined above, we can rightly not expect
Nkrumah to appeal to religion in his account of morality, and he does not. His
account of morality is materialistic. Concerning this he writes:
It is evident at least that philosophical consciencism
cannot issue in a closed set of ethical rules, a set of rules
which must apply in any society and at any time.
Philosophical consciencism is incapable of this because it
is itself based upon a view of matter, as caught in the grip
of an inexorable dialectical evolution. To the extent that
materialism issues in egalitarianism on the social plane,
it issues in ethics. Egalitarianism is not only political but
also ethical; for it implies a certain range of human
conduct which is alone acceptable to it. At the same
time, because it conceives matter as a plenum of tensions
giving rise to dialectical change, it cannot freeze its
ethical rules with changelessness. It would be wrong,
however, to seek to infer from this that the ethical
202
principles which philosophical consciencism sanctions are
at anyone-time gratuitous and devoid of objective
grounding; for even when rules change they can still be
informed, still be governed by the same basic principles
in the light of changing social conditions (Nkrumah 1970,
93).
Nkrumah compares the relationship between rules and principles to that
between statutes and by-laws. Statutes state general principles and do not make
explicit those procedures by means of which they may be carried out and fulfilled.
By-laws are an application of such principles. "It is obvious that when the conditions
in which by-laws operate alter seriously, it could be necessary to amend the by-laws
in order that the same statute should continue to be fulfilled" (Nkrumah 1970,
93-94). From this we can deduce that Nkrumah affirms the existence of absolute
and universal moral principles, but denies the existence of absolute and universal
moral rules. Nkrumah seems to give satisfactory justification for his denial of
absolute and universal moral rules when he points to the ever-changing conditions
,..in society. However, he fails to offer a satisfactory justification for his affirmation
of the existence of absolute and universal moral principles, in view of his
subscription to the doctrine of dialectical materialism: his subscription to dialectical
materialism had led him to deny the existence of universal moral rules, and one
wonders why his subscription to this doctrine does not lead him to deny absolute
and universal moral principles.
We therefore see in Nkrumah's ethical thought an account of morality that
. totally excludes religion and attempts to offer a natural, rather than a supernatural
account of morality. Thus Nkrumah would recommend for Kenya a moral
203
education programme that focuses on social conditions and totally excludes religious
doctrine. He would further recommend that Kenya's youth be made aware of
absolute and universal moral principles, while being made aware of the need for
frequent revision of moral rules in view of changing social conditions. Moreover,
Nkrumah would recommend that Kenya's moral education programme be used to
speed up the process of the total liberation of the African individual and society.
Frantz Fanon
Fanon's analysis of Africa's history combines insights from Marxism and
psychiatry. His analysis of the individual's reactions to colonialism uses insights
from psychiatry, while his analysis of economics uses insights from Marxism. Fanon,
like Nyerere and Nkrumah, is also deeply concerned about contributing towards the
achievement of total liberation for Africa. In his celebrated work, The Wretched
of the Earth, Fanon sets out by stating his thesis thus:
National liberation, national renaissance, the
restoration of nationhood to the people,
commonwealth, whatever may be the headings
used or the new formulas introduced,
de colonization is always a violent phenomenon
(Fanon 1967,27).
Fanon sees colonialism as being bound up with violence. For Fanon, in a
situation where colonised people decide to liberate themselves, violence is not only
indispensable as a pragmatic tool to overthrow the colonial government; such
violence is cathartic and re-humanising. His book is punctuated with this
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reiteration: "The colonized man finds his freedom in and through violence" (Fanon,
1967,68). Fanon goes on to write:
At the level of individuals, violence is a cleansing
force. It frees the native from his inferiority
complex and from his despair and inaction; it
makes him fearless and restores his self-respect
(Fanon 1967, 74).
Fanon would therefore abhor a moral education programme that discourages
the use of violence as a means to the total liberation of an oppressed people. This
is because for him the violence of the oppressor is the cause of the violence of the
oppressed. For Fanon, a moral education programme which discourages the
oppressed from resorting to violence in the quest for their liberation is one that is
unrealistic and therefore inadequate.
Fanon's humanistic outlook becomes clear when he urges that decolonization
is the veritable creation of new men, and that this creation owes nothing of its
legitimacy to any supernatural power (Fanon 1967,28). He urges the peoples and
not th~ governments of the former colonial powers to help the third world to
rehabilitate mankind, and make man victorious everywhere, once and for all (Fanon
1967, 84).
Fanon, in a typical humanist fashion, denounces totalitarian governments. His
prescription for the governments of the liberated African nations is as follows:
The national government, if it wants to be
national, ought to govern by the people and for the
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people, for the outcasts and by the outcasts. No
leader, however valuable he may be, can substitute
himself for the popular will; and the national
government, before concerning itself about
international prestige, ought first to give back their
dignity to all citizens, fill their minds and feast
.their eyes with human things, and create a prospect
that is human because conscious and sovereign
men dwell therein (Fan on 1967, 165)
For Fanon, there is need for the third world to avoid imitating Europe, and
to engage in true invention in order to further the cause of humanity (Fanon 1967,
252). For him, Europe's most horrible crime was committed in the heart of man,
and consisted of the pathological tearing apart of his functions and the crumbling
away of his unity (Fanon 1967,254).
In a nutshell, Fanon does not give direct attention to ethics, but his political
theory is full of ethical implications. From his political theory, we infer that Fanon
greatly upheld the dignity of man. This consequently led him to uphold the need
I' for the liberation of all mankind. For Fanon there is no place for external absolute
authority over the moral agent, and any limited authority of this nature which may
be permitted, is definitely not supernatural, but political. Here Fanon seems to
assume that religion and politics are mutually exclusive. Such an assumption can
clearly be challenged by pointing to situations where religion and politics co-exist
or even reinforce one another, as is the case in a theocratic set-up.
From our outline of Fanon's ethical position, we can deduce that Fanon
would recommend for Kenya a moral education programme that seeks to help the
youth to appreciate the dignity and equality of all mankind. Moreover, Fanon
206
would advocate a moral education programme that seeks to make the youth aware
of the contemporary social conditions in their continent, and of the causes of these
conditions, so as to motivate them to seek to contribute towards the improvement
of such conditions. Furthermore, due to the important place that Marxism holds in
his theoretical framework, Fanon would seek to see a moral education programme
that lays emphasis on collective responsibility. What is more, he would seek to see
the exclusion of all religion as a source or sanction for morality in such a
programme. Fanon would also abhor a moral education programme that seeks to
create faith in an absolute moral authority external to the individual.
Paulo Freire
For Freire, humanisation is man's vocation. The oppressed struggle against
dehumanisation, and this struggle is possible only because dehumanisation, although
a concrete historical fact, is not a given destiny, but the result of an unjust order. that.
engenders violence in the oppressors, which in turn dehumanises the oppressed.
Moreover, because dehumanisation is a distortion of being more fully human,,..
sooner or later being less human leads the oppressed to struggle against those who
made them so. However, in order for this struggle to have meaning, says Freire, the
oppressed must not, in seeking to regain their humanity (which is a way to create
it), become in turn oppressors of the oppressors, but rather restorers of the
humanity of both. Freire holds that the vocation of humanisation is constantly
negated, yet it is affirmed by that very negation. It is thwarted by injustice,
exploitation, oppression and the violence of the oppressors; it is affirmed by the
yearning of the oppressed for freedom and justice, and by their struggle to recover
207
their lost humanity (Freire 1970, 28).
Freire holds that almost always, during the initial stage of the struggle, the
oppressed, instead of striving for their liberation, tend themselves to become
oppressors. This is because the very structure of their thought has been conditioned
by the contradictions of the concrete, existential situation by which they were
shaped: their ideal is to be men; but for them to be men is to be oppressors. This
is their model of humanity (Freire 1970,29-30)
Freire further asserts that the oppressed, having internalised the image of the
oppressor and adopted his guide-lines, are fearful of freedom. Freedom would
require them to eject this image and replace it with autonomy and responsibility.
For Freire, freedom is acquired by conquest, not by gift. It must be pursued
constantly and responsibly, "Freedom is not an ideal located outside of man; nor
is it an idea which becomes myth. It is rather the indispensable condition for the
quest for human completion" (Freire 1970,31).
Freire holds that the pedagogy of the oppressed must be forged with, not for
the oppressed in the incessant struggle to regain their humanity. This pedagogy
t'
makes oppression and its causes objects of reflection by the oppressed, and from
that reflection will come their necessary engagement in the struggle for their
liberation. Moreover, in the struggle, this pedagogy will be made and remade
(Freire 1970, 33).
For Freire, trust III the people is the indispensable precondition for
revolutionary change. A real humanist can be identified more by his trust in the
people, which engages him in their struggle, than by a thousand actions in their
favour without that trust (Freire 1970,46-47).
208
Moreover, the pedagogy of the oppressed, as a humanist and libertarian
pedagogy, has two distinct stages: in the first, the oppressed unveil the world of
oppression, and through the praxis commit themselves to its transformation; in the
second stage, in which the reality of oppression has been transformed, this pedagogy
ceases to i?elong to the oppressed and becomes a pedagogy of all men in the process
of permanent liberation (Freire 1970~40).
From the outline of Freire's thought above, it becomes clear that while he is
preoccupied with the use of education as a tool for liberation, this preoccupation has
an ethical premise which upholds the dignity of man. It is a premise which abhors
the oppression and exploitation of man by man, and which affirms faith in the
immense potentials in man to transform an oppressive situation, and usher in an
egalitarian one. Although Freire has been an employee of the World Council of
Churches, his approach to the solution of social problems is one which does not
appeal to the supernatural. He asserts the dignity of man without explicit reference
-to any supernatural position.
Thus we infer that for Freire, an adequate moral education programme for
a third world nation such as Kenya is one which lays emphasis on the dignity of all
mankind, and one which seeks to create an awareness among the youth of those
unacceptable social conditions which result in the degradation of humanity.
Furthermore, Freire is opposed to an authoritarian approach to teaching, since for
him such an approach is itself a manifestation of oppression. Freire would
consequently recommend for Kenya a moral education programme that lays great
emphasis on the need for dialogue between the teacher and the learner, since for
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him the teacher and the learner have useful contributions to make towards the
moral development of both of them.
Third world humanistic ethics: an evaluative summary
From all thathas been said in the outline of the thought of the four third
world humanists above, it becomes clear that there are a number of themes that
recur in all of them. First, all of these thinkers are preoccupied with the need for
the total liberation of the peoples of the third world. Second, these thinkers affirm
the dignity and immense potential in all human beings. Third, these thinkers do not
seek for supernatural justification for the cause of human liberation; rather, they
seek for such a justification in reflection that utilises human resources. Although
all of these thinkers are preoccupied with political issues, they conduct their
discourses from a premise that is clearly ethical - the need to create a just society.
For all of these four thinkers then, an adequate moral education programme for
post-colonial Kenya would be one that helps to speed up the process of the total
liberation of the peoples of the third world, one that affirms the dignity and,..
immense potential in all human beings, and one that does not seek for supernatural
justification for the cause of human liberation, but instead seeks for such
justification in reflection that utilises purely human resources.
B. Common Elements in HumanisticEthical Thought
From the outline of the thought of the various humanists outlined above, it
becomes clear that several themes recur in all of them in one form or another. One
such theme is the humanist emphasis on the dignity of man. In Marxist thought the
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importance of this aspect is evident in Marx's condemnation of alienation. In
existentialism the dignity of man emerges in the assertion of man's freedom, and in
the emphasis on the need for authentic selfhood. Liberal humanism asserts the
dignity of man when it emphasises the need for independent thought, and for the
improvement of man's overall conditions.
Secondly, the humanist ethical outlook outlined above excludes religion in its
account of morality. In Marx reli~!on is considered to be a symptom of man's
alienation, the "opiate" of the people; in atheistic existentialism, the emphasis on the
"existent" excludes supernatural discourse; in liberal humanism religion is viewed as
an unnecessary superstition, one which need not be included in the endeavour to
improve man's overall condition in general, and to arrive at tenable ethical values
in particular.
Thirdly, Humanistic ethics are generally optimistic about man's ability to
improve his condition using his own unaided resources. This point is more lucidly
stated in existentialism, liberal humanism and third world humanism. In
,.,existentialism, it appears in the form of the assertion of man's freedom to create his
own values and to attain authentic selfhood; in liberal humanism as in existentialism,
it appears in the assertion of man's freedom and in the pride in man's inventions;
in third world humanism it appears in the assertion that the oppressed have the
ability to liberate themselves, and to usher in a just and egalitarian order.
Fourthly, the humanist movements greatly emphasise the importance of
science in the endeavour to improve man's overall condition. Marx saw his account
of history as a scientific one, and hoped that through it he would contribute to the
process of social transformation by creating awareness among the proletariat; the
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phenomenological approach used by the existentialists, in which they try to describe
man's condition comprehensively, is clearly informed by the objectivity which science
aims at; liberal humanism emphasises the importance of the natural and social
sciences, and holds that the development of these two fields of study will result in
the improvement of man's condition. For some of the liberal humanists such as
Eysenck, the development of the social sciences, especially psychology, is
indispensable if humanists are to arrive at a set of ethical values that are acceptable
to them; the third world humanists attempt a systematic analysis of the conditions
in the third world using empirical data, and empirical data (observation of natural
and social phenomena) are greatly valued by the scientific method.
Due to the humanist emphasis on the dignity of man, its exclusion of religion
from the scheme of things, its emphasis on man's ability to improve his overall
condition and its emphasis on science, the various humanistic movements hold
ethical views which are generally anti-authoritarian.
Consequently, for the four types of humanism outlined above, an adequate
,..moral education programme for post-colonial Kenya would be one that lays
emphasis on the dignity of man, excludes religion as a source or sanction for
morality, and lays emphasis on man's ability to improve his overall condition using
purely human and natural resources - an emphasis which in turn leads to an
emphasis on the need for scientific research.
212
3. Humanistic Ethics as a Source of Social Education and Ethics in
Post-colonial Kenya
In this section, we endeavour to determine the extent to which the humanistic
ethical outlook can justifiably claim a place in our social education and ethics
programme .. Our two criteria of rationality and applicability will again be put to
use. It will be remembered that the criterion of rationality requires that a moral
system be logical and internally consistent. The criterion of applicability requires
that the ethical system in question be relevant to the needs that our moral education
programme seeks. to meet.
A Humanistic Ethics: The Criterionof Rationality
From our outline of the ethical views of the four humanistic movements
chosen, it becomes clear that considerable thought has gone in to the formulation
of the ethical position held by them. Each of the four trends of thought considered
exhibits a considerable amount of plausibility and internal consistency. Their ethical
,...views derive from their general view of the world in a way which is considerably
logical. However, using the criterion of rationality, we shall point out several
criticisms that can be levelled against humanistic ethics, and the possible answers
if any, that the humanists could give to such criticisms. The four movements
considered above will be examined one at a time, before generalisations are finally
made.
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(i) Marxist ethics
One of the main criticisms against Marxism in general, and which has a
bearing on Marxist ethics, is it's assertion that the ultimate reality is matter, and that
law, religion and morality are simply results of the material conditions in which a
society finds itself. This position can be questioned thus: if the ultimate reality is
matter, so that all moral evaluations are simply a result and a reflection of the
prevalent material conditions, what reason do we have to assume that the Marxist
assessment of history is not also a result of the material conditions? In other words,
the position that matter is the sole reality eliminates the possibility of objective
thought, since all thought would then be a reflection of material conditions.
Concerning Marx's claim that religion is simply a symptom of man's
alienation, and that it arises as a result of material impoverishment, the question
could be posed as to why religion is still an important feature of the lives of many
people whose condition is far from impoverished. We would have expected, if
Marx's account of religion is true, to find the disappearance of religion among
people who are well-off economically in society, but this is not the case. Marx also
,-
claims that vices such as greed are the result of any economic organisation apart
from communism, and that with the inception of communism such vices would
disappear from human society. Contrary to this claim, research in the natural and
social sciences suggests that the survival instinct in every individual leads him to be
an egoist to a considerable extent, so that Hobbes' analysis of society has an
important part of the truth about man to offer. This aspect of human nature will
not suddenly change simply because of a change in the mode of economic
organisation. The Marxist might answer to this charge by urging that the display of
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the so-called survival instinct is only caused by the situation of scarcity. In this way
however, he does not seem to address himself to the question in an adequate
manner, since the situation of material abundance equally distributed has never
occurred in human history in order for us to verify or falsify the Marxist claim. It
would therefore be more objective for both the Marxist and his critic to suspend
their judgement on this matter.
(ii) Existentialist ethics
The salient feature in Existentialist ethics is the emphasis on the unique
situation in which the moral agent finds himself, and the need to act authentically
in that situation. As Macquarrie points out, this position can be criticised as
suffering from individualism and subjectivism, and of prizing the intensity of choice
above the building up of moral wisdom and virtue (Macquarrie 1972,214). This is
the main weakness of an extreme situation ethic, as Macquarrie points out.
The existentialist insistence on the freedom of man could also be criticised.
The social scientist could point out that such a position does not care to bear in
I'
mind the socialisation process which every individual has to go through without him
. choosing to do so. For the social scientist, even the existentialist endeavour to
achieve authentic selfhood could be seen as a result of the individualistic milieu in
which the existentialist grew up.
The atheistic existentialist refusal to investigate in depth the fact of religion
could be criticised as unintellectualist if not anti-intellectualist. It could be asked
if by disregarding the fact of the religiosity of many men, the existentialist is not
neglecting the very task he sets out to accomplish: to consider the existent in his
215
entirety, an entirety which includes the fact of his religiosity.
(Hi) Western liberal humanistic ethics
The liberal humanist position that there is no supreme exemplar of humanist
ethics and that there is no chief end of all action could be criticised for ignoring the
fact of anthropological constants. It is true for example, that man is limited by time
and space, and that every individual has certain biological, physiological and
psychological needs, many of which recur considerably in most individuals, and some
of them (the biological and physiological ones) being constant in all men. While
it is true that it is impossible to derive an "ought" from an "is",yet as we saw in the
previous chapter, many facts are not merely facts, but that they come to the human
mind with some associations. This situation deems the humanist insistence on the
lack of a supreme exemplar untenable. This is because such a position starts from
the false premise that there is nothing constant in human nature and in human
conditions. If the humanist position were to be followed to its logical conclusion,
tt would be impossible to form a humanist association such as the one in Britain,
since each person's circumstances would be too different from any other person's
"circumstances to warrant their coming together. The fact of man's sociality implies
the fact of common ends.
The liberal humanist views on religion are also open to criticism. Hepburn,
for example, identifies two "dangers" to which liberal humanists and other naturalists
are exposed, and which, according to Hepburn, can sap moral and intellectual
integrity:
216
The one reduces the essence of all religion to a
common vague and harmless numinosity - with
which even the unbeliever, if he feels inclined, can
enhance or decorate his own outlook. Against this,
serious comparative studies make it plain that
there is no essence of religion, and that mysteries
(...) are not interchangeable.
The other danger is of identifying a religion with
its doctrinal formulae, and with the arguments of
its apologists. A paradox here, an ill-grounded
historical claim there - and we have the right to
consider it overthrown. Against that, this essay has
insisted on the complexity of religious claims and
attitudes. Given flaws of logic or evidence, much
needs to be abandoned-more than some humanists
suspect. There may survive, however, moral
concepts of a richness that shows up the
meagreness of the humanist's own. And there may
survive ways of seeing humanity, transfigurations of
the supposedly familiar world, which - even when
we are quite unable to assimilate or domesticate
them - can haunt and trouble and goad the
imagination.
Hepburn suggests that what should be done above all is to keep the religious
imagination alive, and simultaneously confront its products with a searching,
uninhibited rational critique: "setting partial vision against vision, as it were chord
against chord in an unresting, taut progression" (Hepburn 1963, 53-54).
217
(iv) Third world humanistic ethics
From our outline of third world humanistic ethics, it becomes clear that this
type of humanism is a reaction to colonialism. However, in its formulation, third
world humanistic ethics utilises a number of insights elucidated by Marxism,
existentialism and liberal humanism.
The criticism on the Marxist assertion that the ultimate reality is matter
earlier discussed, can be levelled against the thought of Nkrumah and Fanon who
explicitly subscribe to this Marxist assertion.
The criticism that can be levelled against the Marxists, atheistic existentialists
and liberal humanists for their exclusion of religion from their account of morality,
is also applicable to most of the thought of the third world humanists discussed in
this chapter. The critique can point out that religion being an important feature of
the lives of a large proportion of the human race, ought not to be dismissed in the
way in which these movements dismiss it; rather, careful studies on religion ought
to be carried out before judgement is passed on it.
" The attempt by Fanon to account for human VIces from a psychiatric
viewpoint, is open to challenge. The critic can point out that the human condition
is so complex that it cannot be adequately accounted for by adopting a solely
psychiatric perspective, or any other perspective that lays emphasis on a single
aspect of this condition.
(v) Evaluative summary of humanistic ethics as related to the criterion of rationality
From all that has been outlined above under the criterion of rationality, it
becomes clear that while each of the four types of humanistic ethics exhibits a
218
considerable degree of plausibility and internal consistency, a number of very serious
criticisms can be levelled against them. Such criticisms can be levelled against the
Marxist position that matter is the ultimate reality, Marx's position on human
nature, all the humanists' view on religion and the existentialist situation ethic
among others.
B. Humanistic Ethics: The Criterion of Applicability
Using the criterion of applicability, we shall again consider the four
humanistic movements, one at a time, before offering a number of generalisations.
(i) Marxist ethics
The Marxist analysis of human history, even though it has a number of
weaknesses on rational grounds, can still contribute considerably to the content of
our moral education programme. Marx's emphasis on the need for true
consciousness as a consequent of the elimination of alienation could be employed
,...inour programme to develop the right attitudes to work in the students. Through
it, the student can be helped to appreciate more deeply the purposive nature of
human-work. Furthermore, the Marxist analysis of the profit motive could be used
in helping students to practice moderation in their quest for profits should they
enter the world of business in the future. Moreover, the students would be helped
by this analysis to value all types of human work as priceless, and to view salaries
more as a token of appreciation rather than an exact payment for work done.
The Marxist emphasis on the change of ethical outlook which will allegedly
come about with the inception of communism, a change in which the burdensome
219
nature of morality will disappear and be replaced by an attitude that morality
benefits the individual as much as the community, is useful in encouraging the
students to adopt a morality of "being" rather than a morality of "doing". While the
morality of "being" and the morality of "doing" are 'two sides of the same coin', it
is clear that there is need to develop moral predispositions in our students in order
to help them transcend mere legalism.
(ii) Existentialist ethics
While the debate between the determinists and the freewill proponents is
inconclusive, the existentialist emphasis on human freedom is deemed practical on
moral grounds. This is because while responsibility is an important aspect of moral
discourse and practice, we cannot talk of responsibility without an assumption of a
certain degree of human freedom.
The existentialist insistence on the need for attaining authentic selfhood is yet
another of its aspects that can be utilised in the improvement of our programme
content. This aspect can serve in helping the student appreciate the fact of his
I'
uniqueness as an individual, and of the need for him to strive to attain Moral
autonomy.
Yet another useful aspect that we can draw from the existentialist ethic is it's
insistence on the primacy of the unique situation over rules. As Macquarrie points
out, "On the whole, an ethic that stresses law is an ethic that looks to the past - to
tradition, custom, the way things have always been done. Such an ethic brings
stability, but also the danger of stagnation. An ethic that stresses the situation is,
on the contrary, future-oriented; it looks to the new, and action is determined with
..
220
regard to the new..... The existentialist ethic takes the risk of stressing the situation
rather than law, the futural and the new rather than the traditional. I deliberately
use the word risk, and indeed all action involves risk. Yet today when the
conditions of life are changing so fast we have to meet situations that are new and
for which no rules or precedents seem available. Hence within limits, the
existentialist stress in the situation and the future can be helpful and constructive
on the contemporary world" (Macquarrie 1972,214-215).
(Hi) Western liberal humanistic ethics
The liberal humanistic emphasis on the need for independent thought can be
used to encourage our students to develop autonomy and creativity in ethics. While
it is true that when this aspect is over-emphasised it could lead to anarchy, if
carefully limited by pointing the student to the fact of his living in a society, it can
greatly contribute towards the process of moral maturation. It is important to note
however, that the liberal humanist contention that independent thought ought to be
.encouraged at every stage, has its limits in the facts of the stages through which the
human person has to pass in his or her personal development. The social scientists
generally agree among themselves that in the early stages of a child's development,
his or her potentials of rationality are far from actualised. If this is true as it seems
to be from numerous studies and from our observations, then the liberal humanist's
condemnation of indoctrination needs to be qualified.
The liberal humanist denial of a supreme moral exemplar is found to be
wanting on utilitarian grounds. As shown in the previous chapter, an adequate
moral education programme should cater for the need for moral ideals, that is, the
221
need to provide the learner with inspiration to endeavour more fervently to lead
a morally. unright life, through an examination of the lives of persons who have led
moral lives that are worth emulating. Psychologists generally agree that younger
members of the society usually tend to emulate the lifestyles of specific senior
members of that society for whom they have high regard: the humanists neglect this
insight.
(iv) Third world humanistic ethics
Due to the fact that this type of humanism is deeply grounded in the actual
social, political, economic and intellectual conditions in the third world in which
Kenya is situated, it has a special contribution to make towards our programme
content. The writings of Nyerere, Nkrumah, Fanon and Freire can be used at
higher levels of our education system to improve the learner's appreciation of the
causes of the third world's present predicament in general, and Kenya's in particular.
Since moral education hopes to go beyond theory to practice, this appreciation can
greatly contribute towards attaining this objective. Moreover, the emphasis that the
third world humanists lay on the dignity and immense potential in all human beings
. is one 'Yhich can be utilised in our moral education programme to enhance the
learner's respect for all human beings, regardless of contingencies such as race and
social status.
222
(v) The extent of the applicability of humanistic ethics
From all that has been highlighted above, it becomes clear that humanistic
ethics can contribute considerably towards the improvement of our moral education
programme content. The humanist assertion of the dignity of man and its optimism
in man's ability to improve his situation are useful in enhancing the learner's respect
for all human beings, and in motivating him to do his best to contribute towards the
improvement of the overall human condition. Furthermore, the emphasis on human
freedom and of the uniqueness of each individual's situation, authenticity and true
consciousness can be used in our moral education programme to enhance the
learner's sense of personal responsibility. Besides, the Marxist analysis of history
can be utilised in helping the learner to appreciate the need for work, and for
practising moderation in his guest for profits should he enter the world of business
in future. The Marxist hope for a time when personal and social morality will freely
merge can be used to enhance the learner's sense of collective responsibility; it can
also be used to encourage the learner to appreciate the need to cultivate desirable
.moral predispositions in his life. The liberal humanistic emphasis on the need for
independent thinking can be used to encourage our students to develop autonomy
and creativity in their moral life. The literary contributions of the third world
humanists can be used at higher levels of our education system to improve the
learner's appreciation of the causes of the third world's present predicament in
general, and Kenya's in particular.
However, the total exclusion of religion from its scheme of things makes
humanistic ethics unobjective, in that it ignores the fact that many people still give
religion a special place in their lives, a fact which needs serious consideration and
223
not simplistic dismissal. Indeed, as Eysenck points out, "the indentification of
'superstition' with religious belief is itself a superstition grounded in historical
factors which have certainly ceased to operate to any significant extent" (Eysenck
1968, 265-266).
4. Summary and Conclusion.
In this chapter, we have endeavoured to determine the extent to which
humanistic ethics can contribute towards the improvement of the content of our
social education and ethics programme. The common elements in the four types of
humanistic ethics considered are the assertion of the dignity of man, the expression
of optimism in man's ability to improve his condition using his own unaided
resources, the exclusion of religion from the scheme of things and the upholding of
the study of the natural and social sciences.
From all that has been discussed, we can come to the conclusion that
humanistic ethics can make a considerable contribution towards the improvement
of our programme content in asserting the dignity of man, optimism in man's ability
,-
to make the world a better place to live in, in its emphasis on man's freedom,
situation and authenticity. However, the exclusion of religion from the scheme of
things ignores the fact of the religiosity of a considerable proportion of our
population, instead of seriously considering it. Furthermore, the humanist claim that
there can be no supreme moral exemplar robs humanistic ethics of the important
aspect of moral ideals.
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CHAPTER SEVEN
Towards a Rational and Applicable Basis for Social
Education and Ethics Programme in Post-colonial
Kenya
1. Introduction
In the last five chapters of this study, we have focused on the history of moral
education in Kenya, the rationale for SEE as exemplified by the present SEE
syllabus for the secondary cycle of our education system, and the four main ethical
outlooks in post-colonial Kenya, with a view to determining the contribution which
each of these could make towards designing a moral education programme that is
both rational and applicable. In this final chapter, we outline those elements which
our investigations in the last five chapters have identified as being indispensable for
designing a sound moral education programme for post-colonial Kenya. It is
important to note here that while the present study has constantly made reference
,..
to "social education and ethics", the central concern of the study has been the quest
for the formulation of a sound moral education programme for post-colonial Kenya.
The chapter has been significantly entitled 'Towards a rational and applicable
basis for SEE programme in post-colonial Kenya" in order to acknowledge the fact
that the proposals that are here promulgated are not, and cannot, be the last word
on the problem of a rational and applicable basis for this programme, due to the
constant incompleteness of human knowledge, and due to the limitations or scope
of this study. The chapter advances the view that Kenya's ethical plurality can be
225
greatly utilized III the endeavour to arrive at a basis for a moral education
programme that is both rational and applicable to present day Kenya.
2. Overviewof the Synthesis
In this section, we outline those elements that have been deemed
indispensa?le in the content of a sound moral education programme for post-
colonial Kenya, through the various insights that have been yielded in the previous
five chapters of this study. We attempt a synthesis of these elements using our two
criteria of rationality and applicability. Each of the elements outlined below is to
be included in such a synthesis, only if the element is justifiable on rational grounds
and is applicable to the situation in post-colonial Kenya.
A The socialaspectof man~ nature
The social aspect of man's nature is one which has concerned philosophers
for centuries, and with the fairly recent development of the social sciences, this
aspect has been explored using the scientific method. Thus the old adage that
"man is not an island" would seem to state a point which no longer needs to be
stated. 'However, insights yielded from our examination of the traditional African
ethical outlook lead us to outline the kind of content that in our view, ought to be
included in our SEE programme in connection with the social aspect of man's
nature.
226
(i) The Importance of traditions
Any sound definition of the term 'tradition' must highlight the centrality of
the 'past' in it. A people's traditions can be defined simply as their accumulated
wisdom, that is, wisdom which they have acquired over many years as they have
confronted the natural and social environment. This accumulated wisdom is an
indispensable part of any sound moral education programme. This is because it
would be utterly wasteful if each individual and each generation were to start off on
the path of morality on a tabula rasa. This would be wasteful in the sense that
lessons learnt by previous generations would only be utilised by those specific
generations. Each generation would have to exit from the scene of history without
bequeathing to its successors the benefit of the wisdom it accumulated through its
successes and failures. To attempt to do away with human traditions is to
dehumanise the human race, in the sense that such a move would expose each
succeeding generation to the dire consequences of ignorance.
It is important to note that when we speak here of traditions, we are not
referring to some fossilised practices of pre-colonial African Communities. Rather,
we are thinking of the whole range of human experience on a global scope, and one
which therefore includes much more than the attitudes, knowledge and skills of
pre-colonial African Communities. Furthermore, all the accumulated wisdom of the
human race must be re-examined by each generation in order to modify it to suit
current circumstances.
Thus in the content of our SEE programme, topics that deal with man's past
ethical outlook should be included, covering such thought as extensively as the
programme time allows. Such topics must however include an essential aspect of
227
criticism,so that such past wisdom is not taken as infallible, but rather as a useful starting
pointfor the learner's reflection on morality.
(ii)Ritesof Passage
In the traditional African communities, the human person was exposed to rituals
whichmarked his transition from one developmental stage to the next. It is these rituals
thatthe anthropologists have termed as 'rites of passage'. Part of the pedagogical value
of such rituals was that they helped the members of the ethnic communities to develop
adeep awareness of the increasing moral responsibility that accompanied the increase
in chronological age. While we cannot revert to such practices in a modern,
technologised and cosmopolitan society such as the one in independent Kenya, the rites
of passage in traditional African communities offer a useful insight for our moral
education programme.
In our society today, the transition from one developmental stage to the next
has usually taken place in an almost imperceptible manner. The young schoolleaver
might acquire "a job, then think of the need to marry, and immediately embark on
I'
courtship without a significant awareness of the serious responsibilities that are
entailed by !l marriage. While the graduation ceremonies in our universities are an
important step in the right direction, there is serious need to help the learners as
they go through school to gain a deep awareness of the developmental stages at
which they are. Ceremonies such as graduation could be designed in a way that
helps the learners to gain a deep awareness of the fact of the increase of their
chronological age, an increase which is usually accompanied by mental, physical
and psychological growth. These ceremonies could be used to create
wareness of the moral implications which such growth entails, especially in the area
of moral responsibility. Since the age at which children join school is becoming
increasingly uniform, this undertaking should not be insurmountable. The
Curriculum developers should therefore design learning activities which enable the
learner to formally acknowledge his transition from one developmental stage to the
next, and that prepare him to take up the responsibilities of the stage he is entering.
Findings from researches carried out on stages of moral development could be
useful in determining when such activities should be, and in determining the nature
of such activities at the various stages of moral development.
(Hi) Social Sanctions
While in the traditional African Communities there was a utilisation of both
social and supernatural sanctions, the plurality of religious beliefs prevalent in
present day Kenya deems it necessary to eschew the use of supernatural sanctions
in our national education system. However, the use of social sanctions is still
acceptable since it can be effected on purely utilitarian grounds. Here again,
research in psychology and sociology could be useful in determining what types of
social sanctions are adequate for effecting a desired change in the learner's
behaviour.
(iv) Communalism
In the second chapter of this study, we defined communalism as that outlook
which emphasises the social aspect of man's nature, holding that the individual's life
can only find total fulfilment when that individual co-operates with other members
229
of the community and puts the interests of the community before his own.
Traditional African Communalism was rooted in the African kinship system. Thus
in that context, to hurt a member of the community was to hurt a "relative",
whether by blood or marriage.
While in present day Kenyan society such a kinship system based on blood
and marriage is impracticable on a national scale, yet something of the traditional
African communalism can be attained through adequate school organisation - an
organisation in which each person's benefits and burdens are lucidly outlined to him.
What is more, learners who are about to enter the world of work should be
adequately furnished with information concerning the co-operative movement, and
about various welfare organisations which exist in Kenya, and which provide
considerable economic and emotional support. Furthermore, since one of the
national objectives of education is nation-building - a term which refers to the
process of forging a single nation out of the prevalent plurality, the learner should
be provided with an opportunity to undertake an ethical assessment of Kenya's
history. Through such an assessment, the learner will hopefully get to appreciate,..
more deeply the need for all Kenyans to co-operate in order to make Kenya a
better place to live in, and in this way, the communalistic outlook will have been
further enhanced in the learner.
B. MoralIdeals
The term 'moral ideals' is here used to denote persons who have led highly
moral lives that are worth emulating. In such persons, the society finds inspiration
to endeavour more fervently to lead a morally upright life. The need for such moral
230
ideals should be catered for in our moral education programme. Christianity and
Islam, through their presentations of Jesus Christ and Muhammad as moral ideals,
can contribute considerably towards meeting this need. A study of the biographies
of such moral ideals as Jesus, Muhammad, Socrates and Mahatma Gandhi should
therefore be included in our SEE programme. While not all students might accept
the persons' chosen for consideration as moral ideals to be such, an examination of
these persons lives would still be a useful exercise since it would encourage class
discussions. Such discussions would in turn contribute towards the development of
the learner's skills in moral evaluation.
The use of moral ideals has the advantage that in studying the lives of such
persons, the learner is furnished with lists of moral virtues that were exhibited by
them. Such a list of virtues provides a useful foundation upon which reflection can
later be undertaken. We use 'virtue' here to denote a particular moral excellence
such as patience or kindness.
True Consciousness
Marx's insistence on the need for true consciousness is one which can greatly
enrich the content of our SEE programme. This it can do by helping the student
to appreciate the need to cultivate relationships that are truly human in the sense
.that the learner is aware of his worth, and of the worth of his work, while being
equally aware of the worth of other people and of the worth of their work.
What is more, Marx's analysis of profit-making in the capitalist system should
be made available to the learner in order to encourage him to practice moderation
in his quest for profits should he enter the world of business in future. This is not
231
an advocation for the adoption of Marx's theory of economics in our national
planning; rather, it is an affirmation that while Marx's analysis of economics and
society has serious flaws, important insights can be drawn from it. Indeed, one need
not read Marx to know that the use of another person's hard labour without due
consideration for that person's welfare is inhuman. Thus we are not here
promulgating a theory for determining the just price; rather, we are suggesting a way
of reducing injustice in the determining of prices in the market: that way is to make
the future businessmen and women who are now still in school aware of the fact
that human labour is priceless, and that therefore serious consideration should be
undertaken in determining how much to pay for it. Further, this kind of outlook
will lead the student to an awareness of the fact that all types of work ought to be
appreciated as demanding a priceless exertion on the part of man. This realisation
will hopefully help to reduce the present bias in our population for white-collar jobs.
D. Internalisationof Morality
It will be remembered that Marx claimed that with the inception of
communism, morality would lose its distasteful flavour as the individual and
. collective good merged into one beautiful whole. This assertion of Marx's seems to
•
be the same as the Christian emphasis on the morality of 'being' rather than the
morality of 'doing'. We are thinking here of freeing morality from the chains of
narrow legalism in order to focus on its 'spirit', rather than focussing on its 'letter'.
While Marx himself would most probably have disagreed with our present
interpretation of his view on morality, yet this is one way in which we can make use
of his thought. Our moral education programme should encourage the students to
232
endeavour to transcend mere legalism and to attempt to attain an awareness of the
purpose of moral rules. This implies the need to help the learner to arrive at
justifications for the whole institution of morality. Once the learner is equipped with
such justifications, he will begin to determine the desirability of moral rules in the
light of such justifications. In this way, the learner will be helped to reject the
attitude that morality is burdensome, and to replace it with the view that morality
is part of his very being because it promotes his own welfare as it promotes the
general welfare.
Moreover, our moral education programme should endeavour to help the
learner to appreciate the fact that a morally upright life helps the individual to
attain self-realisation: this it does by catering for the individual's rationality through
the cognitive dimension of conscience and morality; by catering for the individual's
affective domain through the help of the affective dimension of conscience and
morality; by catering for the individual's sociality in enabling him to have healthy
relationships with members of his society.
E. Freedom
The existentialist insistence on man's freedom is one which despite
weaknesses on rational grounds, cannot be dispensed with in any adequate discourse
on morality. Consequently, it is indispensable in the blueprint for a sound moral
education programme. This is because any assertion of responsibility has the
underlying assumption that the agent who is regarded as being responsible for a
particular act was free to pursue or eschew the course of action in question. Thus
the insistence on man's freedom is justifiable on practical grounds.
233
What is more, the liberal humanist insistence on the need for independent
thought would be a consequent of the affirmation concerning man's freedom.
Further, the emphasis on man's freedom and the importance of independent thought
would enhance the learner's progress towards moral autonomy and creativity. By
moral autonomy, we mean that developmental stage in which the moral agent lives
by moral precepts which he has personally reflected on and approved rationally.
,
Moral creativity is a corollary of moral autonomy in the sense that once a moral
agent attains 'moral self-determination' (autonomy), his approach to morality will
be creative rather than mechanical. Thus our curriculum developers ought to seek
to design learning activities that will impart to the pupils and students a recognition
of man's freedom and the need for independent thought. This aspect of the
programme must of course be regulated by the recognition of the social aspect of
man's nature, and by bearing in mind the various moral developmental stages
through which a learner passes, endeavouring to communicate with the learner in
a way that is adequate for the stage at which he is.
The endeavour to cultivate moral autonomy can further be enhanced by the
.• existentialist assertion that every individual ought to endeavour to attain authentic
selfhood., This assertion points to the uniqueness of each individual person, a
uniqueness which ought to be emphasised in our SEE programme in order to
cultivate a sense of self-worth in the learners. The idea of authentic selfhood points
to the currently greatly emphasised concept of the dignity of every individual human
being. This assertion of the dignity of every human being would then lead us to
include the Kantian formulation of the categorical imperative which requires us to
treat all humanity not as a mere means, but rather as an end in itself.
234
F. Situation Ethics
Another useful aspect of the existentialist view on morality is its emphasis on
the need for the serious consideration of each unique situation that the moral agent
finds himself in. As pointed out in the previous chapter, our modern technologised
world gives rise to situations demanding moral action which must be decided upon
without the aid of precedents. This being the case, mere legalism proves to be
utterly inadequate. We require the development of a citizenry that is adequately
informed about scientific inventions, and equipped with adequate moral valuing
skills rather than an inventory of ethical rules. This is because such an inventory is
bound to lack comprehensiveness by virtue of the complexity of human existence -
a complexity which is aggravated by modern scientific and technological progress.
This emphasis on the situationality of moral action needs however to be regulated
by a recognition of the need for moral rules that serve, not as absolute and
incontestable directives, but rather as guidelines to moral living. Such rules are
further justified on the grounds of the need to make use of mankind's cumulative
experience in the realm of morality.
I'
G. Analysis of the Present Predicament of the Third World
As pointed out in the previous chapter, the writings of the third world
humanists such as Nyerere, Nkrumah, Fanon and Freire ought to be utilised at
higher levels of our education system to help our students to attain a deep
appreciation of the factors that have led to the present predicament of the third
world. The third world is impoverished socially, politically, intellectually,
economically and scientifically. Various factors account for this situation, chief
235
among them being colonialism and neo-colonialism. Students at the higher levels
of our education system ought to be exposed to the writings of the third world
humanists in a way that is critical rather than passive, in order to encourage them
to make their own independent ethical evaluation of the present predicament of the
third world, and of the causes of this predicament. Works such as Fanon's The
Wretched of the Earth, especially Chapter 3 of this work, namely, "The pitfalls of
national consciousness", could be used to stimulate enlightening discussions at these
higher levels.
H. Optimismin Man's Abilities
As pointed out in the previous Chapter, one recurrent emphasis in all the four
types of humanism considered in this study is that of optimism in man's abilities to
improve the conditions in the world without supernatural aid. This Optimism is
justified for inclusion into our SEE programme content on psychological grounds:
researches in psychology are in general agreement that optimism is an essential
. component in the endeavour to actualise a person's potentials. These researches
• show that without confidence in oneself, a person's motivation to undertake
self-exertion for purposes of improving his condition is greatly hampered. Such
observations justify the inclusion of optimism in man's ability into the content of our
SEE programme. It is however important to note, contrary to the position held by
secular humanism, that faith in man's abilities is not in diametrical opposition to
religious faith. Many religions prescribe high moral standards for their adherents,
and such standards would not have been prescribed by such religions if those
religions did not have faith in man's capabilities to adhere to them. The
236
Judeo-christian view for example, that man is "made in the image of God" is an
affirmation of man's capabilities - capabilities that are Godlike such as creativity and
Thus in our SEE programme, optimism in man's abilities ought not to be
rationality.
taught as though such optimism is necessarily anti-religious; rather, it should be
shown that such optimism is neutral towards religious faith. Moreover, care should
be taken to regulate the intensity of such optimism by making the learner aware of
the past and present failures of the human race.
L Tolerance
The humanism of the Renaissance had one of its salient features being the
advocation for tolerance among people with different religious, ethical, political and
scientific views. This attitude of tolerance is seen to be perpetuated to a
considerably high degree in most types of contemporary secular humanism. Such
tolerance is indispensable in our pluralistic society as a means to forestalling internal
social conflicts. One area in which intolerance has been known to result in social
disorder is that of religious faith. History is full of accounts of wars which were
sparked off and sustained by religious fervour. This fact leads us to propose that
our moral education programme should seek to create an awareness of the doctrines
of the various religious faiths prevalent in Kenya among our students. This kind of
awareness will reduce prejudice among our people, and through this reduction of
prejudice there will be a consequent reduction of intolerance. This is because
intolerance has as its main cause ignorance which subsequently leads to prejudice,
which in turn leads to intolerance.
237
Thus as far as the programme time allows, our moral education programme
should incorporate topics which cover the basic doctrines of the various religious
faiths that are prevalent in post-colonial Kenya. It must be emphasised however,
that this inclusion of religious doctrine must be effected with utmost care, bearing
in mind the learner's social and intellectual stage of development. This is because
researches in psychology indicate that during the child's early and tender years, it
would be harmful to expose a child to contradictory eligious doctrines, since this
would leave the child confused concerning the question of the truth of religions, a
problem which at" that stage is beyond his cognitive abilities to appreciate and
tackle.
However, the promotion of tolerance should not be seen as having been fully
effected through exposing the learners to various religious doctrines. An
atmosphere of tolerance must be created in the class discussions, so that the learner
. is encouraged to treat views that contradict his own with sympathy and respect. This
~ approach will hopefully equip the learners for life in a truly democratic Kenya in
which divergent views are accommodated and considered.
1. Philosophicalreflection
The term 'philosophy' is derived from two Greek Words: PhiIein is a Greek
word denoting to love, to strive after, to search for; the word sophia denotes
wisdom. Thus etymologically, the term 'Philosophy' denotes a love, a striving, a
search for wisdom. "Thus the world of philosophy is inhabited by people, known as
philosophers, who are constantly searching for an answer to, and who try to come
238
to terms with, life in the world" (Njoroge and Bennaars 19~6. 4). Central to
'philosophy' are the elements of analysis (clarification), evaluation (criticism) and
synthesis (reconstruction). According to the Concise Oxford Dictionary, to "reflect"
is to "go back in thought, meditate, or consult with oneself, (...), remind oneself or
consider (...)". Thus 'reflection' involves activities such as "thinking", "meditating"
and "considering".
It therefore becomes clear that 'philosophy' and 'reflection' are activities
which are closely related in that they both involve assessment or appraisal of one
kind or another. . Philosophical reflection can be made use of in our moral
education programme in helping the learner to develop a critical appreciation of the
institution of morality, thus helping him to attain moral autonomy. In the lower
levels of our education system, learners should be encouraged to seek to understand
the reasons behind those moral rules which they are expected to adhere to. At the
higher levels of our education system, learners should be exposed to a systematic
study of the fundamental principles and basic concepts that are or ought to be found
•
In the institution of morality. In other words, courses in ethics as offered by
departments of philosophy in our universities, ought to be a requirement for all our
students at the higher levels of our education system. The writings of some of the
humanists earlier discussed exhibit a philosophical approach to the study of morality,
and would be of great use in these higher levels of our education system. This
advocation of the need to treat morality in a specialised academic manner must
however be regulated by the lesson we learned from the history of moral education
in this country: this is that moral education should never be considered to begin
and end in the classroom, since such an approach leads the learners to focus on
239
examinations instead of focusing on the need to improve the quality of their practice
in morality.
K Use of Insights From Contemporary Educational Theory
In our examination of the rationale for SEE as exemplified by the present
SEE syllabus for Kenya Secondary Schools, we noted that this syllabus exhibits a
utilisation of insights drawn from contemporary educational theory. Such insights
include the need to proceed from the learner's previous experience to new
materials ("known to unknown"), the emphasis on the mutually reinforcing roles of
the school and the general community life in promoting the child's moral maturation
and the use of themes among others. This utilisation of insights from current
educational theory should be treated as a continuous process. This is to say that
there is a need for the curriculum developers to always be ready to make use of
any new research findings yielded by researches into various areas of the field of
'education such as educational psychology, sociology of education and philosophy of
education. .This need to constantly review the utilisation of insights from
educational theory is proposed on the grounds that human knowledge is always
incomplete by virtue of the finitude of the human mind.
3. Conclusion
In this chapter, we have endeavoured to work towards a synthesis of the
insights that our investigations in the previous five chapters have yielded, insights
that can be used to improve the form and content of Kenya's moral education
programme. It is important to note here that a synthesis such as the one aimed at
240
by this study must remain an ideal in view of the variety of elements outlined above.
From all the points that have been raised in this study, we come to the
conclusion that Kenya's ethical plurality need not be a setback to the formulation
of a basis for a moral education programme that is both rational and applicable to
the conditions in the country. This is because each moral position considered above
proves to have something worthwhile to offer in the endeavour to enrich the form
and content of our moral education programme. Traditional African values mainly
point us to the need to cater for the social aspec~ of man's nature, Christian and
Islamic ethics point us to the need for moral ideals, and the various secular
humanistic views on morality point us to the need to acknowledge man's abilities,
and to the need to make use of these abilities. Moreover, the history of moral
education in Kenya teaches us that moral education ought never to be considered
to begin and end in classroom learning. This is because this kind of learning lacks
ample opportunities for practical experience in what is being learnt. This situation
gives rise to the need for the whole community to take part in the task of educating
its young morally. What is more, the rationale for SEE as exemplified by the,..
present SEE syllabus for our Secondary schools is mainly commendable for the
attempt it has made to utilise insights from current educational theory.
Finally, the various elements outlined above for use in the synthesis give an
indication of the kind of person who Kenya's moral education programme should
mould its learners into. Our moral education programme should aim at moulding
its learner into a person who appreciates his individuality, that is, one who
appreciates the fact of his uniqueness, and the fact of his intrinsic ~nd infinite worth.
The secular humanist emphasis on true consciousness, situation ethics and optimism
241
in man's abilities can be used to enhance the learner's appreciation of his
individuality. However, care must be taken to ensure that the learner does not
embrace individualism, that is, egoism, as a guide for living. On the contrary, the
programme should mould the learner into a person who is deeply aware of the
social aspect of man's nature: he should recognize that man is at his best when he
co-operates with his fellow men. The traditional African emphasis on communalism
can be used to enhance the learner's appreciation of the social aspect of his nature.
Moreover, our moral education programme should mould its learners into
persons who constantly endeavour to actualise their potentiality as rational beings
in making moral decisions. The secular humanist emphasis on the need for
philosophical reflection can contribute towards achieving this goal. However,
rationality alone is not sufficient for ensuring that the individual leads a morally
upright life: the person must not only 'know' the right; he must also 'feel' the right.
This 'feeling' of the right will be made possible by developing the affective or
• emotive domain of the individual, and here insights from research findings in the
social sciences such as psychology and sociology come in handy, as is evidenced by
I'
the rationale for SEE as exemplified by the SEE syllabus for the Secondary school
cycle. Furthermore, Christianity and Islam, by providing the learner with moral
ideals, give the learner an opportunity to admire upright moral living, thus
contributing towards the development of his affectivity.
All in all, Kenya's moral education programme ought to mould the learner
into a person in whom individuality, sociality, rationality and affectivity have been
adequately catered for. It must be noted however, that the moulding of such a
person is a lifelong process, so that our moral education programme should
242
endeavour to encourage the students to make the aim of moral maturation a
personal and life-long one.
243
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