L~'-'I--
I'
\
EVALUATION OF INDIGENOUS MEDICINAL PLANTS AND SETTING
PRIORITIES FOR THEIR DOMESTICATION IN UKAMBANI
DISTRICTS OF KENYA (I
BERNARD MULE IKIVY ATU (B.Se. Forestry)
"A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the Degree of Master of
Environmental Studies (Agroforestry and Rural Development) of Kenyatta
University"
March 2007
Kivyatu, Bernard
Evaluation of
indigenous medicinal
IIII~~IIIIIUI!IIIIII~I.
2008/322682
KFNVllTT~ IflIlU!:'Dt'ITV I n," II "t'-
11
Declaration
"This thesis is my original work and has not been presented for a degree in any other
University or any other award."
. · ':b-!ff:;34 oDrSigned. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . Date J.c;;. ••••••••••••••••.••••
"We confirm that the work reported in this thesis was carried out by the candidate
under our supervision".
1. Dr. James B. Kung'u
Department of Environmental Sciences
School of Environmental Studies and Human Sciences
Kenyatta University
-, · 'l'"'ltJ ~~ ~ol
~_, _._ ~ Date ~ .
2. Dr. Paul K. Mbugua
Department of Biological Sciences
School of Pure and Applied Sciences.
Kenyatta University.
Signed ~ " """ Date ..•&.~??./?.!!P.J..
c
111
Dedicatf°n
This work is dedicated to my late parents and my family especially my wife for
the support they gave me during the entire study period.
(.
IV
Acknowledgments
I most gratefully acknowledge the advice and assistance of my supervisor, Dr.
James B. Kung'u for his tireless efforts and assistance in data collection and
guidance. Special thanks are due to Dr. Paul K. Mbugua for his advice on vital
ethno bopnical issues and plant identification at Kenyatta University.
Special thanks are also due to Mr. J. K. Macharia and Mr. Jan Van der Abell, both
of Integrated Natural Resource Management in Ukambani (INRMU) Project for
funding the research.
Acknowledgement is also due to Mr. P. Kimondo, Mr. M.T.E. Mbuvi, Dr. M.
Doris and Mr. C. Musya (Kenya Forestry and Research Institute) for their
assistance in the field, Dr. B. Muasya (National Museums of Kenya) for his
assistance in tree specimen identification and all the Forest Department staff who
assisted me in the field in various ways.
I am also grateful to all the herbalists and all the local people who interacted with
me durinp the preparation of this work.
The work was made possible by a scholarship award by the Government of Kenya
(GoK) through the Directorate of Personnel Management.
vAbstract
In many developing countries, herbal medicine is the foundation of health care.
This has been attributed to affordability and convenience of accessing herbal
medicine. The objective of this research was to evaluate the type of medicinal
plants used by Ukambani people, the ailments they treat, knowledge flow and
socioeconomic drivers of herbal medicinal use. This research was carried out in
Machakos, Makueni, Kitui and Mwingi districts and targeted herbalists in selected
locations, .and the local people in selected villages bordering urban centers and
natural forests. Kitui district harbored over 40% of the herbalists. Male and
female herbalists accounted for 71% and 29% respectively. The interviewed
herbalists had herbal medicine practice experience ranging from 1 to 57 years.
Five percent of the herbalists had been health care providers for over 50 years,
while 33% had been in herbal medicine for only 1 to 10 years. Those who had
practiced herbal medicine for 11,,20 years and 21",30 years accounted for 27% arid
21% respectively with 8% having practiced herbal treatment for between 31-40
years. Acquisition of herbal knowledge was mostly through family inheritance.
The study revealed that those who acquired herbal knowledge from their fathers,
grandfathers, mothers and grandmothers accounted for 25%, 13%, 11% and 10%
respectively. Herbal medicine was sold in either powder or liquid form, Most dry
and powdered packed drugs were being sold for between Kenya shillings 50 and
100 for; 50 grams sachets translating to between Ksh. 1000 and 2000 per
kilogram. Drugs in liquid form (made from approximately 10 grams of powdered
medicine) were being sold for Ksh. 10 per glass. Storage of Strychnos henningsii,
Cassia abbreviata and Albizia anthmentica was reported by 27%, 20% and 12%
of the herbalists respectively. Other important plants that were stored were
Zanthoxylum' chalybueum, Croton megalocarpus and Terminalia brownii. Decline
in availability of medicinal plants was reported by 96% of the herbalists.
According to this study, there is need for domestication of popular medicinal
plants since the wild resource, which accounts for 60% is diminishing. The study
showed that 45% of both herbalists and local people have planted medicinal
plants. However, 90% and 98% of herbalist and local people reported willingness
to plant medicinalplants respectively. Priority species identified for domestication
include 'Strychnos henningsii, Zanthoxylum chalybeum, Cassia abbreviata,
Terminalia brownii, Croton megalocarpus and Albizia anthelmintica among
others. This study concludes that herbal medicine is a way of life of Ukambani
people with well-developed and continuous training and markets. The fact that
both local people and herbalists are planting medicinal plants implies that they are
willing to sustainably exploit the practice for development and health purposes.
vi
Table of contents
1.
11.
111.
IV.
VI.
Vll.
V.
Declaration
Dedication
Acknowledgements
Abstract
List of Tables
List of Figures
Listof acronyms
Chapter 1 Introduction
1.0
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
Background
Statement of the problem
Research questions
Hypothesis
Objectives
Justification
Chapter 2: Review of Literature
2.0 History of herbal medicine
2.1 Trade in Medicinal plants
2.2 Use of plants as medicines around the world
2.2.1 Traditional medicine in Africa
2.2.2 Traditional medicine in Europe
2.2.3 Traditional medicine in the America
2.2.4 Traditional medicine in Asia
2.3 Traditional medicine and health care provision by herbalists
2.4 Nutrition and dietary values of herbs and herbal medicine
2.5 Herbs medicine in the holistic context
2.5.1 Advantages and disadvantages of herbal medicine
2.5.2 Affordability of conventional and herbal medicine
2.5.3 Challenges facing herbal medicine
2.5.3.1 Challenges of herbal medicine in Kenya
2.6 Developments in herbal medicine
2.6.1 The need for research for medicinal plants in the tropical regions
2.6.2 Domestication of medicinal plants
2.7 Threats to medicinal plants
2.7.1 Threats to medicinal plants in East Africa
2.8 Transfer of herbal medicinal knowledge
Page
11
111
IV
V
X
XlI
, ..
XlI
1
2
4
4
4
5
7
9
10
11
15
17
18
19
20
22
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
31
32
vii
Chapter 3: Research Methodology
3.0
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.3.1
3.3.2
3.4
3.4.1
3.4.2
3.4.3
3.4.4
3.4.5
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.6.1
3.6.2
3.6.4
3.6.5
3.6
The study area
Climate, soils, vegetation and socio-economic description of
the study area
Target group
Sampling techniques
Sampling of herbalists
Sampling of herbalists customers
Research instruments
Structured interview schedule
Interview guides
Pairwise ranking
Matrix scoring
Mapping
Estimation of relative abundance
Identification of plant specimens
Field transect data
Size of quadrants
Quadrant method
PointCentered Quarter Method
Observations
Data analysis
Chapter 4: Results
Page
33
34
35
35
35
36
36
36
37
37
37
37
38
38
38
39
39
39
40
40
4.0 I~oduction 41
4.1 Overview 41
4.1.1 Distribution of herbalists, gender and customers (patients)
in the study area 41
4.1.2 Marital status of herbalists and herbalist's customers 44
4.1.3 Age group distribution of herbalists and herbalist's customers. 45
4.1.4 Religion andeducation status of herbalists and respondents. 47
4.1.5 Herbalists experience in herbal medicine. 49
4.1.6 Acquisition of herbal knowledge and plant treatment materials 50
4.1.7 Dissemination of herbal knowledge by herbalists to other people 53
4.2 Parts of medicinal plants used by herbalists. 54
4.2.1 Harvesting methods of medicinal plants in Ukambani districts 55
4.2.2 Plant drug preparation methods in Ukambani districts 57
4.2.3 Popular plants used in herbal medicines in Ukambani districts 58
4.2.4 Sources of medicinal plants in Ukambani districts 59
4.2.5 Medicinal plants mostly stored by herbalists. 60
4.2.5.1.Paekilging and storage of medicmal plants in Ukambani districts "62. I
viii
4.2.5.2 Duration of storage of medicinal plants 64
4.2.6 Trend in availability of medicinal plants. 65
4.2.6.1 Destruction and threatsof medicinal plants in Ukambani districts' 68
4.2.6.2 Threatened medicinal plants in Ukambani districts 70
4.3 Demand of medicinal plants in Ukambani districts 73
4.3.1 Alternatives to popular medicinal plants. 73
4.4 Medicinal plants and drug trade in Ukambani districts 74
4.4.1 Market potential of medicinal plants in Ukambani districts 75
4.4.2 Factors that influence cost and popularity' of herbalists 76
4.5.1 Visitation to herbalists by patients 77
4.5.1 Mode of transport by respondents to herbalists in
Ukambani districts 80
4.5.2 Household use of medicinal plants by respondents. 81
4.5.3 The trend of use and future of herbal medicineIn Ukambani districts 83
4.6
4.7
4.8
4.8.1
4.8.2
4.8.2
4.8.3
The link between herbal and modem clinical treatment
in Ukambani Districts
Planting of medicinal plants in Ukambani districts
Forest transect data
Common herbs and seedlings, saplings and tree species
The status of popular medicinal plants in Kibwezi forest
Status of medicinal plants in Nuu forest hill (Mwingi district)
Status of medicinal plants in Endau forest (Kitui district)
85
86
89
89--'91
92
93
Chapter 5: Conclusions and recommendations
5.0
5.1
6.0
Conclusions
Recommendations
95
96
References 100
Appendixes
Popular herbal plants used in Ukambani districts 120
Common herbs and seedlings 126
Plant saplings in 4x4 m transect plots 127
Tree species within 10 x 10 m transect plots 128
Relative values and importance value for tree species
in Makueni district 130
Relative and importance values for tree species in Mwingi
District 132
Appendix 1
Appendix 2
Appendix 3
Appendix 4
Appendix 5
Appendix e
Appendix 7
Appendix 8
Appendix 9
Appendix 10
Appendix 11
IX
Relative and importance values for tree species
in Kitui District
Sample herbalists questionnaire
Sample patients questionnaire
Sample harvester's questionnaire
Sample forest transect walk data sheet
133
"135
139
141
144
Appendix 7
Appendix 8
Appendix 9
Appendix 10
Appendix 11
IX
Relative and importance values for tree species
in Kitui District
Sample herbalists questionnaire
Sample patients questionnaire
Sample harvester's questionnaire
Sample forest transect walk: data sheet
133
135
139
141
144
xList of Tables Page
Table 1 Advantages and disadvantages of herbal medicine 23
Table 2 Population projection for Ukambani districts 34
Table 3 Distribution of herbalists in Ukambani districts 42
Table 4 Distribution of herbalist's customers in Ukambani districts 44
Table 5 Marital status of herbalists in Ukambani 45
Table 6 Religion categories of herbalists and respondents. in the study area 47
Table 7 Education status of herbalists and local respondents 48
Table 8 Occupation categories of herbalists customers 49
Table 9 Acquisition of herbal knowledge by herbalists 51
Table 10 Medicinal plants acquisition and harvesting methods 52
Table 11 Tools used for harvesting medicinal plants 52
Table 12 Herbalists herbal knowledge dissemination to other
people by herbalists 53
Table 13 Medicinal plant parts used by herbalists 55
Table 14 Root and bark harvesting by herbalists 56
Table 15 Methods of herbal medicine preparations by herbalists 57
Table 16 Sources of medicinal plants in Ukambani districts 59
Table 17 Desired medicinal plants mostly stored by herbalists
in Ukambani 61
Table 18 Packaging of medicinal plants by herbalists in Ukambani 63
Table 19 Duration of storing medicinal plants by herbalists 64
Table 20 Herbalists response to loss of efficacy of medicinal plants 64
Table 21 Reasons for decline of medicinal plants in Ukamban 66
Table 22 . Major causes of destruction .and threats to medicinal
plants in Ukambani districts 69
Table 23 Threatened medicinal plants in Ukambani districts 71
Table 24 Medicinal plants with highest demand in Ukambani 73
Table 25 Units of measurement of medicinal plant drugs
in Ukambani 75
Table 26 Estimated market potential of herbal drugs in Ukambani 76
Table 27 Perceived treatment costs of herbal medicine as compared
to modem clinics in Ukambani 78
Table 28 Respondents satisfaction with the cost of herbal medicine 78
Table 29 Rate of herbalist's consultation by patients in Ukambani 80
Table 30 Traveling and time taken by patients while going to
Consult herbalists for treatment 81
Table 31 Side effects after herbal treatment in Ukambani 83
Table 32 Trend and future of herbal medicine in Ukambani 84
Xl
Table 33 Perceived future demand of herbal medicine 84
Table 34 The link between herbal medicine and modem clinical
treatment 85
Table 35 Planting of medicinal plants in Ukambani 86
Table 36 Planted medicinal plants by both herbalists and local
people 87
Table 37 Common herbals and tree saplings in the study area 90
Table 38 Relative values of four most popular medicinal plants
found in Kibwezi forest- Makueni district 92
Table 39 Relative values of four medicinal plants found in Nuu
forest Hill - Mwingi district 92
Table 40 Relative values of five most popular medicinal plants
in Endau Forest hill- Kitui District 93
II,..u"•"'r"'T • I 1111"I'"n '-"!TV f "",,,," '-'"
List of Figures
Figure 1
Figure 2
Figure 3
Figure 4
Figure 5
Figure 6
Figure 7
Figure 8
Figure 9
Figure 10
Figure 11
Figure 14
Figure 13
Xll
A map of Kenya showing the study area
Gender proportion of herbalists in Ukambani districts
Age group distribution of herbalists and respondents
Herbalists experience in herbal medicine
Reasons for storage of medicinal plants by herbalist
Storage forms of medicinal drugs by herbalists
. Response to trend in availability' of medicinal plants
Medicinal plants with highest decrease in Ukambani
districts
Alternatives to popular medicinal plants
Factors influencing cost of herbal medicine
Reasons for respondents preference to herbal medicine
House hold use of medicinal plants by local people
Reasons for planting medicinal plants by herbalists
Page
33
43
46
50
62
63
- 65
67
74
77
79
82
89
Xlll
List of acronyms
AIDS Anti ImmuneDeficiencySyndrome
ASAL Arid and SemiArid Lands
DBH Diameterat BreastHeight
EEC EuropeanEconomicCommission
FDA FederalDepartmentof Agriculture
FGD FocusGroupDiscussion
HIV Humanlmmuno DeficiencyVirus
IUCN InternationalUnion for Conservationof Nature
KEMRI KenyaMedicalResearch Institute
M Meter
PCQ Point CenteredQuarter
PRA ParticipatoryRuralAppraisal
SAMTECH ' School of AlternativeMedicineand Technology
SPSS StatisticalPackagefor Social Sciences
TMP TraditionalMedicalPractitioners
UNESCO UnitedNations Education Scientificand CulturalOrganization
USA United Statesof America
WHO WorldHealthOrganization
1CHAPTERl
INTRODUCTION
1.0 Back,ground
Health is a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not
merely the absence of disease or infirmity (Riediker and Koren, 2004; WHO,
1946). In several developing countries, herbal medicine is still the foundation of
health care (DaSilva and Hoareau, 1999). About 12.5% of the documented plant
species worldwide are reported to have medicinal value (Rao, et al., 2004).
According to Cox (1994), at least 50 pharmaceutical drugs have been discovered
from ethno-botanical leads. Furthermore, of the 119 plant based drugs today,
74% are from plants traditionally used as herbal cures (Farnsworth, 1990). The
plants provide the predominant ingredients of medicine in most medical traditions
(Hamilton, 2004) and the total number of species used worldwide maybe 35,000-
70,000 (Farnsworth and Soejarto, 1991; Hamilton, 2004). Plants are essential to
human existence (Maundu et al., 1999) and according to (Hoffmann, 1996;
DaSilva and Hoareau, 1999), all cultures, throughout the world, from ancient
times to the present have used plants as a source of medicine.
The World Health Organization (WHO, 1993a) estimates that 4 billion people (80
% of the world's population) use herbal medicine for some aspect of primary
health care (Bannerman, 1982; Farnsworth et al., 1985; WHO, 1991; WHO, 1985;
Marshall, 1997). In Africa for example, 80% of the population uses traditional
2medicine for primary health care (De Silva, 1997; WHO, 2003) whereas in
industria1ized countries, adaptations of traditional medicine are termed as
"Complementary" or "Alternative" medicine (WHO, 2003). There is great
potential for the use of herbal medicine in the arid and semi arid lands (ASALs) in
Kenya where 90% of the communities in these regions depend on plants as
sources of both human and animal medicine (Wanyama and Masinde, 2004). In
these areas, livestock disease control is identified as a major priority by pastoralist
communities (Jones, et al., 2005). For example, the Pokot of Kenya highly
cherish Balanites aegyptica, Terminalia brownii, Kigelia afrieana, Grewia
bieolor, Acacia tortilis and Ziziphus mueronata as sources of both human and
animal medicine (Kitalyi, 2005). Livestock keeping in these areas contribute over
80% of the community's livelihoods (Wanyama and Masinde, 2004) and
constitute 51)%of the national herd (Kitalyi, 2005).
1.2 Statement of the Problem
In many parts of the world, poor people in regions and ecosystems with low
arable potential utilize wild plant resources for their survival. As such, these plant
resources form. the lifeline for such people and their depletion can easily lead to
total collapse of the communities. A decline in the availability of culturally
important and easily accessible consumer goods is likely to generate significant
losses for the user communities. It is the rural people who have the most to lose if
this priceless indigenous intellectual heritage and the trees upon which it is based
3disappear. Additional loses could also occur as potential income generating
opportunjties associated with a growing local and international demand are not
realized. Furthermore, this problem is being aggravated by the uncontrolled and
intensive harvesting of wild stocks in natural forests which is a serious threat to
biodiversity.
The use of medicinal plants in Ukambani districts in Kenya has continued for
many years yet there is no information or documentation of the plants used and
their population status in the wild to guide the conservation efforts. It is not
known fpr instance where the plants are harvested from, how they are harvested
and whether they are replanted. Knowledge of medicinal plants is also only
known by a few people especially the herbalists. Most of these people are elderly
and there is no documentation of the knowledge they have perfected for the many
years they have been practicing herbal medicine (Kokwaro and Kisangau, 2004).
The continued utilization of medicinal plants without knowledge on the future
sustainability may lead to extinction of some of the rare but very important plant
species. Sustainable use can only be possible if the existing indigenous
knowledge, the status of the plant population in the field and the potential market
of the trade is properly established. This research was therefore undertaken to
document the indigenous knowledge on medicinal plants and establish the status
of the medicinal plants used in the field. The study also evaluated the market
potential for the medicinal plants and identified priority species for domestication.
41.3 Research Questions
To achieve the objectives, this study was guided by the following research
questions.
1. What are the major indigenous plant species used for medicinal purposes
in Ukambani districts?
2. Wha,t is the market potential for medicinal plants in Ukambani districts?
3. Which are the priority medicinal plant species that should be considered
for domestication in Ukambani districts?
1.4 Hypotheses
To achieve the objectives, this research study was guided by the following
hypotheses:
1. Some indigenous plant species are used for medicinal pmposes In
Ukambani.
2. There is market potential for medicinal plants exist in Ukambani districts.
3. Farmers in Ukambani districts are willing to domesticate important
medicinal plant species.
1.5 Objectives
The broad objective of this study was to analyze the status of medicinal plants
species in Ukambani districts and to propose ways of enhancing sustainable
management. The specific objectives of this study were to:
1. Document the indigenous knowledge on medicinal plants in Ukambani
districts.
2. Assess the market potential for medicinal plants in Ukambani districts.
53. Prioritize medicinal plants identified in Ukambani districts and determine
prime species for domestication.
1.6 Justification
The high population increase in the last few decades and increased poverty has
resulted in many people using medicinal plants. There is significant evidence
showing that the supply of medicinal plants is failing to satisfy the demand
(Cunningham, 1993a). Furthermore, there is a decline in the total area of natural
vegetation as a result of competition for land for other uses such as plantation
forestry, agriculture, fuelwood supply and settlement (Bulwalda, et al., 1997).
Concerns relating to the accelerated decline of natural forest in the four Ukambani
districts and hence consequent depletion of medicinal plants within the region
were raised by the management of the Integrated Natural Resoure Management
(INRM) Project. One of the project's objectives was to ensure sustainable
utilization of natural resources including medicinal plants. With this as a driving
force, the INRM project sponsoured this research to be undertaken in all the
Ukambani districts in order to evaluate the use of indigenous medicinal plants,
prioritize importand species for domestication and garther more informationm.
The Ukambani region lies within the ASALs which covers the countrys drylands
in agroclimatic (ACZ) V, VI and VII described as semi arid, arid and very arid
respetively (Wanjogu, et al. 2003). As such, the four districts are within the
drylands which are defined as areas with between 0-600 mm of rainfall per year
depending on altitude and latitude (IIRR, 2001).
6This study was intended to come up with information and data that will support .
individual farmers, fanner groups, community members, organizations and
government departments to realize the opportunities for cultivation of high value
indigenous medicinal plants for poverty eradication and environmental
conservation in the ASALS. Data and information on the preferred medicinal
plant species in the market, the quantities and selling prices as well as the trade
network is important in the design of practical conservation resource management
program for plant species in trade. In the current scenario, medicinal plants are
being harvested from the wild and there is no sufficient information on the
availability of population and regeneration status of these plants. Article 7 of the,
Convention of Biodiversity, to which Kenya is a signatory, requires the
contracting parties to identify components of biodiversity important for
conservation and sustainable use (Glowka, et al., 1994). The study therefore
sought t~ highlight and prioritize threatened medicinal plant species, which could
be considered for domestication. Upon domestication, the local people can earn a
living from the sale of their products hence.improving their livelihoods.
7CHAPl'ER2
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
2.0 History of herbal medicine
Herbal medicine practices are as old as human history (Ayensu, 1978). Since
ancient limes plants have been indispensable sources of both preventive and
curative preparations for human beings (Dery, et al., 1999). Early humans
recognized their dependence on nature in both health and illnesses. Led by
instinct, taste and experience, these early people treated illness using plants,
animal p~rts and minerals that were not part of their diet. Physical evidence of use
of herbal remedies goes back some 60,000 years to a burial site of a Neanderthal
man uncovered in 1960 in a cave in Iraq (Solecki, 1975). An analysis of the soil
around the bones revealed extraordinary quantities of plant pollen that could not
have been introduced accidentally at the burial site. Seven of the eight plant
species are medicinal plants still used today (Bensky and Gamble, 1993). All
cultures have long folk medicine histories that include the use of plants. Indeed,
right intq the 20th Century, much of the pharmacopoeia of scientific medicine was
derived from the herbal lore of native peoples (Farnsworth and Morris, 1976).
The first written records detailing the use of herbs in the treatment of illness are
the Mesopotamian clay tablet writings and the Egyptian Papyrus. The Ebers
Papyrus, the most important of the preserved Egyptian manuscripts was written
around 1500 BC and includes much of the earlier information. It contains 876
prescriptions made up, of more than 500 different substances including many
8herbs (Ackerknecht, 1973). However, scientific investigations on plants for
medicinal purposes can safely be dated back to the late 18th Century when
investigations were carried out on the effects of Digitalis by Dr. William
Withering (Hedberg, 1987). The discovery of potent alkaloids in Catharanthus
rose us with marked oncolytic properties is thought to have been one of the
reasons, which led to change in attitude towards more research on medicinal
plants (Bernard, 1967).
In the Muslim world, Arabs preserved and built on the body of knowledge of the
Greco-Roman period as they learned of new remedies from remote places. They
even introduced Chinese technique of chemically preparing minerals. The
principle storehouse of the Muslim Material medica is the text of Jami of Ibn
Baiar which lists more than 2,000 substances including many plant products
(Ackerknecht, 1973). In India, herbs played an important role in India's
Ayurvedic medicine. The principal Ayurvedic book on internal medicine,
(Characka Samhita) describes 582 herbs (Majino, 1975). The most recent
compilation of Chinese Materia medica was published in 1977 while the
Encyclopedia of Chinese Medicine Substances (Zhong yao da ci dian) by the
Jiangsu College of New Medicine contains 5,767 entries and is the most definitive
compilation of China's herbal tradition to date (Bensky and Gamble, 1993).
92.1 Trade in medicinal plants
Medicinal plants have been traded internationally for centuries (Marshall, 1997)
and the herbal sector is growing fast, increasing by 12-15% by value per year in
the United States, Britain, and Italy (Abrahams, 1992). The global market for
herbal medicines currently stands at over US$ 60 billion annually and is growing
steadily (WHO, 2003). The largest world markets for medicinal plants are China,
France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Spain, Britain and the United States of America
with Japan having the highest per capita consumption of botanical medicines in
the world (Laird, 1999). Africa exports medicinal plants across the globe whereas
Europe is the largest importer after Asia (Brevoort, 1996). Key plants exported
from Africa include Prunus africana from several African countries,
Harpagophytum species from Botswana and Namibia, Aloe lorex from South
Africa, as well as Drosera madagascariensis and Rauvolfia confertiflora from
Madagascar (Marshall, 1998).
The trade in Prunus africana bark has taken place for at least 30 years. Extracts
from the bark of this plant are used for production of at least 19 different herbal
preparations sold by 23 companies based mainly in Europe and America. These
preparations are used to treat benign prostratic hypertrophy (BPH), a debilitating
ailment common in older men (Cunningham, et al., 2002). From the early 1970's
up to 1992, bark or bark extract has been exported from African countries
(Cameroon, Madagascar, Democratic Republic of Congo, Kenya and Uganda
10
(Cunningham, et al., 1997). In Kenya, the highest price paid to the exporter is
US$ 2 per kilogram, which is equivalent to US$ 2,000 per ton (Cunningham, et
al., 2002).
The current international export demand for Prunus africana bark (primarily to
Europe) is over 3,000 tons per year. Nearly two thirds of this is harvested in
Cameroon (Cunningham and Mbenkum, 1993). Currently, the volume of trade on
medicinal plants is growing in the rural and urban markets. Cases of vendors
distributing medicinal plants from Uganda, central Kenya, Coast, Rift Valley to
western Kenya and vise versa have become common (Odera, 1977).
2.2 Use of plants as medicines around the world
Medicinal plants are important in both developed as well as in the developing
countries and there is evidence that interest in natural products is growing,
particularly in the western pharmaceutical, cosmetics and herbal medicine
products (Fuller, 1991, Lewington, 1993). For example, in Europe and America, it
is estimated that 25 per cent of all medical drugs are based on plants and their
derivatives (principe, 1989). Many purified plant compounds are used directly as
medicines in many parts of the world (Hollman, 1991) while in the industrialized
societies, an increasing reliance has been traced to the extraction and development
of several drugs and chemotherapeutics from the medicinal plants as well as from
traditionally used rural herbal remedies (UNESCO, 1998). These plant drugs
carry important properties such as contraceptives, quinine and artemisinin against
.1•••• ". __ •••••. .!..._
11
malaria, digitalis derivatives for heart failure, and cancer drugs vinblastin,
ectoposide and taxol which cannot be synthesized cost effectively (Van Seters,
1997). In the developing world, many traditional healers use indigenous plants as
their Material medica and due to the astringent or disinfectant properties of these
plants, such applications have been successful for generations (Ayensu, 1978).
Furthermore, plants, through alternative medicine practitioners, provide benefits
which are lacking in the normal doctor-patient encounter such as time, empathy,
personalized expectation of a cure, counseling and emphasis on health rather than
disease (Emst, 1993).
2.2.1 Traditional medicine in Mrica
Africa is a rich source of medicinal plants and can easily be the chief source of
medicinal raw materials (Dixon, 1981). In fact, 10,000 species of high medicinal
value cqmmonly used by many households are listed by the World Heath
Organization in Africa (Anon, 1987). Most African families depend almost
entirely on folk medicine where more than 80% of the people depend on plant and
animal medicines to satisfy their health care requirements due to the lack of
medical services, high costs of these services and the holistic and cultural values
that rural communities attach to traditional plant cures (Kokwaro and Kisangau,
2004). This dependence has led many medical scholars to believe that Africa, the
cradle of man, was the birthplace of traditional methods of treatment (Abdulbagi,
2002). African traditional healer'S have a first hand experience with a
12
pharmacopoeia that is more diverse than that available from plant resources in the
temperate region due to the infinitely greater number of species that flourish in
the tropical zones (Mori, 1994). Perhaps, the best-known species is Phytolacca
dodecandra whose extracts are used as effective molluscicide to control
Schistosomiasis (Lemma, 1991).
The high costs of western medicine and the huge contribution by traditional
medicinal practitioners have resulted in the Government of Sudan encouraging the-
use of traditional medicinal resources by its inhabitants (Marshall, 1998). Due to
many invasions and migrations in the Sudan, the country has a unique medical
system representing not only a blend of cultures, but also incorporating numerous
plants introduced into the country by its many immigrants (Ayoub and Svendsen,
1981). Today, home remedies are available in virtually every Sudanese home,
includin!f areas in cities where modem medical facilities are available (AI Safi,
1970).
In South Africa, traditional medicine is viewed as the most appropriate means of
addressing certain problems, not necessarily of the same nature as those usually
addressed by western medicine. Furthermore, traditional medicine is not only
viewed as the best medicine for some treatments, but that the number of
traditional medical practitioners is far greater (1:700-1200) than that of western
medical doctors (1:17,400) (Marshall, 1998). The Zulu of South Africa use the
decoction of the root or the leaf of Momordica foetida in the treatment of boils
13
while in Brazil, the seeds of the same plant are administered as an antihelmintic
(Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962). In Botswana, Lesotho, Namibia and South
Africa, the plant Harpagophytum procumbens is produced as an export drug while
Hibiscus sabdariffa is exported from Sudan and Egypt (DaSilva and Hoareau,
1999). In Zimbabwe, approximately 500 species comprising 10% of the country's
flora including many trees species are used by traditional healers (Gelfend, et al.,
1985).
Traditional medicine is extremely popular in Zambia while in Malawi, it is the
predominant medicinal system especially in the rural areas. Western medicine in
both these countries is unaffordable, and inaccessible to many people living far
from urban centers (Marshall, 1998). In West Africa, the Senegalese are slowly
returning to Aloe, an ancient herbal medicine that has been used in Africa for
more than 6,000 years (Adel, 2004).
In East Africa, even after being treated with modem medicine, many people, both
literate aad illiterate, still use local drugs in many ways (Kokwaro, 1976). The
bark of Prunus africana is reported to be widely used for treatment of stomach
pains (Kokwaro, 1976). The medicinal plant extracts are generally referred to as
"dawa ya miti" (Swahili) meaning "tree medicine", or colloquially as "miti
shamba", TIlls clearly indicates how widely trees and shrubs are generally used as
sources oflocal drugs (Kokwaro, 1976).
14
Traditional medicine plays a very important role in Tanzania due to the high cost
of western medicine. As such, there is no reason to suppose that this reliance will
decrease in foreseeable future. The outstanding feature of Uganda's medical
system is the co-operation between the western and traditional medicinal systems
(Marshall, 1998).
Medicinal plants in Kenya are widely used by many communities in Arid and
Semi Arid Lands (ASAL), constituting the second greatest use of plants after
animal fodder. It is estimated that over 70% of the Kenyan population rely on
traditional medicines as their primary source of health care while more than 90%
use medicinal plants at one time or another (Odera, 1977). According to Watt and
Breyer-Brandwijk, (1962), the roots, bark and leaves of Warbugia ugandensis are
used as a Bantu remedy besides being used for constipation, stomach-ache,
coughs, muscle pains, weakjoints and general body pains (Kokwaro, 1976). The
roots of Commiphora africana are boiled in water by many communities and the
decoction drank for treatment of stomach complaints wbile the bark and roots are
used in steam bath for treatment of fever and colds (Kokwaro, 1976). The Pokot
of Kenya use the decoction of the bark of Sclerocarya birrea against dysentery,
bad liver and rheumatism (Beentje, 1994). The importance of medicinal plants
among the Kenyan Maasai can be seen in the name Olchani, wbich is used both as
a general name for all plants as well as for medicine (Maundu et al., 2001). For
example, the Maasai men use the bark of Albizia anthelmintica mixed with milk,
15
blood or soup as an antihelmintic and for nervous complaints while their women
use a weaker preparation of the bark as a sexual stimulant (Watt and Breyer-
Brandwijk, 1962).
The bark and root of Acacia nilotica is used for treatment of venereal diseases by
the Kamba, Maasai and Turkana while a decoction of Strychnos henningsii root
and leaves is drunk in soup or honey to treat malaria and rheumatism (Maundu, et
al., 1999). The Kamba people drink and apply a decoction of pounded and boiled
leaves of Tamarindus indica for treatment of measles and chicken pox (Maundu,
et al., 1999). Other medicinal plants used include Zanthoxylum chalybeum, which
is widely used by many communities in Kenya for treatment of various ailments
and Balanites aegypytica whose root decoction is used to treat malaria, oedema
and stomach pains among the Pokot and heart burn by the Kamba (Maundu, et al.,
1999). In Mwingi district, the decoction of the bark of Commiphora baluencis is
used for treatment of Malaria in pregnant women (Musila, 2000).
2.2.2 Traditional medicine in Europe
In Europe, some 1500 species of medicinal and aromatic plants are widely used in
Albania, Bulgaria, Croatia, France, Hungary, Poland, Spain, Turkey and the
United Kingdom. An example of one of a well-studied source of European
phytomedicines is Silybum marianum (Milk thistle) whose seed extract has been
used as a liver remedy for over 2,000 years (Bode, et al., 1977). More than 50 %
16
of the population (in Europe) report using complementary or alternative medicine
.at least once (WHO, 2003) and the market for herbal medicines is expanding fast
with the highest expenditures being reported in France, Germany and the
Netherlands (Fisher and Ward, 1994). According to WHO (2003), 90% of the
population in Germany have used a natural remedy at some point in their life. The
Maltese islands constitute a classic example where medicinal plants are widely
used in every day life as part of folk medicinal remedies (Lanfranco, 1992).
The European Economic Community (EEC), upon recognizing the need to
standardize approval and registration of herbal remedies, has developed a series of
guidelines, which outline the standards of quality, safety, quantity, efficacy and
production of herbal remedies and provides labeling requirements that member
countries must meet (Keller, 1994). The guidelines are based on the principles of
the WHO~s Guidelines (1991) for the Assessment of Herbal Medicines. In
France, traditional medicines are sold with labeling based on traditional use
stating " Traditionally used for ... " consumers then understand this to mean that
indications are based on historical evidence and have not necessarily been
confirmedby modem scientific experimentation (Artiges, 1991). In Germany,
there is a distinction between "prescription drugs" and "normal prescription
drugs," where the former are available only by prescription (Keller, 1991).
National trends in Italy conducted in 1999 showed that an increasing number of
patients employ herbal remedies outside the mainstream conventional western
17
medicines (Menniti-Ippolito and De Mei, 1999). Indeed, it has been reported that
in Europe, most Complementary or Alternative Medicine (CAM) users are
normally health people in search of a better way to maintain or improve their own
health (Kellehear, 2003).
2.2.3 Traditional medicine in America
The use of medicinal plants such as Eupatorium perfoliatum (bonest),
Podophyllum pectatum (Mayapple) and Panax quinquefolium (American ginseng)
in the United States of America has for a long time been associated with the
American Indians (DaSilva and Hoareau, 1999). The American ginseng has
become an important item in world herb commerce (Duke, 1989). In Northern
Brazil, Yonamami Indian herbalists faced with severe epidemic of malaria
developed an empirical approach to identifying plants with potential antimalarial
effects. One major criterion was bitterness (Milliken, 1997). Until recently, most
American families in the United States used home herbal remedies to control
small medical emergencies and to keep minor ailments from turning into chronic
problems. During this time, there was partnership between home folk medicine
and the family doctor (Buchman, 1980). A total of 25% of all prescriptions from
communfty pharmacies between 1959-1980 contained materials from higher
plants (Farnsworth and Saejarto, 1985; Farnsworth and Morris, 1976). Currently,
over 158 million adults in the USA use complementary medicine (WHO, 2003).
According to a recent survey, the use of complementary therapies by people in the
18
United States may be as high as 34% (Einsenberg, et al., 1993; Johnston, 1997).
As study by Eiseberg, et al., (1998), revealed that 50% of all Complementary and
Alternative users in the United States who are persons in between ages 35 - 49
years, aimed at improving their health (Kellehear, 2003) while in Australia, the
use is greatest among the younger age groups (Maclennan, et al., 1996).
2.2.4 Traditional medicine in Asia
In many eastern countries, herbalism is part of mainstream living (Hoffmann,
1996). This practice of traditional medicine is widespread in China, India,
Pakistan and Thailand. In China, about 30%-50% of the total consumption of
drugs is attributed to traditional medicine (WHO, 2003). The Chinese folk
medicine has been shown to be powerful in treatment of malaria, eczema and
respiratory disorders (Gorman, 1992; Sheehan, et al., 1992) and has produced
impressive responses in cases of atopic dermatitis that has proved resistant to
conventional medicine (Harper, 1990; Harper, et al, 1990). In 1994, the Peoples
Republic of China (PRC) implemented the Drug Administration Law, which
considers traditional herbal preparations as "old drugs" and, except for new uses,
are exeIIfPt-from testing for efficacy or side effects (Gilhooley, 1989). In some
countries like Japan, herbal medicinal preparations are more in demand than
mainstream pharmaceutical products (DaSilva and Hoareau, 1999). Currently,
42.7% of western trained medical practitioners prescribe traditional Japanese
medicine,Kampe medicines (Tsumura, 1991).
19
In India, the use of Emblica officinalis (Indian gooseberry) to supplement the
diets of normal and hypercholesterolemic men aged between 35-55 resulted in
decreased cholesterol levels (Jacob et aI., 1988). The leaf juice of Jatropha curcas
is widely used for wounds and the pounded leaf as a fly repellent from horse's
eyes (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962) while in Malaysia, young shoots of
Calamus exilis (Rattan) are eaten raw for treating influenza, coughs and stomach
ailments (Lim Hin, 1992). In Nepal the root of Picrorhiza scrophylariae is used
as a cathertic in case of dyspepsia and a purgative and in treatment of scorpion
bites (Anon 1993).
2.3 Traditional medicine and health care provision by herbalists in Africa
Medicinal plants play an important role in the lives of rural people particularly in
remote parts of developing countries with few health facilities (Levingstone and
Zamora, T983; UNESCO, 1996). Traditional healers are the principal
professionals in health care services for the large majority of Africans particularly
in the rural areas (De-Smet, 2000). Furthermore, traditional medicine derived
from plants and animals collected from the wild is responsible for maintaining the
healthcare of millions of people in the east and southern Africa regions (Barnett,
2000).
In Swaziland, it is estimated that there are 5,000 to 8,000 traditional medicinal
practitioners (TMP) of which half are women (Green, 1985). This results into a
20
ratio of TMP to patients of 1: 100 (Hoff and Maseko, 1986) as compared to the
doctor to patient ration of 1: 10,000 (Green, 1985). In South Africa, both western
and traditional medicine is used (Mander, 1977). In terms of numbers, there are
27 million traditional medicine consumers in South Africa (majority of the
population) and the demand appears to be driven by cultural background, with
little influence from education and income levels. Traditional medicine for most
South Africans appear to be a basic requirement for treatment of particular
conditions and western medicine is not an alternative, even when cheaper
(Mander, 1977). People in Ethiopia are reported to feel more at ease and in the
case of sexually transmitted diseases, haemorrhoids and leprosy, prefer to seek
help from traditional healers, rather than expose themselves immodestly to
modem physicians (Desalegn, et al., 1996). In Kenya, herbalists handle about
88% of cases of sicknesses (Barnett, 2000; Wanjeru, 2003) while traditional birth
attendants play a key role in the provision of affordable healthcare services to
majority of Kenyans (Lucheli, 2005). Besides, traditional medicine is regarded as
effective, and is the preferred cure for many illnesses (Fratkin, 1996).
2.4 Nutrition and dietary values of herbs and herbal medicines
Herbal medicines used traditionally have nutritive value especially to patients
who have no appetite, have chronic anaemia or those showing malnutrition signs
(Bumetha, 1996). In non-western societies, food and medicines may not be
separated Into discrete categories. For example, the Hausa of Nigeria use certain
21
plants as both food and medicine (Etkins, 1997). The Maasai of Kenya cook the
bark of Acacia goetzei and Albizia anthelmintica with their traditional diet of
boiled meat, milk and blood. The barks of these trees results in the lowering of
cholesterol levels to one third that of the average American (Bodeker, 1999).
Unique saponins in these plants are considered to be important in producing the
cholesterol-lowering effects (Johns, et aI., 1996).
Other plants such as herbs can be used freely and safely as part of ones lifestyle
without thinking of them as medicines and for specific needs, their best use would
be preventive (Hoffinann, 1996). In addition to curative and preventive nature of
herbal medicine, there is a dietary added value especially in terms of minerals
found in some of the medicinal herbs, (Busienei, 2003; Kioko, 2003).
Furthermore, many trees produce seed oils, edible leaves and fruits rich in
important vitamins and nutritional elements (Hobkins, 1990). In times of hunger
and starvation or other calamities such as war, many plants can provide a life-
saving buffer as in the case with Balanites pedicellaris and Boscia coriaceae
among the Turkana of North Western Kenya (Maundu, et al., 1999). Furthermore,
a whole range of plant derived dietary supplements; phytochemicals and their pro-
vitamins that assist in maintaining good health and combating disease are now
being described as functional foods, nutriceuticals and nutraceuticals (DaSilva
and Hoareau, 1999). The leaves from the massive Baobab tree (Adansonia
digitata) are used in west Africa by cooks to thicken stews and give the dish a
22
slimmy texture, (Alden, 2003) while spices serve the adaptive purpose of
reducing food- borne diseases (Mcgee, 1988).
2.5 Herbal medicine in the Holistic Context
As its name implies, "holistic" medicine deals with the 'whole' person and treats
the body as a whole and integrated system - wholistic therapy. Herbal medicine
recognizes that herbs can work on this whole being, not just on specific systems.
It works 'synergistically' (Hoffmann, 1996). This is because each plant species
represents distinct factory, which has a vast medicinal potential (Ayensu, 1978).
As such, traditional health systems are actually designed to not only address the
locus of ~disease but also to restore a state of systematic balance to the individual
and his or her inner and outer environment (Bodeker, 1996).
2.5.1 Advantages and disadvantages of herbal medicine
Herbal medicine can be safe if used wisely, and can have side effects when over
dosed one is unaware of how the product works or what it is, the relevant
information should be sought from a physician or a herbalist. Some advantages
and disadvantages related to herbal medicine are as shown in Table 1.
23
Tabled: Advantagesand-disadvantag-es.of -herbal medicine
Advantages Disadvantages
• Herbal medicine has few or Some of their effectiveness remam
no effects when taken unproved
wisely
• They are easily accessible Herbal Medicines are not Food and
and a fraction of the cost of Drug Administration (FDA) regulated
prescriptive prices and manufacturers aren't mandated to
provide evidence to support their claims,
supply information about their contents
or side effects, or prove that their
products are safe or effective
• Herbal medicine aims at Dosages or indications for use are not
treating the whole problem clearly stated on most packaging
rather than just a symptom materials
• Allows you to actively Many have senous interactions with
participate m your own prescription drugs
treatment regime and aim to
keep you healthy
• Herbal medicines can be Public may be swayed into thinking that
used for both " anti-viral herbal medicines are '" all-natural" while
and anti-bacterial" reasons some are synthetic and can be just
dangerous, if not more harmful than
_ .. "'-. >- prescription medicine)• Herbal medicines are Occurs either in liquid or solid form
available m many forms;
tinctures, JUIces, pills and
elixirs.
Source: (Thea, et al., 1996)
2.5.2 Affordability of conventional and herbal medicine
Medicinal plants native to developing countries are often exported to developed
countries where they are screened, analyzed and used for drug preparations, only
to be retarned as high-priced medicines (Ayensu, 1983). It is estimated that
worldwide, only 15% of pharmaceutical drugs are consumed in the developing
24
countries (Toledo, 1995) due to barriers of expense, culture, poor quality and
inadequate number of physician. On the other hand, herbal/alternative medicine is
relativelyaffordable, accessible, highly acceptable and widely used (De-Smet,
2000; Busienei, 2003).
The use of medicinal plants and their potential to be a source of low-cost
remedies IS a subject of concern in most developing countries. In fact, herbal
medicines in Uganda are often either free or can be paid in kind (Hibler, 2001).
This reliance is not only mainly due to the high cost of modem healthcare
facilities, but also because traditional medicine is deemed a more appropriate
method of treatment (Barnett, 2000) and hence the pattern of dependence on local
herbal cures is therefore set to rise (Lewington, 1990). In Madagascar, traditional
medicine is extremely popular, and is often the sole option for most consumers, as
the price of Western pharmaceuticals is out of reach for many, and such products
are not always readily available (Quansah and Ranaivoarimanitra, 1996)
2.5.3 Challenges facing herbal medicine
The spread of western medicine was aided in its supremacy by associations with
the political and economic power of the west. Western medicine became part of
the "civilizing colonial mission". In Africa, colonial administrations referred the
medicine of the native people as ''traditional'' (Martin and Bindanda, 2001) and
had little faith in the efficacy of traditional medicines, and saw it as a system that
25
prevented patients from receiving western medicine (Chavunduka, 1996). Hence,
traditional medicine was intentionally suppressed or regulated in almost every
country in the continent. In India, Ayurvedic medicine was suppressed in state
funded-medical colleges after 1835 and local traditions were denounced in Africa
(Hamilton et al, 2003).
2.5.3.1 Challenges of herbal medicine in Kenya
In Kenya, herbalists have suffered for a long time due to lack of recognition and
support by the government (Wanjeru, 2003). There has also been a tendency in
western flledical journals to play down herbalism expertise by focusing on the
risks of traditional African medicine (De-Smet, 2000). Furthermore, the
alternative medicine industry was highly scandalized right from the colonial era
when the west labeled the African medicinal practitioners as the "witchdoctor",
(Githae, 7003). Traditional medicine has also been labeled with other expressions
such as mystery, charlatan, irrational or miracle, a mixture of superstition,
deliberate deception and ignorance and often the achievements of traditional
healers have been considered anecdotal and beyond scientific validation (Good,
1987; Merida, 2003). Besides, the Kenya herbalists face restriction from
professional medics who say the herbal medicines remain largely unstudied. The
formulations of the various concoctions are also not established or standardized,
as they are not manufactured in any established facility where the end product can
11 •••• "' ••••••• I IIlI It 'P'''' 1'\'OP" • I." '" ••••~
26
be controlled (Kimani, 2002). These Issues have greatly undermined the
potentiality of herbal medicine.
2.6 Developments in herbal medicine
Despite the heavy challenges, there is growing future in herbal medicine in Africa
and the world over. In Kenya for instance, the School of Alternative Medicine and
Technology (SAMTECH) is leading in Asthma treatment in the world using
herbal medicine (Githae, 2003). It is also recognized that herbal medicine is the
only answer to a number of diseases (Mwongo, 2003; Masila and Ngua, 2003). So
far, most modem asthma drugs have side effects or face resistance after some
time. Furthermore, an increasing reliance on the use of medicinal plants in the
industrialized societies has been traced to the extraction and development of
several drugs and chemotherapeutics from these plants as well as from
traditionally used rural herbal remedies (UNESCO, 1998). For example, in North
America, some 150 drugs from indigenous communities have been incorporated
into modem pharmacopoeia (Kloppenburg, 1988). In Kenya, herbal medicine has
recently gained recognition in managing HIV/Aids. Research institutions such as
Kenya Medical Research Institute (KEMRI) are studying the effect of some local
herbs in managing HIV/Aids.
In order to carry out more research on traditional medicine and its potentiality to
contribute to the national systems of health care, there are research centers such as
27
the Center for Complementary Medicine and Biotechnology at Kenyatta
University. In other countries like Mexico, there have been efforts to educate
doctors about traditional medicine, register traditional medical practitioners, and
provide herbal remedies for sale to communities (Aguilar, 2002). The World
Agroforestry Center in Nairobi is working on a breeding program to select
medicinal plant varieties such as Prunus africana which will take less time to
reach harvestable age (Ekola, et al., 2000).
2.6.1 The need for research for medicinal plants in the Tropical regions
Plants used for direct or specific treatment of particular diseases are worth further
investigation in order to determine their chemical composition and their reaction
on the diseases they cure (Kokwaro, 1976). In the current times, the need to study
medicinal plants in detail from various points of view are generally recognized
(Duke, 1985). However, despite the fact that 65% of the flowering plants growing
on our planet are found in the tropical belt, only a small fraction have been
investigated for medicinal purposes. In fact, of all the plants known, less than
10% have been subjected to investigations of secondary metabolites and their
pharmacological effects (Hedberg, 1987). It is believed that tropical forests are an
unmatched source of chemicals with potential for modem drug development
(Pistorius and Wijk, 1993) and that further investigation of tropical forest will
yield important drugs to treat diseases for which there is still no satisfactory cure.
However, with the rapid decimation of this biome which is currently recognized
28
worldwide, and with the consequence of large scale species extinction, the
prospect of finding new medicinal compounds from tropical plants will be slim
unless serious measures are taken and sustained to conserve the tropical rain
forests (Soejarto, et al., 2003). On its part, the government of Uganda has made
efforts to conserve its remaining natural resources, and has continuously
encouraged research and action on this area (Marshall. 1998).
2.6.2 Domestication of medicinal plants
Planting of medicinal plants as an alternative to over exploitation was suggested
50 years ago in South Africa for some scarce and effective species (Gerstner,
1946). Cultivation has replaced wild collection for the supply of some essential
drugs used in modem medicine. A good example is the Cantharanthus rose us
(from Madagascar), which is currently widely grown in Spain and U. S. A
(especially Texas) for its alkaloids, vinblastine and vincristine, which are used for
treating childhood leukaemia and Hodgkin's disease (Balick and Cox, 1996).
Eucalyptol obtained from species of Eucalyptus originally from Australia but
widely grown worldwide is a well-known antiseptic used in throat medicines,
cough syrups, ointments, liniments, and as an inhalant for bronchitis and asthma.
Advances in biotechnology, particularly methods for culturing plant cells and
tissues, should provide new means for the commercial processing of rare plants
(Balandrin, et al., 1985).
29
In Kenya, attempts have been made to plant various medicinal plants including
Azandirachta indica, Moringa oleifera, Warbugia ugandensis, Prunus africana
and Melia volkensii (personal observation). In fact, farmers have a great deal of
knowledge on local trees and shrubs and often have a clear rationale for using and
managing different species in certain ways (Barrow, 1991) and should therefore
be incorporated into the practices of medicinal plants domestication.
2.7 Threats to medicinal plants
Medicinal plants and their 'healing properties are continuously threatened by
increasing global developments as well as overpopulation (Gray, 1996). In many
parts of the world, unmonitored trade and over exploitation (IUeN, 2001)
together with natural habitat destruction is threatening the survival of many plant
species{Lanly, 19~2; Seyani, 1987; Kokwaro and Kisangau 2004; IUCN,2001).
Every year, over 100,000 square kilometers within the tropical forests are
destroyed-with cumulative consequences that cross national borders and affect
mankind (Hedberg, 1987). In the United States, an estimated 10% of all
flowering plants including 16 species of medicinally useful plants are already
extinct (Farnsworth, et al., 1985). In India, some areas where plants have been
used for centuries in traditional medicine are already on the verge of extinction
(Jain and Mehar, 1980). As human populations increase and standards of living
decline, the demand for affordable and available medicine is on the rise (Barnett,
2000). Such demand is already exceeding supply and in some areas, traditional
30
medicinal practitioners make journeys in excess of 200 km to collect the
medicines required (Barnett, 2000; Kokwaro and Kisangau, 2004; Marshall,
1998).
In most developing countries, the shift of harvesting medicinal plants, from being
the domain of traditional specialists to commercial gatherers who sell at markets
.andsupply formal-sector traders (brokerage role) is one main reason causing the
over exploitation (Marshall, 1998; Odera, 1977). This emergence of vendors who
are either ignorant of traditional sanctions or overlook these in the interest of
commercialization, including the involvement of commercial large scale
harvesters have greatly eroded the customary controls on medicinal plant
gathering (Odera, 1977). A good example is the shrub Tabernathe iboga that is
widely cultivated in Africa, and used in ceremonial rituals. This species is
currently-over-exploited and now threatened with extinction in several districts in
Gabon (Gray, 1996) while in Zimbabwe, the species Warburgia salutaris is
nearly extinct and only known from a few coppice shoots found in the Mhangua
forests of'theEastern highlands (Cunningham, 1997; Cunningham, 1993a).
The exploitation of Prunus africana bark, a tree whose distribution is limited to
afromontane forests generally 1,500-2000 altitude caused serious damage to wild
populations including trees inside forests of high conservation value in
Madagascar and Cameroon (Cunningham, et al., 2002). Hapagophytum
procumbens (Devil's claw), produced from South Africa and Namibia is another
31
popular remedy plant that is unsustainably harvested and may become extinct in
the wild under current practices (Laird, 1999). Silphion is another multi-use
weedy plant revered by the ancient Greeks and used to an extent that it became
extinct. The plant's roots and stems were eaten in their raw state while the juice
was medicinally used to treat a wide range of symptoms and diseases, especially
gynecological ailments as well as contraceptives (Lambert, et al., 1997)
2.7.1 Threats to medicinal plants in East Africa
In many parts of the African Continent, forests are being converted to other uses
such as agriculture at a rate of nearly 1% annually (FAO, 2001). This is a serious
threat to biodiversity. In Uganda for example, many plant species are endangered
or threatened because of pressure to cultivate, a high demand for the plants and
destructive harvesting methods (Hibler, 2001). Furthermore, while loss of habitat
is a factor contributing to the depletion of natural resources in Africa, collection
of wild plants for traditional medical use is extremely detrimental to certain
species (Rukangira, 2001). In Kenya, annual natural forest loss has been
estimated at 5,000 ha due to deforestation (Wass, 1995). Already, Zanha Africana
(Mukolekya-Kamba) is already seriously depleted in Kitui and Machakos districts
(Barnett, 2000) mainly due to root and bark harvesting for medicinal remedies. In
Makueni district of Kenya, many of the medicinal plants that are considered
vulnerable such as Zanthoxylum chalybeum (personal observation) are those that
32
are most sought after for local use both within and outside the district (Kokwaro
and Kisangau, 2004).
2.8 Transfer of herbal medicinal knowledge
The knowledge of medicinal plants is normally passed on orally from one
generation to the next. In Indonesia for example, traditional use of plants for
healing dates back to prehistoric times and the art and knowledge of use of plants
has been handed orally from generation to generation (papua, et al. 1999).
Although there is an informal apprenticeship scheme in the practice of herbal
medicine, knowledge is jealously guarded and therefore not shared. In many
African cultures, the knowledge is passed on to the frrst-bom son, other
trustworthy persons or the first wife (Kokwaro, 1976). A major problem arises
because most medicine men keep the information secret and highly confidential.
This way, a lot of knowledge can be lost or whenever a medicine man dies
without revealing the knowledge to another (Kokwaro, 1976). In general,
medicinal plants, the habitats they come from and the understanding of their uses
is inseparable, As these medicinal plants and their habitats vanish, the
accumulated knowledge of age-old ethno-botanical traditions also perishes (Crow,
2004).
33
MATERIALS AND METHODS
3.0 The Study Area
The study was carried out in the four districts of Ukambani namely Makueni,
Machakos, Mwingi and Kitui in the Eastern Province of Kenya (Figure 1).
MWlNGI
MWINGI. F~~J'ST--- __ ,::,r---'
KIlUI
KITUle )NDAUFOREST
ENOAU·
Figure 1: A map of Kenya showing the study area.
34
According to the 1999 national census projections, the region had a population of
2.6 million by the year 2000 and this is projected to be over 3.0 million the year
2010 (GoK, 1999). The population distribution among the four districts is as
shown in Table 2.
Table 2: Population projections for Ukambani districts
District Year 2000 Year 2010
Machakos
Kitui
Makueni
Mwingi
953,049.00
539,443.00
811,035.00
318,325.00
1,120,137.00
603,505.00
953,227.00
360,504.00
Total 2,621,852.00 3,037,373.00
% of National population 8.68 8.32
Source; {GoK, 1999)
3.1 Climatic, soils, vegetation and socio-economic description of the study area
The area lies within arid and semi arid regions of Kenya and receives unreliable
bimodal rainfall where most areas get between 200mm to 600mm per year (Sanya,
2005). The long rains occur between April and June and the short rains between late
October to December. Droughts and famine are recurrent and often lead to livestock
death and severe food shortage. Economic activities in this area include livestock, bee
keeping, sand harvesting and limited subsistence farming with maize, cassava, sorghum
and millet being the main food crops grown. Temperatures are usually high with
February and September being the hottest months of the year. Minimum mean annual
temperatures vary between 180e to 200e while the maximum temperatures fluctuate
between 261e and 30{)e(Sanya, 2005). The area is dominated by dark red sandy loam
35
soils with bushlands and thickets being the main vegetative cover (Sanya, 2005). There
is high dependence on medicinal plants in the four districts for both human and animal
cure.
3.2 Target group
The main target groups for the study were the herbalists in selected locations and the
local communities in selected villages bordering urban centers and natural forest. Four
forests (Kibwezi (Makueni), Nuu (Mwingi), Endau (Kitui) and Iveti (Machakos) were
sampled and one main neighboring urban center from each of these forests. The
representative sample size was determined by first determining the total number of
people in a village in consultation with the area sub-chief and local elders.
3.3 Sampling techniques
Considering that traditional medicinal practices are highly treasured secrets, the study
used different techniques for participatory research. Respondents were sampled through
random sampling. In order to verify the validity and reliance of data and information,
repetitive questioning was done through piloting and in the main survey. Probing was
also used to validate information.
3.3.1 Sampling of herbalists
In each of the four districts, one administrative division was systematically. The
divisions selected were those near a natural forest and traditionally known to be rich in
medicinal plants, and those in close proximity to an urban center where herbal medicine
was traded on. In this administrative division, one location was randomly selected.
36
Snowbling was then carried out to get the herbalists and commercial medicinal plant
harvesters in the location.
3.3.2 Sampling of herbalist customers (respondents)
One village was randomly selected from each of the selected locations. The respondents
(local people) were then classified according to sexes, age group and social classes. At
least 10% of the respondents in each village were interviewed. The respondents were
stratified by sex and age groups from which at least 10% of each category was
interviewed.
3.4 Research instruments
This study made use of of triangulation research instruments to capture both qualitative
and quantitative data. The research tools, which were applied include:
3.4.1 Structured interview schedules.
These were used to gather information related to indigenous knowledge, medicinal
plants used, trade network, marketing and availability of medicinal plants. The data was
collected from the herbalists, medicinal plant collectors, farmers and patients.
37
3.4.2 Interview guides
These were used to guide focus groups discussions (FGD). They were used to solicit
information on farmers and patient's perceptions on cultivation and use of medicinal
plants.
3.4.3 Pairwise ranking
This was done in a focus group discussion for the herbalists and the local communities
to set priorities on the identified medicinal plants. The herbalists and farmers were
asked to select the first 10 priority plant species from a possible long list after which
each species was compared with others in pairs. The frequency of preference was
determined by the rank of each species.
3.4.4 Matrix scoring.
This was done by the herbalists and farmers to compare the major uses of the preferred
medicinal plants and to elicit the criteria the herbalists and farmers can use in setting
their priorities for domestication of medicinal plants. Stones were employed to score
the priority tree species on their major uses.
3.4.5 Mapping.
In this ex-ercise, herbalists and harvesters sketched their own village and forest map to
locate where they usually collect their medicinal plants. This map was used for the
38
determination of areas and distances from where herbalists gather their medicinal
plants.
3.5 Estimation of relative abundance
This was done by applying the point centre quarter method in all the transects. At least
four transects were made in each forest area. Each sample unit was a point forming four
open-ended quadrats. The nearest herb, shrub or tree in each quadrat was recorded.
From this, relative abundance was determined by dividing the number of times a
species occurs with the number of plants recorded per transect x 100. The frequencies,
relative abundance and percentages were presented in charts, line graphs and bar charts.
3.6 Identification of plant specimen
Plant specimens which could not be identified in the field were pressed and taken to
Kenyatta University and National Museums of Kenya herbaria for scientific
identification and preservation.
3.7 Field transect data
The researcher, accompanied by herbalists and medicinal plant harvesters walked along
the routes determined during the mapping exercise to identify, asses abundance and
collect specimens from the plants used for medicinal purposes for further botanical
identification.
39
3.7.1 Quadrats size
Generally, quadrat sizes varied with respect to vegetation type and objective of the
study. Too few quadrats are known to increase personal errors due to edge effects while
too many quadrats on the other hand unduly increase costs. For the purpose of this
study, the following quadrat sizes were adopted.
(i) Tree layer 10m x 10m
(ii) Undergrowth up to 3 meters in height 4 m x 4 m
(iii) Herbs and seedlings 1mx 1m
These are the commonly used sizes (Mueller ~ Dombois and Ellenberg, 1974).
3.7.2 Quadrat method
Quadrats of uniform size and shape in selected forest sample areas in each of the
districts were selected. In estimation of species frequency, at least one hundred
(100) sampled quadrats were needed while in determining density, more quadrats
were assessed for sparse than for abundant species as recommended by Ashby,
(1961).
3.7.3 Point Centered Quarter Method
This method was used to determine tree density through the measurement of the
distance. The technique is based on the idea that the number of trees per unit area
could be calculated from the average distance between the trees. Four distances
were measured at each sampling point through a cross formed two lines, (i.e. the
compass line of the transect walk and a line perpendicular and passing through the
sampling point). The diameter at breast height (DBH) and the distance to the mid
40
point of the nearest tree from the sampling point was measured in each quarter.
The four distances of a number of sampling points were averaged and when
squared were found to be equal to the mean area occupied by each individual tree
(Rogelio, 1987). A minimum of 20 points were used as recommended by Cattam
and Curtis, (1956). Data collected was used to calculate species density and
frequency.
3.7.4 Observations
An observation of herbalists and medicinal plants harvesters was done while
harvesting and after to assess the extent of destruction through debarking and
excessiveroot harvesting. The location (area) of the medicinal plantcollection was
also carried out.
3.8 Data Analysis
Exploratory methods were used to analyze the data. These methods included
descriptive statistics such as frequencies and multiple responses. The frequencies and
multiple responses were run to identify the market potential of medicinal plants in
Ukambani districts. Running frequencies were used to identify the most popular
plants and those that were threatened. The age of the respondents (patients) was also
analyzed. Pie charts, bar charts, histograms and tables were used for easy
interpretation and presentation of the data. The physical and biological data like
species abundance, and harvesting method were analyzed by use of computer
software to develop proper species management recommendations.
41
CHAPTER 4
RESULl'-S AND DISCUSSION
--4.0IBtr-eEiuction
The problem of gathering data from the herbalists and respondents was
compounded by the general attitude of secrecy and opacity among the herbalists
and local respondents in the study area. This was however, overcome by visiting
as a patient, prolonged and repeated discussions with the herbalists and keen
observations of the herbalist's activities.
4.1 Overview
This section presents the distribution of herbalists and their customers across the
four study districts. The gender and social status of both the herbalists and
patients together with dosage and costs of production and selling price have been
presented. Finally in order to evaluate the rate of forest tree utilization and the
future of herbal medicine the study evaluates the species that herbalist targets and
their level of preference together with farmers' initiatives to plant medicinal
plants.
4.1.1 Distribution of herbalists, gender, and respondents in the study area
The total number of herbalists interviewed in the study area was 62 (Table 3).
They were from 5 divisions and 8 locations that were visited during the study
period. Kitui and Mwingi districts had the highest concentration of herbalists
42
representing 40.3% and 27.4% respectively while Makueni had the least number
with only 14.5%. In Kitui District, Kisasi location had the highest number of
herbalists (35.5%) followed by Nuu in Mwingi district, Township (Machakos
district) and Kikumbulyu (Makueni district), which had 27.4%, 16.1% and 8.1%
respectively.
Table 3: The distribution of herbalists in Ukambani districts.
District Division Location Herbalist Percent District no. Percent
No. (%) of herbalists of total
Kitui Chyuluni Kisasi 22 35.5 25 40.30
Mwitika Endau 2 3.2
Utiithi 1 1.6
Mwingi Nuu Nuu 17 27.4 17 27.40
Machakos Central Township 10 16.1 12 19.30
Muvuti 2 3.2
Makueni Kibwezi Kikumbulyu 5 8.1 8 14.50
Kinyambu 3 4.8
Total 5 8 62 100 62 100
Poor infrastructure, few health centers, rich medicinal resource and adhererance to
traditional norms by the local people in Kitui district could be the reasons for
having many herbalists compared to other districts in the study area. Male and
female herbalists accounted for 71% and 29% respectively (Figure 2). Traditional
inheritance, paternal lineage and male superiority besides collection of herbal
plant materials from far and dangerous areas inhabited by wildlife may explain
the higher proportion of male relative to female herbalists.
43
Female
herbalists
29%
• Male
herbalists
71%
Figure 2: Gender proportions of herbalists in Ukambani districts
The highest percentage of users of herbal medicine was from Kitui district which
had 35.6%, followed by Machakos and Mwingi districts with 28.6% and 26%
respectively (Table 4). The high numbers of local people relying on herbal
medicine for their primary health care in Kitui and Mwingi districts could be
attributed to the fact that for a long time, and even today, the two districts have
relatively few trained doctors besides having sparsely distributed clinics and poor
communication network to such health centers. In Kenya for example, the ratio of
doctor to patient is 1:7142 while that ofTMP to patient is 1:987 for urban areas
(World Bank, 1993; Marshall, 1998). In many parts of the developing world,
natural (herbal) remedies are the only medicines available in remote areas (GTZ,
2001). On the other hand, high population density within Machakos Township
and a large number of young people in search of cheap and effective treatment
from various ailments together with HIV/AIDS related diseases may be the
factoes leading to high numbers of people using herbal medicine in Machakos
44
Table 4: Distribution of herbalist's customers (respondents) in the study area.
District Division Location Total Location District Percent
Percent% (%)
Kitui Chyuluni Kisasi 36 20.6 35.6
Mwitika Endau 26 14.6
Mwingi Nuu Nuu 45 25.9 26.1
Machak,os Central Township 50 28.6 28.6
Makueni Kibwezi Kikumbulyu 18 10.3 9.7
Total 175 100 100
Machakos district. As reported by Itai (2006), some herbs respond positively to
some of the diseases associated with HIV/AIDS.
4.1.2 Marital status of herbalists and respondents in Ukambani districts.
Married herbalists accounted for 87% of the total herbalists (Table 5), and there
was no herbalist who was single while only 2% were divorced. This is typical of
most African societies where marriage is considered important especially when
one is in charge of certain responsibilities such as those of herbal healing and
religious (divine) leadership. Herbalist widowers accounted for 3% while widows
represented 8.1%. In a similar study, all traditional midwives in Mwingi district
were found to be married and highly respected (Musila, 2000). Similar
characteristics of traditional medicine practioners including midwives have been
reported in Botswana (Aderson and Stugard, 1986). On the other hand, none of
the herbalists' customers was a widower while 6.1% were widows. This could be
attributed to the argument that men marry women who are younger and that the
45
life expectancy for women is longer than that for men. Seventy three percent of
those visiting the herbalists were married while 19.1% were single.
Table 5: Marital status of the herbalists and herbalist's customers in the study
area
Marital status No. of Percent Number of respondents Percent
herbalists (%) (%)
Married 54 87.1 127 72.8
Single 33 19.1
Widower 2 3.2
Widow 5 8.1 11 6.1
Divorced 1 1.6 4 2.0
Total 62 100 175 100
- Not applicable
4.1.3 Age group distributions of Ukambani herbalists and their customers
(respondents)
Herbalists between 51-80 and 81-100 years accounted for 33% and 2 %
respectively while those aged between 20 and 50 years accounted for 60% (Figure
3). Only 5% of the sampled herbalists were below 20 years of age. The youngest
and oldest herbalists were aged 26 years and 95 years respectively. The current
study shows an increasing interest to join herbal medicine now that ealier on. As
stateted by Srivastava (2000), the global use and demand for herbal medicine is
not only large, but growing. Whereas this may seem good because it reduces
herbalists to patient's ratio, a danger of over harvesting of already over exploited
medicinal plants is apparent.
46
35
30 29
25 23 23
20 18
15
"E
Q)e 10Q)o,
5
0
<20 21-30 31-40 41-50 51-60 61-70 71-80 81-90 91-100 101-
110
.-Age-w:oupS
Figure 3: Age group distribution of herbalists and respondents in Ukambani
districts.
Furthermore, as populations in urban centers grow, (and hence the demand for
medicinal plants) more people may enter into the herbal practice for commercial
gain even without adequate herbal medicine knowledge.
The age distribution of those visiting herbalists for treatment was slightly
negatively skewed (Figure 3). 36% of the respondents were aged between 20 and
50 years with the modal age group being 51-60 years representing 29%. Those in
age groups 31-40 years and 41-50 years accounted for 15% and 18% of the
herbalist's patients respectively. This observation is comparable to findings by
Palinkas,and Kabongo (2000), who reported that 54% of all complementary and
alternative medicine utilization in America occurred in people of less than 40
47
years old. In sub Saharan Africa, many young people aged between 15 and 24
years use herbal medicine to treat opportunistic diseases associated with
HIV/AIDS (Barrany et al., 2001; Sambo, 2005). In this study, herbalists between
51-60 and 61-70 years accounted for 13% each with all patients above 70 years
(20%) reporting that herbal treatment was their normal daily way of life.
4.1.4 Religion and education status of Ukambani herbalists and respondents
Majority of the respondents were Christians (Table 6) with herbalists accounting
for 96.7% and respondents accounting for 90.8%. Herbalists and patients who do
not believe in God (atheists) accounted for 1.6% and 2.8% respectively.
Table 6: Religion categories of herbalists and respondents in Ukambani districts
Category --------------Herbalists-----~----~- ~""""---- -e-e - Respondents-~--~--
Frequency Percent(%) Frequency Percent (%)
Christians
Atheists
Muslims
60 96.8
1 1.6
1 1.6
159 90.8
5 2.9
11 6.3
Total 62 100 175 100
Islam accounted for only 1.6% among the herbalists and 6.3% for patients. In
Kenya, the major religions include Christianity (66%) and Islam (6%) while a
total of 26% adhere to traditional beliefs (CRLP, 1997). This observation did not
agree with the general perception that christians are most unlikely to use herbal
medicine due to colonial Christian schools which taught that herbal medicine was
primitive (Good, 1987). The high percentage of christians using herbal medicine
was therefore most probably as a result of inhibitively high cost of modem
48
medicine, modern hospital accessibility problems and the fact that majority of
)
residents in Ukambani region are christians.
Herbalists who had no formal education accounted for 38.7% while those who
had attained primary and secondary school education accounted for 40.3% and
17.4% respectively (Table 7). Only 3.2% of the herbalists had attained post
secondary school education. In a similar study in Mwingi district (Musila 2000)
showed that 59% of traditional midwives were illiterate while 27% had attended
adult education and only 14% had attained full primary education. This high level
of illiteracy and low education amongst majority of the herbalists means that
application of modern scientific herbal technologies is low.
Table 7: Education status of herbalists and local respondents in Ukambani
districts
-~~,..--Herbalists--------- Respondents
Category of education No. Percentage (%) No. Percentage (%)
status
No formal education 24 38.7 43 24.6
Primary education 25 40.3 82 46.9
Secondary school 11 17.74 41 23.4
education
Tertiary-education 2 3.2 9 5.1
Total 62 100 175 100
Table 7 further shows that 46.9% of respondents and 23.4% of herbalist's had
attended primary and secondary school respectively with only 5.1% of repondents
having attained tertiary education. This clearly indicates that Ukambani people
49
appreciate herbal medicine irrespective of their education status. 89.7% of
herbalist customers were self-employed in agricultural and other income
generating activities (Table 8). Most of the self-employed herbalists were on
subsistence agricultural activities and only 9.7% had full time employment
elsewhere.
Table 8: Occupation categories ofthe herbalist customers in Ukambani districts
Category of employment (Herbalist patients) Frequency Percent (%)
Self employed in agricultural and other activities
Employed full time
Employed part time
Total
157
17
1
175
89.7
9.70
0.60
100
4.1.5 Herbalists experience in herbal medicine in Ukambani districts
The interviewed herbalists had herbal medicine practice experience ranging from
1 to 57 years (Figure 4). 5% of the herbalists have been health care providers for
over 50 years, while 33% had been in herbal medicine for only 1 to 10 years.
Those who had practiced herbal medicine for 11-20 years and 21-30 years
accounted for 27% and 21% respectively with 8% having practiced herbal
treatment for between 31-40 years. A study on midwives in Mwingi district
showed that the number of years in midwifery in Central and Tseikuru divisions
was 1-50 years while in Nuu division, midwifery had been practiced for 11-30
years (Musila, 2000). This study therefore showed that there was continuity in
practice of herbal medicine in Ukambani districts. Although this is beneficial in
reducing the ratio of herbalists to patients, and therefore means closer medical
50
healthcare to the people, it further increases pressure on medicinal plant
resources, which have become more scarce and threatened in recent years. As
stated by Rukangira (2001), as Africa's population continues to grow, the demand
for traditional medicines will also increase and hence pressure on medicinal plant
resources will become greater than ever. The situation is further aggrevated by
the loss of habitat from which wild collection of medicinal plants is done
(Rukangira, 2001).
35
30
25.--..
~
If) 20-.~
(ijs:Iii 15s:
C
Q) 10~
Q)n,
5
0
01-10. 11-20. 21-30 31-40 41-50 >50
Categories of herbalists experience in years
Figure 4: Herbalists experience in herbal medicine in Ukambani districts
4.1.6 Acquisition of herbal knowledge and herbal plant materials.
Acquisition of herbal knowledge was mostly through family inheritance (Table
9). The study revealed that those who acquired herbal knowledge from their
51
fathers, grandfathers, mothers and grandmothers accounted for 25.4%, 12.7%,
11.1% and 9.5% respectively. This concurs with Githae's statement that herbal
knowledge is jealously protected at family and household levels (Githae, 2003).
Herbalists who reported that they acquired their herbal knowledge through visions
and dreams accounted for 30.2%. These herbalists reported that healing is
inherent in them and that they will continue to provide healthcare services to their
communities at minimal costs. Hence, the reason why the science and art of
healing is often referred to as a calling to give back health and not a practice for
exchange of wealth but rather exchanging values (Githae, 2003).
Table 9: Acquisitions of herbal medicine knowledge by herbalists in Ukambani
districts.
Source of herbal knowledge No. of herbalists Percentage (%)
(i) Fathers
(ii) Grandfathers
(ii) Mothers
(iv) Grandmothers
(v) Inherence, visions and dreams
(vi) Friends
16
8
7
6
18
7
25.4
12.7
11.1
9.5
30.2
11.1
Total 62 100
The study revealed that 84.9% of the herbalists harvest medicinal plant materials
by themselves while 13.6% send other known experienced harvesters (Table 10).
To some extent this could be an indication that herbal plant species and parts are
harvested sustainably. The herbalists in Ukambani districts were observed to
avoid herbal materials near roadsides and construction sites where vehicle
52
exhausts and construction related pollution could collect on the leaves and get
absorbed into the plant.
Table 10: Medicinal plant acquisition methods by herbalists in Ukambani
districts.
Way of acquiring No. Percentage
Collect self
Send collectors
Buyer
53
8
1
84.90
13.60
1.50
Total 62 100
For example, in Swat district, Pakistan, about 500 families are involved in
medicinal plant collection and they collect 5,000 tons of medicinal plants annually
(Choudhary et al., 2000).
Table 11: Tools used for harvesting medicinal plants
Tools No. Percent (%)
Jembe
Panga
Axe
knives
30
28
1
3
48.30
46.00
1.61
4.10
Total 62 100
The main tools used for harvesting medicinal plants in Ukambani districts were
found to be jembes and pangas (48.3% and 46.0% respectively) with knives and
axes accounting for less than 4.1% and 1.6% of the tools used respectively (Table
11). Although quite simple, these tools were observed to have created a serious
implication for the future because precision harvesting (especially cutting of
53
roots) by use of pangas was difficult to be achieved. Whereas bark stripping may
lead to accelerated death of a plant, over harvesting of the roots and poor bark
stripping were observed to led to stunted and weak plants due to interference with
plants physiological processes. Regeneration of some affected plants (especially
Strychnos henningsii) was observed to be negatively affected since the plants
were too stressed to flower.
4.1. 7 Dissemination of Herbal Knowledge by herbalists to other people.
At least 79 % of the herbalists reported that they were training other people on the
herbal knowledge (Table 12). Sons and daughters accounted for 43% and 15.2 %
respectively of the trainees. Other people trained on herbal medicine were
grandsons, nephews and nieces who accounted for 20.8% of the total trainees.
Table 12: Herbalists herbal knowledge dissemination to other people
Traininu; other persons on herbal medicine No. Percentage (%)
Not training anybody
Training sons
Training daughters
Training nephews
Training nieces
Training grandson
13
27
9
4
3
6
20.8
43.1
15.2
7.0
4.1
9.7
Total 62 100
The training implies that herbal medicine practices and trade in Ukambani
districts has a future. However, in many areas, indigenous knowledge on herbal
medicine and plants used by Indigenous Medicinal Practitioners (IMP) are
54
disappearing fast and hence the need to urgently collect and document this
information to avoid its loss (Muya, 1996). Kokwaro and Kisangau (2004) have
observed that in many cases, older generations were no longer transmitting their
knowledge to the younger ones and that the traditional medicinal practitioners in
Makueni were reluctant to share their experience for fear of being exploited by
outside interests such as pharmaceutical companies.
4.2 Parts of medicinal plants used by herbalists in Ukambani district
Roots and bark accounted for 40% and 34% respectively of the medicinal plant
parts used by herbalists in Ukambani districts (Table 13). A similar study in
Machakos district showed that roots and bark utilization by herbalists accounted
for 38% and 26% respectively (Musila et al., 2001). The intensive harvesting of
these plant parts is a great threat to the sustainability of rare but popular medicinal
plants. For example, Strychnos henningsii, which is used for treatment of malaria,
was found to be threatened with extinction due to over harvesting of its roots
whereas Cassia abbreviata was severely threatened due to harvesting of its bark.
Other medicinal plant parts used by Ukambani herbalists are leaves (18%), fruits
(5.88%) while flowers, seeds and whole plant had a combined percentage of only
2.2%. This observation is similar to the practice by Maasai of Kenya of using
Warbugia ugadensis and Cordia monoica for treatment of colds (Kipuri, 1996).
55
Table 13: Medicinal plant parts used by herbalists in Ukambani districts
Plant part used Count Pecent responses (%)
Root 109 40.07
Bark 92 33.82
Leaf 49 18.01
Flower, seed, whole 6 2.21
Fruit 16 5.88
Total 270 100* Count = The number of plants that were reported from a total of 144 plants.
The timing of leaf harvesting is important as leaves are of most value when
collected -during the flowering season or just before they have fmished growing
(Sievens, 1930). Elsewhere in Africa, the roots and bark of Harrisonia abyssinica
are widely harvested for treatment of diarrhoea and sexually transmitted diseases
(Marshall, 1998). Similarly, through out its natural habitats, Boscia salicifolia,
which is used for treatment of backache is becoming scarce due to over harvesting
of its bark and leaves (Marshall, 1998).
4.2.1 Harvesting methods of medicinal plant s in Ukambani districts
Harvesting of medicinal plants in Ukambani districts was found to be mostly
destructive and unsustainable causing serious damage and destruction to precious
natural medicinal resource(s). Cunningham (1988) reports that in many parts of
Africa, harvesting is destructive and unsustainable resulting in a number of taxa
such as Siphonochlus aethiopicus becoming locally extinct (Hilton-Taylor, 1996).
Most common methods used in gathering medicinal plants were root harvesting
(53.2%) and debarking (46.8%). In root harvesting, the most common method
was cutting a few roots (23.8%) and debarking a few roots (20.2%) (Table 14).
56
The herbalists reported that harvesting of most medicinal plants is done
throughout the year depending on availability. This is unlike in the temperate
regions, where roots of biennial and perennial plants are gathered late in fall or
early spring because during growing season, they are deficient in the active
.constituents and are of poor quality (Sievens, 1930).
Table 14: Root and bark harvesting methods by herbalists in Ukambani districts
Plant part Harvesting method Percentage (%)
Roots uprooting
Cutting few roots
Cutting root tips
Debarking all roots
Debarking few roots
Vertical stripping
Ringing the plant
Removing separate bark
partches
Bark
No.
1
26
8
1
22
10
1
40
0.9
23.8
7.3
0.9
20.2
9.2
0.9
40
Total 100109
Removing separate patches was the most common method used in bark harvesting
(36.7%) while vertical stripping accounted for 9.2%. In Bugoma district of
Kenya, herbalists are reported to use roots, bark, leaves, flowers and even seeds
and that it has taken many generations to find the best ways of using them in a
coherent and uniform manner (Mann, 2002). In order to ensure sustainability, the
bark should preferably be harvested during the dormant season when the sap is
not flowing (Sievens, 1930).
57
This study shows that if the current harvesting methods continue, the survival of
most medicinal plants in Ukambani districts may be in danger and therefore
training on sustainable harvesting methods is urgently required.
4.2.2 Plants drug preparation methods by herbalists in Ukambani districts.
Herbalists reported that they prepared their herbal drugs by use of simple methods
such as boiling (74.8%), grinding (12.9%) while soaking and raw consumption
accounted for 5.6% each (Table 15). Lack of essential equipment and electricity
besides low education levels
among the Ukambani herbalists could be some of the factors that have led to the
use of simple drug preparation methods.
Table 15: Methods of herbal medicine preparations in Ukambani districts.
Method of drug preparation No. Percentage
Boiling
Grinding
Soaking
Eaten raw
Burning
45
8
4
4
1
74.80
12.90
5.60
5.60
1.1
Total 62 100
This is unlike in India where some 46,000 pharmacies are known to collect and
prepare herbal drugs (Alock, 1991) using high technology. For best results, the
leaves of most medicinal plants are normally recommended to be dried as fast as
possible in well-ventilated rooms (Sievens, 1930).
58
4.2.3 Popular plants used as sources for herbal medicine in Ukambani
Districts
Both medicinal and poisonous plants are important for local people who use them
in various ways to meet their needs (Kokwaro, 1976). In Ukambani districts, over
144 plants were reported to have been used for treatment of various ailments
(Appendix 1). In this study, the most popular indigenous plants were Strychnos
henningsii and Zanthoxylum chalybeum, which accounted for approximately 6%
each followed by Croton megalocarpus and Cassia abbreviata with a percentage
frequency of 4% each. Albizia anthelmintica, Terminalia brown ii, Azandrachta
indica (exotic) and Teclea simplicifolia accounted for 3% each while Zanha
africana had 2% occurence. Three percent of the herbalists reported that Albizia
anthelmintica was very effective in the control of stomach worms.
This compares with West Africa, Ethiopia and Somalia where the bark and root
are extensively used as an antiihelmintic particularly against stomach and
intestinal worms (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962). Zanha africana, whose root
and bark infusion is used during childbirth and for treatment of constipation and
fits is depleted in Kitui and Machakos districts (Marshall, 1998). Elsewhere in
Kenya, use of medicinal plants has been reported. For example, in the Turkana,
out of 512 tree species identified, 67 (13%) are used as human medicine (Barrow,
1996, Morgan, 1980) while 39% of the 118 tree species are used for medicine by
thePokot of Kenya (Tanaka, 1981). Some exotic plants, which were being used
59
for herbal treatments in Ukambani districts include Carica papaya, Psidium
guajava, Cajanus eajan, Manihot eseulanta, Musa spp and Sorghum hieolor.
4.2.4 Sources of medicinal plants in Ukambani districts
Forests are the primary source of medicinal plants (Rao, et aI., 2004; De Silva,
1997). Herbalists in Ukambani districts harvested 60% of their medicinal plants
from gazetted forests while 39% gathered their herbal medicines from settled
farm areas (Table 16). Only 1% of the herbalists collected their medicinal plants
from riparian areas. Indeed, as the percentage tree cover of gazetted forests in
Kenya continues to decline due to human activities, the future of herbal medicine
will ever be at serious jeopardy unless radical conservation measures are
implemented. As reported by Lange, (1988), reliance on herbal medicines from
the wild is common in most developing countries and is seasonal activity
in some areas where it provides a supplementary income to rural people such as
stock herders, women and children generally from the poorest people in the
community.
Table 16: Sources of medicinal plants in Ukambani districts
Source of medicinal plant No. of plants Percentage (%)
(i) Gazetted (state) forests
(ii) "Settled and farm areas
(iii) Riparian areas
86
56
2
60.00
39.00
1.00
Total 144 100
60
Generally, the precise origin of medicinal plants entering the world markets and
trade is difficult to ascertain because most traders are reluctant to reveal their
sources (Lewington, 1993). In Ecuador for example, 90% of the plants used in
traditional medicines are extracted from the wild (Traffic, 1999), whereas in
Malawi, the majority of the plants (74%) from Chirunga National Woodland
Patch in Zomba are used traditionally for Medicine (Mkwapatira and
Mwanyambo, 1996). In South Africa, 99% of medicinal plants originate from
wild sources (Williams, 1996). India is reported to harvest 90% of its medicinal
plants from the wild while 80% of China's medicinal plants are gathered from
uncultivated sources (Hamilton, 2004; He and Sheng, 1997; Lange, 1996). Wild
collection is generally cheaper than the establishment of cultivation programs,
which may take 20 years (Lange, 1988). This threatens the plants in the wild and
it is predicted that in most countries, if the current trends of un regulated
harvesting continue, the scope for economical harvesting of all medicinal plants
from the wild on a sustainable basis will become practically nil (FAO, 1996).
4.2.5 Medicinal plants mostly stored by herbalists in Ukambani districts
At least 16 species of medicinal plants were commonly stored (Table 17).
Storage of Strychnos henningsii, Cassia abbreviata and Albizia anthmentica was
reported by 26.5%, 20.4% and 12.2% of the herbalists respectively. Other
important plants that were stored were Zanthoxylum chalybueum 8.2%), Croton
megalocarpus (8.1%) and Terminalia brownii (6.1%).
61
Table 17: Desired medicinal plants mostly stored by herbalists in Ukambani
districts
Species Frequency Percent (%)
1 Strychnos henningsii
2 Cassia abbreviata
3 Albizia anthmentica
4 Zanthoxylum chalybeum
5 Croton megalocarpus
6 Terminalia brownii
7 Actinopteris semifabellata
8 Aloe secundifora
9 Azandrachta indica
10 Carrisa edulis
11 Combretum constrictum
12 Entada lepstostachya
13 Grewia similes
14 Salvadora persica
15 Tarena graveolens
16 Tec/ea simplicifolia
13
10
6
4
3
3
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
26.5
2004
12.2
8.7
6.1
6.1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
Total 49 100
The storage of medicinal plants by herbalists in Ukambani districts is mainly due
to plant demand (82%), plant availability (6%) and disease occurrence (12%)
(Figure 5). In disease control, the herbalists reported that medicinal plants such as
Albizia anthelmintica and Terminalia brownii were stored for use during
prevalence of water borne diseases such as typhoid and cholera whereas storage
of Strychnos henningsii and Actinopteris semiflabellata were synchronized for use
during rainy seasons when malaria was most common. Cassia abbreviatta and
Zanthoxylum chalybeum were stored for use at
62
90%__ 80%
(f2. 70%'-"
Q) 60%
~ 50%
C 40%Q)~ 30%
Q) 20%D... 10%
0% +---
82%
12% 6%
Disease
occurrence
Plant availability Demand
Figure 5: Reasons for storage of medicinal plants by herbalists in Ukambani
district
all times of the year. These results therefore indicate that certain medicinal plants
(Cassia abbreviata and Zanthoxylum chalybeum) are used for a longer time
during the year and could therefore get over exploited while others are only
harvested for a shorter time each year.
4.2.5.1 Packaging and storage methods of medicinal plants in Ukambani
Districts
Fourty five percent of the herbalists pack their medicines for sale and storage
while 12.9% do not (Table 18). Herbalists who indicated that they were willing to
pack their medicines but were financially unable accounted for 41.2%. Sixty four
percent of the respondents preferred packed herbal medicines while 27.4%
reported that the packing was not an issue with them (Table 18).
63
Table 18: Packaging of medicinal plants by herbalists in Ukambani districts.
Number of herbalist Percent Number of respondents Percent
***************** (%) ******************* (%)
Pack herbal medicine 28 45.2 Prefer packed 112 64.0
Do not pack 8 12.9 Doesn't matter 48 27.4
Financially not able 26 41.9 No response 15 8.3
Total 62 100 175 100
The medicines were mainly packed and stored in three major forms as powder
(75%), natural state (12%) and in liquid form (10%) (Figure 6). Prior to storage,
the herbalists reported that drying of the medicinal plants in the sun was avoided
to preserve the effectiveness of the herbal plants. Drying of medicinal plants
under direct sunlight is extremely destrustive process during which, up to 85% of
the plants bioactivity may be lost (Ivor, 2002). Therefore a good dehydration
practice is important because it seeks to preserve the plant metabolites in as near
their natural state as possible (lvor, 2002).
80%
70%
JB 60%
.~ 50%ro-e 40%
Q)..c 30%
cF. 20%
10%
0%
75%
3%
Powder Natural Liquid
State of storage
No storage
Figure 6: Storage forms of medicinal plants drugs by herbalists in Ukambani
Districts
64
4.2.5.2 Duration of storage of medicinal plants by herbalists in Ukambani
Districts
Forty seven percent of the herbalists stored their medicinal materials for a few
years (1-2) while about 13% store their plants for many years (Table 19). Only a
few herbalists (4.8%) stored medicinal plants for few days while 7% stored their
drugs for a few weeks.
Table 19: Duration of storing medicinal plants by herbalists in Ukambani districts
Duration Frequency Percent (%)
(i) Few days 3 4.8
(ii) Few weeks 4 6.5
(iii) Few months 9 14.5
(iv) Few years (1-2) 29 46.8
(v) Many years (3-5) 8 12.9
(vi) No response 9 14.5
Total 62 100
69% of the herbalists reported that if properly dried and stored, medicinal plants
do not lose their active ingredients and efficacy during storage (Table 20).
Table 20: Herbalists response to loss of efficacy of medicinal plants during
storage in Ukambani district
Category Frequency Percent (%)
No loss of efficacy or ingredients
Possible to lose or undergo transformation to
other compounds
Don't know
No response
Total
43
10
69.40
16.10
3
6
62
4.80
9.70
100
65
However, 16% reported that it is possible for some plants to lose some ingredients
through chemical transformations if stored while nearly 5% reported that they
were not aware of any chemical change.
4.2.6 Trend in availability of herbal plants in Ukambani districts
Approximately 96% of the herbalists indicated that availability of medicinal
plants had decreased over the last 5-10 years while only 1% reported that the
availability has increased (Figure 7). Respodents who indicated that the
availability of medicinal plants had not changed accounted for 3.2%.
120
100
en 80.•.....~ro.0 60L-a>..c
40~0
20
0
95.7
3.2 1.1
Decreased Same
Category of responce
Increased
Figure 7: Response to trend in availability of medicinal plants in Ukambani
districts
Strychnos henningsii was reported to have undergone the highest decline (19.1%)
as compared to Zanthoxylum chalybeum and Cassia abbreviata, which were
reported by 8.5% of the herbalists (Figure 8). Other species that were reported to
66
have had marked decline in availability but to a relatively lesser degree were
Terminalia brownii, Croton megalocarpus and Albizia anthelmintica which were
indicated by 6.4%, 5.3% and 4.3% herbalists respectively. As reported by
Cunningham (1993a), some plants such as C. abbreviata are in high demand but
in short supply in Africa.
• Strychnos henningsii
o Zanthoxylum chalybeum
IICassia abbreviata
19.10% o Terminalia brownii
I!I!l Croton megalocarpus
mAlbizia anthelmintica
8.50%
Figure 8rMedicinai plants with highest decrease in Ukambani districts
Nearly all the herbalists in Ukambani region reported that currently, they have to
trek for long distances in search of preferred medicinal plant species. As one
herbalist put it, "Things have changedfor the worse, in many occasions, we have
to searcb some plants for days, and you will be lucky if you gather enough
material from one site". Over-exploitation of the medicinal plants and farming
67
were the main reasons for the decline of medicinal plants accounting for 63.6%
and 16% respectively (Table 21).
Table 21: Reasons for decline of medicinal plants in Ukambani districts.
Reason for decrease Examples of species Percent
(%)
(i) Over-exploitation
(ii) Farming
(iii) Settlements
(iv) Timber and building
materials
S. henningsii, Cassia abbreviate
A .. anthelmintica, Z chalybeu)
A .. anthelmintica, C. megalocarpus
P. Africana, T. brownii
63.60
15.90
10.20
10.20
Total 100
Other reasons attributed to decline in medicinal plants were settlements and
construction works (timber and building materials) which accounted for 10.2%
each. This concurs with worldwide statistics of growing scarcity of medicinal
plants. As reported by Balich and Cox (1996), a famous Belize healer Don Elijio
had to walk only 10 minutes to collect medicinal plants in 1940. However, by
1988, the same healer had to walk seventy five (75) minutes to reach adequate
sites. In Thailand, the Chiang Mai Declaration of 1988 called for a global alert to
the critical situation with regard to loss of medicinal plants through over
harvesting and habitat destruction (Akerele et al., 1991). The situation has been
reported to be even worse in Africa, where, due to high rate of urbanization and
consequently large urban settlement, there is greater demand for traditional
medicine and therefore overexploitation of medicinal plants. This results in
having commercial sellers harvesting medicinal plants on a scale-that is far greater
68
than the sustainable levels that were the case when local practitioners gathered
herbs in their area for local use (Cunningham, 1993b) and thus threatening the
conservation of genetic diversity (Cunningham and Mbenkum, 1993).
Consequently, the supply of medicinal plants is failing to satisfy the demand
(UNESCO, 1993). With this as a driving force, the WHO sponsored Arusha
Declaration of 1991 called on National and International organizations to
seriously address the role of medicinal plants and traditional services in providing
important health care to the majority of the population in Africa (Mshegeni et al.,
1991).
4.2.6.1 Destruction and threats to medicinal plant habitats in Ukambani
Districts
Over exploitation was reported by 33.6% of the herbalists as the most significant
cause of threat to medicinal plants in the study area (Table 22). This explains the
decrease of medicinal plants in Ukambani districts. Only 9.7 % and 10.4% of the
herbalists reported threats due to natural destruction and climatic changes
respectively. Plant species with narrow geographic distribution, specific habitat
and have small populations sizes are more easily over harvested than species with
other patterns (Rabinowitz, 1981). In this study for example, the natural
ecological habitat of Strychnos henningsii was observed to be rocky and hilly
areas with recently weathered soils at altitudes of between 650m and 900m.
69
Table 22: Major causes of medicinal plants destruction and threats to medicinal
plants in Ukambani Districts as reported by herbalists
Major cause of deforestation No. of herbalists Percent (%)
Settlement 31 23.1
Fuelwood gathering 15 11.2
Wild fire 6 4.5
Wood carving 6 4.5
Timber harvesting 4 3.0
Over exploitation 45 33.6
Natural destruction 13 9.7
Climatic changes 14 10.4
Total responses 144 100* Total responses more than 65 because some respondents had more than one
answer
During the last 15 years, there has been substantial loss of forest habitat notably in
the tropical areas (FAO, 2003). In the Ukambani districts, the destruction of the
limited natural habitat for Strychnos henningsii through agricultural activities,
timber and wood fuel harvesting and establishment of exotic monoculture
plantations could easily lead to extinction. Indeed, in many areas of the world
including Kenya, medicinal plants are at risk due to over exploitation and loss of
habitat for urbanization and sub-urban developments (Sievens, 1930).As Lindsay
(1978) noted, since 1950's, great changes have occurred in the region of the
eastern Cherangany hills due to clearing of the forests. In this study, habitat
destruction in Ukambani arising from settlement and fuelwood were reported by
50% and 24% of the herbalists respectively while wild fires and woodcarving
were reported by 19.7% each. Habitat destruction could be attributed to the issue
of landlessness and forest encroachments in Kenya, which is a serious concern
and further paints a "blurred picture" for medicinal plants unless the Government
70
gets committed in issues of conservation. It was observed that some medicinal
plants with high calorific value such as Cassia abbreviata, T brown ii, C.
megarlocarpus, T indica and Prunus africana have been highly exploited for fuel
wood.
4.2.6.2 Threatened medicinal plants in Ukambani districts
A total of 32 medicinal plants were found to be overexploited and therefore
vulnerable (Table 23). Top on the list were Strychnos henningsii and Zanthoxylum
chalybeum species as was reported by 24.2% and 8.5% of the herbalists
respectively. These species are listed among the most threatened that require
immediate conservation measures in Kenya (Mugure, 2001, Musila, et al., 2001).
Cassia abbreviata, Croton megalocarpus and Terminalia brownii were reported
to be threatened by 6% of the herbalists while Albizia anthelmintica was reported
by 4.8%. Other species faced with significant threats included Mondia whytei,
Prunus africana, Teclea simplicifolia and Warbugia ugandensis (Table 23). It
could be said that medicinal plants are not only threatened in Ukambani districts
alone but also in the country and the world over. For example, Prunus africana is
listed as. vulnerable in the world list of threatened trees owing to its rapid
population decline (Cunningham and Mbenkum, 1993; Schimppman, 2001) while
in Europe, Arnica montana is listed as endangered in the red data books for
Germany and Hungary (Lange, 1988). In India, 16 medicinal plants are listed as
endangered in the Himalayas (FAa, 2003).
71
Table 23: Threatened medicinal plants in Ukambani districts
Plant species No. of herbalists Percent (%)
Strychnos henningsii
Zanthoxylum chalybeum
Cassia abbreviate
Croton megiilicarpus
Terminalia brownie
Albizia anthelmintica
Mondia whytei
Prunus africana
Teclea simplicifolia
Warbugia ugandensis
Actinoteris semiflabellata
Carrisa edulis
Melia volkensii
Acacia mellifera
Albizia amara
Aloe secundiflora
Aploclema apiculatum
Azandrachta indica
Capparis tomentosa
Clerodendrum eriophylum
Commiphora Africana
Commiphora baluencis
Croton dichogamus
Harrinsoma abyssinica
Kleinia squarrosa
Oscimum basilicum
Olea europea
Plectrantkus cylindraceus
Senna bicapsularis
Sesamum angustifolia
Zanha africana
Sanseveria spp
20
7
5
5
5
4
3
"3
3
3
2
2
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
"I
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
24.2
8.5
6
-6
6
4.8
3.6
3.6
3.6
3.6
2.4
2.4
2.4
1.2
1.2
1.2
1.2
1.2
1.2
"1.2
1.2
1.2
1.2
-"1.2
1.2
1.2
1.2
"1.2
1.2
1.2
1.2
1:2
Total 84 100
72
4.3 Demand of medicinal plants in Ukambani districts
There is a worldwide trend of increasing demand for popular and effective
medicinal plants (Grunwald and Buttel, 1996). Approximately 23% of herbalists
in Ukambani districts indicated high demand for Strychnoss henningsii while
demand for Croton megalocarpus and Zanthoxylum chalybeum was reported by
8.8% and 7% respectively (Table 24). The demand for Acacia nilotica and
Actinopteris semiflabellata was reported by 5.3% herbalists each. In the western
countries, although the demand varies, (Fisher and Ward, 1994) public interest in
the use of unconventional treatments is growing at an estimated rate of 20%
(Wong et aI., 1998; Grunwald and Buttel, 1996). In these countries, interest in the
use of alternative medicine is widespread particularly among patients suffering
from such diseases as cancer, arthritis, acquired immunodeficiency syndrome and
gastrointestinal ailments (Einssenberg, et aI., 1993).
..~--- ---
73
Table 24: Medicinal plants with the highest demand in Ukambani districts
Plant species No. of herbalists Percent (%)
Strychnos henningsii
C. megalocarpus
Z. chalybeum
Acacia nilotica
Actinopteris semiflabellata
Harrinsonia abyssinica
Aploclema apiculatum
Klienia squarrosa
Maerua decumbens
Teclea simplicifolia
Terminalia brownii
Warbugia ugandensis
Withinia semnifera
Zanha Africana
Albizia anthelmintica
Acacia mellifera
Acacia tortilis
Capparis tomentosa
C. eriophylum
Commiphora Africana
Croton dichogamus
Entada leptostachya
Fagaropsis hildebrandtii
Mondia whytei
Strychnos decussate
13
5
4
3
3
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
I
1
22.8
8.8
7.0
5.3
5.3
3.5
3.5
3.5
3.5
3.5
3.5
3.5
3.5
3.5
1.8
1.8
1.8
1.8
1.8
1.8
1.8
1.8
1.8
1.8
1.8
Total 57 100
4.3.1 Alternatives to popular medicinal plants in Ukambani districts.
Sustained availability of medicinal plants is a great concern for most herbalists in
Ukambani districts. Eighty eight percent of the herbalists reported that they would
settle for .ether alternative plants 'if "the current popular medicinal plants were no
longer available (Figure 9). Five percent of the respondents indicated that they
were not sure of what to use while 7% had no response.
74
Not sure what to
use
5%
Settle to
alternatives
88%
Figure 9: Alternatives to popular medicinal plants in Ukambani districts
Switching to other alternatives may be dangerous at first since most herbalists
would not have ready information on the use of such plants, their method of
preparation, effective dosage and possible side effects.
4.4. Medicinal plants and drug trade in Ukambani districts
Herbalists In the study area indicated that their herbal drugs were sold either as
powder in containers or in liquid form in various units (Table 25). Spoons and
glasses were the most common units of measurement accounting for 48.3% and
44.8% respectively. Glasses were used in the administration of decoctions and
infusions while spoons were used to measure dry and powdered medicines.
Globally, there is a large trade in plants used for preparation of herbal medicines
(Lewington, 1993). Hamburg is the world-trading center in medicinal plants
where between 500 to 600 medicinal plants are traded in big numbers (Shen et al.,
2002).
75
Table 25: Units of measurement of medicinal plants drugs in Ukambani districts
Unit of Count Percent (%)
measurement
Grammes 2 3.50
Kilogram 1 1.80
Spoons 28 48.30
Glass 26 44.80
Cups 1 1.70
Total 58 100
The bark of Prunus africana, which is used to manufacture products to treat
prostate gland hypertrophy and other closely related but more serious condition of
benign prostatic hyperplasia (Ishani et al., 2000) in older men is extensively
harvested for international trade (Marshall, 1998) and may be the most traded
plant in Kenya.
4.4.1 Market potential of medicinal plants in Ukambani
The scale of International trade in medicinal plants is difficult to asses because of
a paucity of reliable statistics and trade secrecy (Hamilton, 1992). Attempts to
establish the real market potential for medicinal plants in Ukambani districts were
hindered because herbalists were not willing to release their information and data
on their estimated incomes from drug sale. Similarly, only 5 herbalists (8%) were
willing to provide some information relating to their drug formulations with
respect to medicines prepared by mixing different plant species. This reflects on
the secrecy and confidentiality of herbal medicine. However, a superficial survey
indicated that most dry and powdered packed drugs were being sold for between
76
Kenya shillings 50 and 100 for 50 grams sachets (Table 26). This translates to
Ksh. 10QOto 2000 per kilogram. Liquid drugs (made from approximately 10
grams of powdered medicines as well as fresh roots and barks) were being sold
for Ksh. 10 per glass.
Table 26. Estimated market potential of herbal drugs in Ukambani districts
Average no. of visits
to herbalists by
patients
Percent Population Minimum unit Estimated
visiting the price for drugs annual sales
herbalists (Ksh) (Ksh)
1 53% 10 159,000,000
3 33% 10 297,000,000
Total 456,000,000
Population in Ukambani districts = 2.5 million (Source 1999 Government census)
According to (FANW, 1988) in Kenya, most medicinal plant parts such as bark
and roots are sold at between 10 and 15 shillings and the same price applies to
ground portions. From this study, the market potential for herbal drugs in
Ukambani districts can be estimated to be over Ksh. 500,000,000.00 (USD 6.5
million) annually excluding the herbal street vendors.
4.4.2 Factors that influence cost, demand and popularity of herbal medicine
Demand and availability of medicinal plants as reported by 65.6% and 28.2%
herbalists respectively were the main factors that influence the cost of herbal
medicine in Ukambani districts (Figure 10). Other factors are cost of processing
the drugs and disease type which were reported by about 3% of the respondents. It
is generally reported that the broad use of traditional medicine in developing
77
counties is often attributed to the accessibility and affordability (WHO, 2000). In
Burkina Paso, the price of herbal medicine is reported to be governed by
availability, condition of acquisition, place of origin and the kind of market
(Nieyidonba et al., 1998). Unlike in modem (private) treatment, disease type is
not a major factor of determining cost of treatment. For example, herbal drugs for
sexually transmitted diseases in the study area were found to be among the
cheapest, which contrasts with the costs of treatments from modem clinics.
Concomitantly, the popularity of herbalists in Ukambani districts was observed to
be enhanced by their patience they have on their clients. As one respondent said
"Herbalists take time to listen to you." Besides, there are particular set of
illnesses which are defined as inherently african/indigenous such as misfortunes
and the community believe they can only be treated by traditional methods (Grand
and Wondergern, 1990).
70
en 60
~ 50ro 40-e
Q) 30..c
~ 20
o 10
o
65.6
3.1 3.1
28.2
Availability of Processing cost
plants
Figure 10: Factors influencing cost of herbal medicine in Ukambani districts
Demand Disease type
78
Despite the high demand and difficulty in availability of medicinal plants in
Ukambani districts, 76.6% of the respondents indicated that herbalists were
cheaper than conventional treatment (Table 27).
Table 27: The perceived treatment costs of herbal medicine as compared to
modem clinics in Ukambani districts
Community reason No. of
respondents
Percent (%)
Herbalists are cheaper than modem clinics
Herbalists are more expensive than modem
clinics
Costs are the same
No response
134
4
76.6
2.3
8
29
4.6
16.5
Total 175 100
Over 73 % of the patients indicated that they were satisfied with the herbalist's
costs while only 2.3% were not (Table 28).
Table 28: Patients satisfaction with the cost of herbal treatment in Ukambani
districts
Satisfaction with cost of treatment No. Percentage (%)
Satisfied with costs
Not satisfied with costs
No choice
No response
129
4
4
38
73.7
2.3
2.3
21.7
Total 175 100
Effectiveness of the herbal drugs was reported to account for 90% towards the
popularity -of herbalists in Ukambani districts (Figure 11). In Britain, the herb St.
John's Wort has also been reported to be very effective in the treating cases of
79
mild to moderate depression (Linde et al., 1996). Other factors leading to
popularity of herbal drugs were low cost (8%) where many decoctions were found
to cost as low as ten shillings per glass. Furthermore, just like in many parts of the
world, convenience was found to playa role in popularity of herbal medicine and
was reported by 2% of the patients.
Effectiveness
90%
Low cost
8% ----
Convenience
2%
Figure 11: Reasons for respondents' preference of herbal medicine
4.5 Visitations to herbalists by patients (respondents)
A total of 53.1% of the respondents in Ukambani districts visit herbalists for
treatment at least once to over ten times in a month (Table 29) while 18.6% of the
patients consult herbalists rarely. Visiting herbalists irrespective of their ill health
was associated with the perception that herbal medicine is protective of later
illness. 1JIe percent visit to herbalists as reported by the respondents in the study
area is close to what has been reported in Ethiopia where, 65-80% of leprosy
80
patients seek traditional treatment due to the low modem health care coverage by
the Government health care system (Ministry of Health in Ethiopia, 1995).
Table 29: Rate of herbalist consultation by customers in Ukambani Districts.
Patient visits to the herbalist No. Percentage (%) visits
Visit once a month
Visit twice a month
Visit 3-l0 times a month
Over 10 times
Visit herbalists very rarely
No response
22
13
34
24
18
49
12.60
7.4
19.4
13.7
18.6
28.0
Total 175 100
In many parts of Ukambani, patients in rural areas have to travel for long
distances in search of medical services because health facilities are concentrated
in main town centers. In Machakos district however, the doctor Ipatient ratio is
1:62,325, indicating a deficit of health personnel (GoK, 2003). On the contrary,
herbalists in Ukambani districts were found to live within the reach of many rural
inhabitants.
4.5.1 Mode of transport used by respondents to herbalists in Ukambani
districts
Walking to the herbalists for consultation and treatment was reported by 71%
(Table 30). Only 9.1% of the patients reported having used vehicles to go for
herbal treatment. 11.1% and 40.6% of the respondents took less than 15 minutes
and between 15-30 minutes respectively to get to the herbalists while 10% took
81
between half to one hour to get to the herbalists (Table 30). Those who walked for
over an hour accounted for only 3%.
Table 30: Traveling and time taken by customers while going to consult
herbalists for treatment in Ukambani districts.
Means of traveling to herbalists No. Percentage (%)
Walkin~ for less than 15minutes
Walking for between 15 - 30 minutes
Walking for between 30 - 60 minutes
Walking for over an hour
No response
Use of buses and other vehicles
31
71
17
5
35
16
17.70
40.60
9.70
2.90
20.00
9.10
Total 175 100
This heavy reliance on local herbal practitioners could be attributed to insufficient
and sometimes lack of modem clinics in rural and remote areas of Ukambani
districts. In such areas, there are a number of herbalists who are within the reach
of the local people, and hence becoming the only health care providers.
4.5.2 Household use of medicinal plants by respondents in Ukambani
Districts
In the current study, 91% of the local people in Ukambani districts reported
having used medicinal plants for treatment in their homes (Figure 12). Earlier
studies have indicated high reliance on medicinal plants where over 75% of the
Kenyan populations were reported to rely on indigenous medicine (Good, 1987;
Nyamwaya, 1987) and over 90% as having used medicinal plants at one time or
another (Odera, 1977). This compares closely with Ecuador where, 80% of the
82
population depends on traditional medicine for their primary health care (Traffic,
1999). In a case study of a tribal village in India, almost all households were
found to be adept at tribal pharmacopoeia (Heradri, 1994). In the rest of the
developing world, traditional medicine has actually maintained its popularity in
all regions and its use is rapidly spreading. For example, in Ghana, Mali, Nigeria
and Zambia, the first line of treatment for 60% of children with high fever
resulting from malaria is the use of herbal medicines at home (WHO, 2003).
With regard to the fmal use of medicinal plants in the western world, a large
quantity is used in herbal and medicinal teas (lTC, 1982). In the USA, a vast
majority of 73% of women with breast cancer use complementary and alternative
medicine (Shen et al., 2002).
100
90
80
70
(])0..
600
(])o,
50Iii
0..Q 40
~0 30
20
10
0
91
7
2
Used medicinal plants Not used medicinal
plants
No response
Category of medicinal plant use
Figure12: Household use of medicinal plants by local people in Ukambani
districts
83
Cancer treatment and boosting of immune system accounts for 40% and 32%
respectively for all reasons given for using complementary and alternative
medicine in the United states (Shen et al., 2002). 88.6% of the herbalist's
customers and 16% herbalists in Ukambani districts reported that they have never
experienced any side effects after herbal treatment (Table 31). Only 3.4% of the
patients reported having experienced some negative side effects after taking
herbal medicine.
Table 31: Side effects after herbal treatment in Ukambani districts
Category of side effects Percent herbalists (%) Percent herbalist patients (%)
No side effects
Yes to side effects
No answer
16.0
3.00
81.0
88.60
3.40
8.00
SED 12.1 24.8
This partly agrees with an editorial in the British Medical Journal, which stated
that phytomedicines have fewer side effects than conventional prescription drugs
(DeSmet and Nolen, 1996).
4.5.3 The trend of use and future of herbal medicine in Ukambani districts
Over 80% of herbalist customers reported that the trend in use of traditional
medicines had increased while 3.4% believed the trend had decreased (Table 32).
The future of herbal medicine in Ukambani districts looks bright as reported by
76.6% of the local people who believed more herbalists would be needed in the
84
future (Table 33). Only 4.2% of the respondents indicated that the demand would
not change.
Table 32: Trend of use of herbal medicine in Ukambani districts
Trend in use of herbal medicine Percent (%)
Use has increased
Trend has decreased
No change in trend
Not aware
81.10
3.40
8.10
7.40
Total 100
Globally, the use of medicinal plants is expected to rise in both herbal and
allopathic or traditional medicine as reflected in the establishment of over 2000
herbal medical companies in Europe and more than 220 in the United States of
America (McAlpine, and Warrier, 1992).
Table 33: Perceived future demand of herbal medicine
Future of herbal medicine Percent (%)
(i) Future bright and need more herbalists
(ii) Fewer herbalists required in future
(iii) Trend will not change
(iv) Not aware
76.60
9.80
4.20
9.40
Total 100
Indeed, the upward trend is predicted not only because of population explosion,
but also due to the increasing popularity for "natural-based, environmentally
friendly products" (Shen et al., 2002). It has been reported that the demand for
85
alternative relative to synthetic and pharmaceutical drugs is growing as they have
the gift of compassionate and affordable health care (Shen et al, 2002).
4.6 The link between herbal and modern clinical treatment in Ukambani
Districts
A delicate balance is maintained between the use of herbal and modern medicines
in Ukambani districts (Table 34) where 44% rely entirely on herbal medicines and
57% visit clinics only on special occasions such as diagnosis, X-Rays and
treatment of injuries from serious accidents. However, despite the vast knowledge
and use of traditional systems for primary health care in Ukambani districts, 90%
of the respondents reported that they still visit modern clinics besides using herbal
medicine,
Table 34: The link between herbal medicine and modern clinical treatment by
respondents in Ukambani districts
Category of treatment Percent (%) Remarks
Rely on herbal medicine only
Use herbal medicine and visit clinics as well
Visit clinics on special occasions
43.5
89.7
56.7 X-Rays,
diagnosis etc
Visit clinic for dental treatment only 6.1
Visit clinics if herbal medicine fails 4.60
* Total percentage more than 100 due to mnltiple responses per respondent
The findings agree with Friedman et al. (1993) who reported that Amazonians
Ecuador use both traditional and modern medicine depending on the nature of ill
health condition.
86
4.7 Planting of medicinal plants in Ukambani districts
Conservation of medicinal plants has received worldwide attention in the past
several years (McNeely, 2004) and the best way to meet the expanding trade in
medicinal plants is cultivation of priority tree species (Rao, et al., 2004). With the
theme "plants and Health for all", (WHO, 1992) the conservation of medicinal
plants has been clearly defmed. In Ukambani districts, 45% of both herbalists and
local people have planted medicinal plants whereas 55% herbalists and 53% local
people have not (Table 35).
Table 35: Planting of medicinal plants in Ukambani districts
Activity Herbalists (%) Local respondents (%)
Planted medicinal plants 45.2
Not planted medicinal plants 54.8
Willing to plant medicinal plants 90.0
No response 0.0
44.6
53.1
97.7
2.3
* Total percentage more than 100 due to multiple responses per respondent
The table further shows that 90% of herbalists and 97.7% of local people ate
willing to plant medicinal plants. Indeed, throughout the world, there exists
already a high exploitation trend and destruction of vital habitats for medicinal
plants and unless artificial propagation is adopted, it will only be a matter of time
before some of the plant species become extinct (FAO, 1996). The ravages of
deforestation, development, settlement and over exploitation pressures have led to
domestication of many indigenous plants (Leakey and Newton, 1994). In Ivory
Coast, about 19 medicinal plants are planted as shade trees for coffee and cacao
87
(Herzog, 1994). There is a great potential for conservation of medicinal plants in
Ukambani districts as demonstrated by planting of 14 species by both herbalists
and local people (Table 36). The most commonly planted medicinal plants by
both
Table 36: Planted medicinal plants by both herbalists and local peoj)le III
Ukambani districts.
Planted species Planting by herbalists
(%)
Planting by farmers
(%)
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)
(vii)
(viii)
(ix)
(x)
(xi)
(xii)
(xiii)
(xiv)
(xv)
Azandrachtaindica
Croton megalocarpus
Terminalia brownii
Tamarindus indica
Warbugia ugandensis
Prunus Africana
Carica papaya
Carisa edulis
Zanthoxylum chalybeum
Strychnos henningsii
Psidium guajava
Techlea simplicifolia
Cassia abbreviata
Aloe secundijlora
Other uncommon species
24.10
16.70
5.60
5.60
5.60
5.60
5.60
3.70
3.70ooooo
23.8
65.00
11.40
3.10
3.10
1.00
oo
oo
1.00
1.00
2.10
2.10
3.10
7.1
Total 100 100
categories are Azadirachta indica (Neem) and Croton megalocarpus where 24.1%
herbalists and 65% local people have planted the former while 16.7% herbalists
and 11.4% local people have planted the latter. Though important and scarce,
Strychnos henningsii and Cassia abbreviata were not planted by herbalists but
were planted by 1% and 2% of local people respectively. The explanations given
by the herbalists for low involvement in planting were lack of viable seeds
88
(Zanthoxtlum chalybeum and Cassia abbreviata) and the specific habitat required
for successful growth of these plants (Strychnos henningsii). Through cultivation,
certain medicinal values in plants can be deliberately enhanced under controlled
conditions (palevitch, 1991). In Malawi, Chenopodium ambrosioides is grown for
its reputed trance inducing qualities (Hargreaves, 1986) while in Easten Cape
(South Africa), Melianthus comosus is planted for treatment of snake bites
(Smith, 1995). In Guatemala, medicinal plants have been integrated successfully
into traditional farming systems with food crops such as maize, beans and
vegetables (Eid, 2000).
Effectiveness in treatment of diseases was the main reason for planting medicinal
plants as accounted by 69.3% of the herbalists (Figure 13).. About 25% of the
respondents planted them due to market demands. The testing of the proclaimed
efficacy of these herbal medicines (both planted and those collected from the
wild) has been complex as in vitro tests may fail to reveal active compounds
because these may form only during internal digestion (Hamilton et. al., 2003).
Other medicinal plants such as Terminalia brownii were also planted for building
purposes due to their durability and strength.
89
80
70
~ 60
.~ 50ro-e 40
~ 30
cF. 20
10o -f----
69.3
5.9
24.8
Demand Effectiveness in .
treatment
Reasons forplanfinqmediclnal plants
Building
Figure 13: Reasons for herbalists planting medicinal plants in Ukambani districts
4.8 Forests transect data
After making transects walks in forest areas within the four Ukambani districts,
Iveti forest in Machakos district was found to be almost under pure or mixed
stands of exotic plants mainly Eucalyptus species, Cuppressus lusitanica and a
few Pinus patula plantations. There are however, small patches within this forest
under indigenous tree cover, though greatly influenced by human activities. All
other forest areas in Kibwezi forest (Makueni), Nuu forest hill (Mwingi) and
Endau forest hill in Kitui districts had some relatively conserved indigenous forest
areas as shown in appendixes 5, 6 and 7 respectively. Human influence was
evident all over the forests.
4.8.1 Common herbs and seedlings, sapling and tree species.
Data on common herbs and seedlings was collected during the dry season and so
regeneration of most herbs was generally very poor in all the forest transect areas
90
of Kibwezi forest, Nuu forest hill and Endau forest. The most common herbs
were Acalypha fruiticosa, Hibiscus micranthus and Oscimum basilicum which
had a relative frequency of 29.7, 14.1 and 6.3 respectively (Table 37 and
Appendix 2).
Table 37: Common herbs and tree seedlings in the study area
Species No. Relative frequency
Acalypha fruiticosa
Hibiscus micranthus
Ocimum bacilicum
Acacia brevispica
Teclea simplicifolia
Premna racemosa
Strychnos henningsii
Other various seedlings and herbs
19
9
4
4
3
2
1
22
29.7
14.1
6.3
6.3
4.7
3.1
1.6
34.4
Total 64 100
*Herbs are Annual plants under 15 em in height while seedlins are young perennial plants between 15 to
30 em in height.
Seedlings of Acacia brevispica and Teclea simplicifolia were also common in
most areas. Similarly, the most dominant tree saplings were Combretum
constrictum, Grewia bicolor and Acacia brevispica which were observed to
survive under 80-100% canopy cover. Other plant saplings were Croton
dichogamus, Premna resinosa, Ochna ovata and Steganotaenia araliaceae
(Appendix 3). The most commom tree species were Commiphora baluensis,
Terminalia brown ii, Combretum schumann ii, Combretum constrictum and
Staganotaenia araliaceae which were found to have relative abundance of 9.3%,
6.3%, 5.9%, 5.1% and 3.4% from an occurence count of 22, 15, 14, 12 and 8
91
respectively (Appendix 4). This means these are the important medicinal plants
easily found in the forest. Popular medicinal plants such as Strychnos henningsii,
Zanthoxylum chalybeum and Cassia abbreviata had very low saplings and tree
species in all the forest areas.
4.8.2 Status of popular medicinal tree species in Kibwezi forest-Makueni
District
After making 7 transects and sampling of 22 points in Kibwezi forest (Appendix
5), Commiphora baluensis was recorded as having the highest number of trees
and importance value of 46.7. Combretum schumannii and Acacia tortilis were
ranked second and third respectively in terms of importance value with the former
species being over harvested for poles, carving and building materials. Strychnos
henningsii and Cassia abbreviata were very rare and were not sighted along the
transects while Zanthoxylum chalybeum had relative density and relative
dominance of 2.17 and 1.39 respectively. The relative density, dominance and
frequency ofthe four most popular plants in Kibwezi forest are shown in Table 38
while other plant relative values are shown in Appendix 5. The most common
herbs observed were Acalypha fruticosa and Hibiscus micranthus with Croton.
dichogamus, Steganotaenia araliaceae, Combretum schumannii and Dombeya
burgessiae having the highest number of saplings. Wildlife destruction especially
Elephants debarking was common for Acacia meliffera, C. baluensis,
Steganotaenia araliaceae and Combretum schumannii.
92
Table 38: Relative values of four most popular medicinalplants found in Kibwezi
forest
Species Relative Relative Status Demand
density dominance
Zanthoxylum 2.17 1.39 Threatened High
chalybeum
Croton megalocarpus 1.09 0.81 Rare and High
threatened
Albizia anthmentica 1.09 0.64 Threatened High
Terminalia brownii 2.17 8.40 Threatened High
4.8.3 Status of popular medicinal plants in Nuu forest hill in Mwingi district
A total of 20 points in 6 transects at Nuu forest hill indicated that Nuu forest is
dominated by Commiphora baluensis, Albizia anthmentica and Acacia Senegal
which occurred in 10, 9, and 8 points respectively (Appendix 6). The repective
absolute frequency (No. of points with species/Total points x 100) for these
species is therefore 50, 45 and 40 respectively. Croton megalocarpus and
Zanthoxylum chalybeum plants were rare in this forest. The relative density and
dominance values of four most popular medicinal plants in this forest are as
shown in Table 39. Strychnos henningsii plants were observed to be over
Table 39: Relative density and dominance values of four popular medicinal
plants found in Nuu forest hill.
Species Relative Relative Status Demand
density dominance
Strychnos henningsii 1.25 0.15 Threatened High
Cassia abbreviata 2.50 0.74 Threatened High
Albizia anthmentica 11.25 23.70 Threatened High
Terminalia brownii 2.50 1.53 Threatened High
93
Exploited through root harvesting and had no saplings or seedlings in most areas.
With most roots destroyed, the few plants that were available appeared
physiologically stressed and wilting.
4.8.4 Status of popular important medicinal plants in Endau forest
After making 7 transects in Endau forest, it was observed that most of the popular
medicinal plants such as Strychnos henningsii, Zanthoxylum chalybeum, Cassia
abbreviata and albizia anthelmintica had very low rankings in terms of relative
frequency, relative dominance and relative density (Appendix 7).
Table 40: Relative density and dominance values of five most popular medicinal
plants in Endau forest.
Species Relative Relative Status Demand
density dominance
Strychnos henningsii 3.45 0.28 Threatened High
Zanthoxylum chalybeum 0.86 3.02 Threatened High
Cassia abbreviata 1.72 2.30 Threatened High
Albizia anthmentica 1.72 2.44 Threatened High
Terminalia brownii 8.62 0.10 Threatened High
Croton megalocarpus which was reported by many herbalists was not found
within the transects but was observed in farmland boundaries and within
homesteads. The relative values of five most popular medicinal plants in Kitui
district (Endau forest hill) are as shown in Table 40. Further observation revealed
that Endau forest is the least disturbed in some areas. There were however signs
of root and bark harvesting of various medicinal plants within the entire forest
94
area. The eastern region of the hill was the only area observed to have some
regeneration of Strychnos henningsii, the malaria treatment wonder plant.
95
-ClIAPT-ER 5
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.0 Conclusion
From the findings presented herein, it can be concluded that herbal medicine
plays a significant role in the welfare of the local people of Ukambani districts
where 91% of the population has used medicinal plants in one way or another.
The Ukambani herbalists also have a rich and diverse knowledge on herbal
practices and are part of the mainstream health care providers. Elderly herbalists
have been health care providers for over 57 years and there is increasing interest
by younger people to become tradional health care providers. The knowledge is
wide spread from the young to the elderly herbalists and is jealously protected
within close family members as seen in the training of sons (50%) and daughters
(17.7%).
In fact, herbal medicine is not only popular, but is also the only system virtually
available in some remote areas such as Endau in Kitui district. Thus, to many
rural people in Ukambani, medicinal plants are a precious resource, as
conventional medicines remain costly and inaccessible. Due to their meagre
incomes and weak economic base, inadequate modem health care, poor
infrastructure and traditional norms, medicinal plants are therefore a major asset
to these people. As such, indigenous medicinal plants within the region play a
pivotal role in the health care of the society. 60% of the medicinal plants are
96
sourced from the wild using simple tools. Similarly, medicinal plants hold the key
to the future survival of the local communities not only in Ukambani, where 81%
of the population report an increasing trend in use of medicinal plants, but also to
other parts of Kenya and the neighboring countries as well. The role of these
medicinal plants is being threatened by unsustainable harvesting as a large
number continue to deplete due to environmental and habitat degradation and
human activities. In addition, the increase in population and high rate of
urbanization means that effective conservation of rare and popular indigenous
medicinal plants will continue to be increasingly elusive. However, driven by
effectiveness in treatment and demand, over 90% of both the herbalists and local
people in Ukambani are willing to plant popular medicinal plants to avoid their
depletion and eventual extinction. To date, there is already localized depletion of
some vital medicinal plants such as Zanthoxylum chalybeum and Croton
megalocarpus in Mwingi district while the latter is rare in Kitui with Strychnos
henningsii being extremely rare or nearly depleted in Machakos and Makueni
districts.
5.1 Recommendations
Domestication of medicinal plants
• There is need for urgent enhancement of cultivation efforts in order to
develop alternative sources of medicinal plants to meet the rising demand
for herbal products.
97
• Planting of medicinal plants should be included in the national
afforestation programs as this would enhance both in situ and ex situ
conservation and protection. The use of back-up collections in botanic
gardens and seed banks should be explored by the relevant institutions
such as the Forest Department (FD), now known as the Kenya Forest
Service, the Kenya Forest Research Institute (KEFRI) and other
institutions of higher learning.
• The use and conservation of medicinal plants should be integrated in
Kenyan curriculum from primary, secondary, tertiary and to medical
schools and research findings properly disseminated to the local
communities.
• In order to safeguard the sustainability of medicinal plants resources in
Ukambani districts, research activities such as breeding and propagation
techniques of rare and threatened medicinal plant species should be carried
out and the results disseminated to farmers for implementation. Some of
these plants include Strychnos henningsii, Zanthoxylum chalybeum and
Cassia abbreviata.
• Domestication of medicinal plants should also include other species used
for economic uses such as Terminalia brownii (building poles, fencing
posts, furniture making and bee hives), Carrisa edulis which is used as an
alternative wrapping material instead of ropes and Croton megalocarpus
(wood fuel and charcoal) among others.
98
Lic.ensing,..efficacy.,Jlccreditation.and..qnalification
• In an attempt to lower the cost and take health care services closer to the
people, the Government should hasten the licensing of herbalists and help
set up divisional or district branches as appropriate
• As recommended by WHO (1993b), pharmacological research on the
safety and efficacy of active ingredients should be carried out to establish
dosage norms for production of most effective extracts. This would hasten
the acceptability of herbal drugs in to the medical field as alternative
medicine.
• There is need to develop a curriculum to teach herbalists on storage
techniques and efficacy to reduce drug wastage or administration of
expired, weak or useless drugs to unsuspecting patients.
• As recommended by WHO (1995), training and utilization of these
traditional health practitioners in close collaboration with conventional
health staff can therefore contribute significantly to obtaining more
practical, effective and culturally acceptable systems of health care for
communities in many countries (WHO, 1995).
• As suggested by Lange (1988), there is need for better information about
wild-harvested plants, and certification of plant material from sustainable
sources.
99
Documentation and research
• In order to avoid the loss and eventual disappearance of this precious
herbal knowledge, herbalists should be encouraged to undertake
systematic documentation of their activities and herbal knowledge.
• The knowledge and information from the herbalists should be processed,
protected and propagated for future generations without compromising
their intellectual property.
• There is therefore need to educate and create awareness amongst the
herbalists on the advantages of freely sharing information on herbal
matters
100
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120
Appendix 1: Popular medicinal plants used im Ukambani districts of Kenya
Plant species Family Part used Disease treated Score Percentage Rar
Strychnos henningsii Longaniaceae R, B, L Malaria, diabetes, joint pains, epilepsy 32 6.2
Zanthoxylum chalybeum Rutaceae R,B, L malaria, asthma, pneumonia, 30 5.8
diabetes, stomachache
Croton megalocarpus Euphorbiaceae F (Seed) pou Itry feed 22 4.3
Cassia abbreviata Caesalpiniaceae R,B diarrhea, stomach disorders, 21 4.1
dysentery, abdominal pains,
toothache, STD's
Albizia anthelmintica Fabaceae R,B malaria, tapeworms 17 3.3
Terminalia brownii Combretaceae R,B fever, colds, 17 3.3
Azandrachta indica Meliaceae R,B,L,F,FL malaria, pneumonia, cough, 14 2.7
& seed abdominal disorders, cough, cold,
·1Teclea simplicifolia Rutaceae R,L malaria, pleurisy 13 2.5 I
Acacia nilotica Mimosaceae B colds, cough, chest infections 10 1.9 I•
Aloe secundiflora Aloeaceae R, L pneumonia, malaria, diarrhea 10 1.9 ••·Maerua decumbens Capparaceae R,L joint pains, stomachache 10 1.9 ••·Zanha Africana Sapindaceae R typhoid, dysentery, pneumonia, 10 1.9 •scabies •Commiphora baluencis Burseraceae R,B abdominal pains 9 1.7 ••Actinopteris semiflabellata Adiantaceae R, F malaria, body pains, headache 8 1.6 •••~
(Whole) ..••
Salvadora persica Savadoraceae R,B toothache, body pains, malaria, 8 1.6 L!::a
Warbugia ugandensis Canel/aceae R,B chest, cold, malaria, toothache 8 1.6
Lannea rivae Anacardiaceae R fever 7 1.4
Acacia brevispica Mimosaceae R fever, pains 6 1.2
Carissa edulis Apocynaceae R,F dysentery, body pains 6 1.2
Clerodendrum eriophyllum Verbenaceae L malaria 6 1.2
Croton dichogamus Euphorbiaceae R,B stomach disorders, toothache, 6 1.2
Erythrina abyssinica Papilionaceae R fever, skin lesions, tonic, veterinary 6 1.2
Medicine
121
Harrisonia abyssinica Rutaceae B malaria 6 1.2
Kleinia squarrosa Compositae B peptic ulcers, diarrhea, stomach 5 1
disorders, malaria, edema,
Ocimum baci/icum Labitae R,F fever, headache, intestinal infections 5 1
Acacia meliffera Mimosaceae R,B malaria, stomachache 4 0.8
Capparis tomentosa Capparaceae R malaria 4 0.8
Carica papaya Caricaceae F abdominal pains 4 0.8
Combretum constrictum Combretaceae B fever 4 0.8
Eucalyptus spp (E. Saligna & Myrtaceae L yellow fever, typhoid 4 0.8
E. camaldulensis)
Fagaropsis hi/debrandtii Rutaceae R,B asthma, ulcers, malaria, women 4 0.8
infertility
Grewia bicolor Ti/iaceae R,F STD's, cold, chest & body pains, 4 0.8
stomach disorders
Lannea scheweinfurthii Anacardiaceae R,B stomach disorders, headache 4 0.8
Melia volkensii Meliaceae R,B,L malaria 4 0.8
Mondia whytei Asclepiadaceae R stimulant, appetizer 4 0.8
Premna resinosa Verbenaceae R,L malaria, 4 0.8
Ricinus communis Euphorbiaceae R, STD's, after birth treatments, cough, 4 0.8
L,F,Seed
Senna bicapsularis Caesalpiniaceae /3 pains 4 0.8
Solanum incanum Solanaceae R,F wounds, toothache 4 0.8
Solanum renschii Solanaceae R typhoid 4 0.8
Tamarindus indica Caesalpiniaceae R,B,L, F intestinal ailments, laxative, scurvy, 4 0.8
wounds, gall bladder, hemorrhoids,
throat infection, skin infections
Acacia seyal Mimosaceae B Colds, stomachache 3 0.6
Acacia torti/is Mimosaceae B veterinary Medicine, stomachache, 3 0.6
diarrhea
Acalypha fruticosa Euphorbiaceae R STD's 3 0.6
Adenia gummifera Passifloraceae B peptic ulcers, ulcers 3' 0.6
Balanites aegyptiaca Balanitaceae R,F malaria, bilharzia control 3 0.6
Entada leptostachya Mimosaceae R,B snake bite 3 0.6
Euphorbia candelabrum Euphorbiaceae B STD, after birth treatment 3 0.6
122
Maytenus undata Celastraceae R,B pains, tonic 3 0.6
Plectranthus cylindraceus Labitae R,B peptic ulcers, stomach pain, weakness 3 0.6
Prunus africana Rosaceae B,L STD, cancer 3 0.6
Strychnos decussata Longaniaceae R malaria, pains, fever 3 0.6
Withinia semnifera Solanaceae R eye treatment, STD's 3 0.6
Abrus schimperi Papilionaceae L toothache 2 0.4
Achyranthes aspera Amaranthaceae R, F asthma, anthrax, dysentery, boils, ear 2 0.4
disorders, skin diseases, STD's, ear
ailments, bleeding, bronchitis, cold,
cough, headache, pneumonia, ,
snake bite.
Albizia amara Mimosaceae B, L wounds, stomachache 2 0.4
Senna singueana Caesaepiniaceae R Stomach ailments, body pains 2 0.4
Aspilia mossambicensis Asteraceae R pains, Misfortunes 2 0.4
Cissus aphyllantha Vitaceae R,L malaria 2 0.4
Clausena anisata Rutaceae R,L malaria, pains, cold 2 0.4
Clerodendrum myttcoides Verbenaceae R,B, L malaria, STD.s 2 0.4
Combretum molle Combretaceae R malaria, blood circulation, snake bite, 2 0.4
intestinal worms, fever,
Commiphora schimperi Burseraceae R,B diarrhea 2 0.4
Cucumella kelleri Cucurbitaceae R,L veterinary Medicine 2 0.4
Ficus sycomorus Euphorbiacea~ B,F veterinary Medicine 2 0.4
Flueggea virosa Euphorbiacear; R,B,L,F toothache, pains 2 0.4
Hibiscus fuscus Malvaceae R constipation 2 0.4
Kige/ia africana Bignoniaceae R,B,L,F Veterinary Medicine, 2 0.4
Lantana camara Verbenaceae L headache, malaria 2 0.4
Maytenus putterlickioides Celastraceae R,B pains 2 0.4
Miccoglossa pyrifo/ia Compositae R malaria, cough 2 0.4
Mimusops kummel sapotaceae R, L Body pains, malaria 2 0.4
Oxygonum sinuatum Polygonaceae R,L, abdominal pains, toothache, urinary 2 0.4
whole, tract, stomachache
123
Pappea capensis Sapindaceae R, L, B baldness, stomachache, STD's, 2 0.4
abdominal infections, eye disease,
dysentery, ringworms, typhoid,
Pavetta crassipes Rubiaceae R,L malaria 2 0.4
Pentas parvifolia Rubiaceae R,B stomach disorders 2 0.4
Ptecirentiius barbatus Labitae R, L stomach disorders, ulcers, amoebic 0.4
dysentery
Psidium guajava Myrtaceae R,B,F stomach disorders 2 0.4
Rhus natalensis Anacardiaceae R fever, joint pains, malaria 2 0.4
Senna longiracemosa Caesalpiniaceae R malaria, fever 2 0.4
Sesamum angustifolia Pedaliaceae R stomachache, cholesterol reduction 2 0.4
Sterculia africana Sterculiaceae R,B constipation 2 0.4
Tarenna graveolens Rubiaceae L, F eye treatment 2 0.4
Termlnelie spinosa Combretaceae R,B abdominal pains 2 0.4
Ximenia emericene Olecaceae R,B diarrhea, typhoid, pneumonia, 2 0.4
stomach infections, maintain
pregnancy
Ziziphus mucronata Rhamnaceae R,L heart diseases 2 0.4
Acacia gerrardii Mimosaceae R,B stomachache 1 0.2
Asparagus africanus Asparagaceae R malaria, bites, ear/nose infections, 1 0.2
fever
Asparagus abyssinica . Asparagaceae R cancer, pain relief, bites, STD's, fever. 1 0.2
Ear/nose/eye infections, wounds
Azanza garckeana Malvaceae F fever 1 0.2
Boscia cotiecee Capparidaceae R,B pains 1 0.2
Boswellia neglecta Burseraceae B stomach-ache 1 0.2
Cajanus cajan Fabaceae L bladder stones, skin diseases, sores, 1 0.2
cough, pneumonia
Chamanthera dependens Menispermaceae B pneumonia 1 0.2
Clerodendrum johnstonii Verbenaceae R fever 1 0·2
Combretum aculeatum Combretaceae R,L diarrhea 1 02
Combretum collinum Combretaceae R,L diarrhea, vomiting 1 0.2
Combretum schmannii Combretaceae R stomachache 1 0.2
Commiphora africana Burseraceae B pains 1 0.2
124
Commiphora habessinica Burseraceae R body pains 1 0.2
Commiphora rostrata Burseraceae B,L fever, abdominal pains 1 0.2
Crotolaria lachnocarpoides Papilionaceae R mixed with other drugs 1 0.2
Cynodon dactylon Poaceae R stomachache 1 0.2
Dalbergia melanoxylon Fabaceae R,B cough, stomach-ache 1 0.2
Diopyros comii Ebenaceae R,F diarrhea, fever, skin diseases 1 0.2
Eclea divonorum Ebenaceae R, B appetizer, 1 0.2
Lonchocarpus busseii Papilionaceae R,B,l peptic ulcers, fever 1 0.2
Euphorbia scheffleri Euphorbiaceae R,B veterinary medicine, colds 1 0.2
Grewia similis Tiliaceae R,F toothache 1 0.2
Grewia vil/osa Tiliaceae R,B veterinary Mecicine 1 0.2
Hymenodictyon parvifolium Rubiaceae R Body pains, malaria 1 0.2
Lannea rivae Anacardiaceae B fever, (many diseases) 1 0.2
Lantana trifolia Verbenaceae l headache, fever, malaria 1 0.2
Leonotis nepetifolia Lbiatae R abdominal pains 1 0.2
Lippia javanica Verbenaceae R, l, F bronchial ailments, asthma, cough, 1 0.2
cold, skin diseases.
Macaranga kilimandscharica Euphorbiaceae R,l abdominal pains 1 0.2
Maerua angolensis Capparaceae R,B malaria 1 0.2
Maerua denhardtiorum Capparaceae R,B Intestinal ailments, stomachache, 1 0.2
Manihot esculatum Euphorbiaceae L malaria 1 0.2
Maytenus senegalensis Celastraceae R,B,l Abdominal ailments, oedema, 1 0.2
toothache, dysentery, peptic ulcers,
fever, schistomlasls
Microglossa pyrifolia Compositae R,l cough, malaria 1 0.2
Musa spp (Musa sapientum) musaceae R abdominal pains 1 0.2
Ochna ovata Ochnaceae l, F body pains 1 0.2
Olea africana Oleaceae R,B malaria, toothache 1 0.2
Portulacca oleraceae Portulacaceae R malaria 1 0.2
Sclerocarya birrea Anacardiaceae R, B,l dysentery, liver, rheumatism, fever 1 02
Scutia myrtina Rhamnaceae R,L malaria 1 0.2
Securidaca longipeduncu/ata Po/yga/aceae R Swellings 1 0.2
So/anum suave Solanaceae R,F stomach disorders 1 0.2
125
Sorghum bieolor Poaeeae R stomach disorders 1 0.2
Steganotaenia araliaeea Umbelliferae B malaria, edema, fever 1 0.2
Synadenium eompaetum Euphorbiaeeae R veterinary (swollen glands in cattle) 1 0.2
Terminalia prunioides Combretaeeae R,B,F abdominal pains 1 0.2
Thylaehium africanum Capparaeeae R abdominal pains, chest pains 1 0.2
Thylaehium thomasii Capparaeeae R,B cough, cold, pains 1 0.2
Tiliaeora funifera Menispermaceae L colds, fever 1 0.2
Tithonia diversifolia Comp9sita~ R,L malaria, pimples, stomachache, 1 0.2
cancer
Uvaria scheffleri Annonaeeae R,B,F malaria 1 0.2
Sansevieria abyssiniea, Agavaeeae R,L wounds, bites 1 0.2'
Thespesis garekeana Malvaeeae R, L malaria, abdominal pains 1 0.2
Zanthoxylum usemberense Ruteceee B malaria 1 0.2
Ziziphus abyssiniea Rhamnaeeae R,L, F body pains 1 0.2
Jatropha cureas Euphorbiaeeae L,F colds, malaria 1 0.2
Myrianthus ho/stii Moraeeae R,B body pains 1 0.2
(Total Number of plants = 144) 515 100
* Score: The number of times the plant was reported by the herbalists
* Percent value: The score value/total score of 515)*100
* R = Root, B = Bark & Stem, L = Leaf, F = Fruit, FL = Flower,
Appendix 2: Common herbs and seedlings in the study area.
126
Species Count Remarks
1 Acalypha fruiticosa 19
2 Hibiscus micranthus 9
3 Ocimum basilicum 4
4 Acacia brevispica 4
5 Teclea simplicifolia 3
6 Abrus schimperi 3
7 Solanum incanum 2
8 Premna racenosa 2
9 Newtonia hildebrandtii 2
10 Grewia bicolor 2
11 Strychnos henningsii 1
12 Ocimum suav 1
13 Ochna ovata 1
14 Maerua decumbens 1
15 Maerua crassifolia 1
16 Indigofera vohemarensis 1
17 Haplocoelum foliolosum 1
18 Croton dichogamus 1
19 Comiphora baluensis 1
20 Boscia coriacea 1
21 Bidens pilosa 1
22 Balanites angustifolia 1
23 Aspilia mossambicensis 1
24 Achyranthes aspera 1
Total 64
Many seedlings within
Many seedlings within
Many seedlings within
Many seedljngs within
Drying
Health seedling
Drying
Many seedlings within
Health seeqling
Health seedling
Health seeqling
Drying
Drying
Poor health
Poor health
Poor growth
Top part cut
Health seedlinq
Health seeqling
Health seedling
Drying
Health seedling
Drying
Drying
Count= No. of times a herb/seedling occurs in all the transects points in equal areas of
lxlm.
127
Appendix 3: Plant saplings in 4x4 m plots
~-
Botanical name Count Family Botanical name Count Family
1 Combretum consitictum 17 Combreteceee 28 Sterculia africana 2 Sterculiaceae
2 Grewia bicolor 14 Tiliaceae 29 Terenne graveolens 2 Rubiaceae
3 Acacia brevispica 13 Mimosaceae 30 Teclea simplicifolia 2 Rubiaceae
4 Croton dichogamus 11 Euphorbiaceae 31 Terminelie prunioides 2 Combretaceae
5 Acalypha fruiticosa 9 Euphorbiaceae 32 Warbugia ugandensis 2 Canellaceae
6 Premns resinose 8 vetbensceee 33 Olea africana 2 Oleaceae
7 Ochna ovata 6 Ochinaceae 34 Prunus africana 2 Rosaceae
8 Combretum scnumennlt 5 C;ombretaceae 35 Acacia drepanolobium 1 Mimosaceae
9 Steganotaenia araliacea 5 Umbelliferae 36 Acacia gerrardii 1 Mimosaqeae
10 Boscie angustifolia 4 Capparidaceae 37 Maerua kirkii 1 Capparaceae
11 Capparis tomentosa 4 Capparaceae 38 Boscia coriacea 1 Capparaceae
12 Entaaa lepstostachya 4 Mimosaceae 39 Cassia abbreviata 1 Caesalpiniaceae
13 Terminalia brownii 4 combreteoeee 40 Combretum collinum 1 Combretaceae
14 Strychnos henningsii 3 Loganiaceae 41 Croton scheff/eri 1 Euphorbiaceae
15 Abrus schimperi 3 Papilionaceae 42 Dalbergia melanoxylon 1 Papilionaceae
16 Commiphora balue(1sis 3 Bursereceee 43 Diospyros untada 1 Ebenaceae
17 Commiphore bebessinice 3 Bursereceee 44 Dombeya burgessiae 1 Sterculiaceae
18 (Jombeya rotundifo(ia 3 Sterculiaceae 45 Euclea divinorum 1 Ebeneceee
19 Haplqcoelum foliolosum 3 Sapindaceae 46 Euphorbia cuneata 1 Euphorbiaceae
20 Maerua decumbens 3 Capparaceae 47 Lentste camana 1 Verbenaceae
21 Uvaria scneittett 3 Annonaceae 48 Lonchocarpus eriocalyx 1 Papilionaceae
22 Strychnos decussata ~ Loganiaceae 49 Maytenus putterlickioides 1 Celastraceae
?3 Acacia nilotica 2 Mimosaceae 50 May tenus undata 1 cetsstreceee
24 Acacia tortilis 2 Mimosaceae 51 Melia volkensii 1 Meliaceae
25 Clerodendrum myricoides 2 Verbenaceae 52 Tamarindus indica 1 Caesalpiniaceae
26 Dicrostachys cinerea 2 Mimosaceae 53 Thylachium africanum 1 Capparaceae
27 Euphorbia scheff/eri 2 Euphorbiaceae 54 Zanthoxylum chalybeum 1 Rutaceae
Appendix 4: Tree species within lOx 10m plots
128
Species . ~()_~! Family $pecies Count Family
1Commiphora baluensis
2 Terminalia brownii
3 Combretum schumannii
4 Combretum constrictum
5 Grewia bicolor
6 Steganotaenia araliacea
7 Tec/ea simplicifolia
8 Boscia angustifolia
9 Haplocoelum foliolosum
10 Lannea schweinfurthii
11 Ochna ovata
12 Acacia mellifera
13 Commiphora habessinica
14 Croton dichogamus
15 Premna resinosa
16 Acacia brevispica
17 Acacia tortilis
18 Dalbergia melanoxylon
19 Entada leptostachya
20 Strychnos henningsii
21 Tamarindus indica
22 Abrus schimperl
23 Acacia nilotica
24 Acacia Senegal
25 Acacia seyal
26 Adansonia digitata
27 Combretum collinum
28 Commiphora africana
22 Burseraceae
15 Combretaceae
14 Combretaceae
12 Combretaceae
12 Tiliaceae
8 Umbelliferae
7 Rutaceae
6 Capparaceae
6 Sapindaceae
6Anacardiaceae
6 Ochinaceae
5 Mimosaceae
5 Burseraceae
5 Euphorbiaceae
5 Verbenaceae
4 Mimosaceae
4 Mimosaceae
4 Papilionaceae
4 Mimosaceae
4 Loganiaceae
4 Caesalpiniaceae
3Papilionaceae
3Mimosaceae
3Mimosaceae
3Mimosaceae
3Bombacaceae
3 Combretaceae
3Burseraceae
35 Lonchocarpus eriocalyx
36 Euphorbia scheffleri
37 Maerua crassifolia
38 Maerua kirkii
39 Newtonia hildenbrandtii
40 Prunus africana
41 Sclerocarya birrea
42 Sterculia africana
43 Strychnos decussata
44 Acacia hockii
45 Albizia amara
46 Albizia eninetmintic«
47 Boscia coriacea
48 Cadaba farinosa
49 Combretum molle
50 Commiphqra schimperi
51 Croton scheffleri
52 Dicrostachys cinerea
53 Euolea divinorum
54 Ficus thonningii
55 Harrisonia abyssinica
56 Lannea rivae
57 Maerua angolensis
58 Maerua oecumbens
59 Maerua denhardtiorum
60 Maytenus putterlickioides
61 Melia volkensii
62 Opilia campestris
3 Papilionaceae
2 Euphorbieceee
2 Capparidaceae
2 Capparidaceae
2 Mimosaceae
2 Rosaceae
2 Anaoardiaceae
2 Sterculiaceae
2 Loganiaceae
1Mimosaceae
1Mimosaceae
1Mimosaceae
1 Capparidaceae
1 Capparidaceae
1 Combreteceee
1Butsereceee
1Euphorbiaceae
1Mimosaceae
1E=benaceF;3e
1 f.;1oraceae
1Rutaceae
1Anacardiaceae
1 Capparidacea,e
1 Capparidaceae
1 Capparidaceae
1 Celastraceae
1Meliaceae
1 Opiliaceae
129
29 Dombeya burgessiae 3 Sterculiaceae 63 Saba comorensis 1Apocynaceae
30 Pappea capensis 3 Sapindaceae 64 Synadenium compactum 1 (::uphorbiaceae
31 Zentnozylum chalybeum 3 Rutaceae 65 Terminalia spinosa 1 Combretaceae
32 Acacia gerrardii 2 Mimosaceae 66 Uvaria scheffleri 1Annonanaceae
33 Balanites eagyptiaca 2 Balanitaceae 67 Vangueria infausta 1 Rubiaceae
34 Cassia abbreviate 2 Caesalpiniaceae
* The count = The number of times a species occurs in all points within all transects
130
Appendix 5: Relative values for plants in Kibwezi forest (Makueni district)
Relative Relative Relative Importance
Species density dominance frquency value Rank
Commiphora baluencis 14.13 18.5 14.13 46.77 1
Combretum schumannii 11.96 3.4 11.96 27.31 2
Acacia tortilis 6.52 14.08 6.52 27.12 3
Diospyros usambarensis 11.96 0.Q1 11.96 24.53 4
Balanites eagyptiaca 1.09 18.83 1.09 21 5
Commiphora habessinica 6.52 2.68 6.52 15.72 6
Pappea capensis 5.43 3.76 5.43 14.62 7
Terminalia brownii 2.17 8.4 2.17 12.75 8
Lannea schweinfurthii 3.26 5.96 3.26 12.48 9
Steganotaenia araliacea 5.43 1.35 5.43 12.22 10
Croton dichogamus 5.43 0.~5 5.43 11.72 11
Ficus thonningii 2.17 4.$4 2.17 9.29 12
Dalbergia melanoxylon 3.26 2.3 3.26 8.83 13
Dombeya burgessiae 3.26 O.~5 3.26 7.47 14
Combretum molle 3.26 0.9 3.26 6.62 15
Prunus Africana 2.17 2.06 2.17 6.4 16
Zanthoxylum chalybeum 2.17 1.39 2.17 5.74 17
Euphorbia divinorum 2.17 0.~7 2.17 5.22 18
Acacia melfifera 2.17 0.45 2.17 4.79 19
Olea Africana 2.17 0.~1 2.17 4.56 20
Acacia nilotica 1.09 2.~6 1.09 4.44 21
Boscia coriacea 1.09 1.47 1.09 3.64 22
Cadaba farinose 1.09 1.0.9 1.09 3.26 23
Croton megalocarpus 1.09 0.81 1.09 2.99 24
Albizia anthelmintica 1.09 0.64 1.09 2.82 25
Haplocoelum foliolosum 1.09 0.64 1.09 2.82 25
Acacia seyal 1.09 0.32 1.09 2.5 26
Hymenodictyon parvifolium
Premna rasinosa
Combretum collinum
Grewia bicolor
Ochna ovata
Cordia monoica
No of individual species
Dominance of all species
Frequency of all species
1.09
1.09
1.09
0.29
0.23
0.2
131
1.09
1.09
1.09
2.46
2.41
2.37
1.09
1.09
1.09
100
92
701.99
92
0.13
0.12
0.11
100
1.09
1.09
1.09
100
2.3
2.29
2.29
Relative density = (No. of individuals ofa species I Total No. of individuals) x 100
Relative dominance = (Dominance of a species I Dominance of all species) x 100
Relative frequency = (Frequency of a species I Frequency of all species) x 100
27
28
29
30
31
31
132
Appendix 6: Relative values for plants in Nuu forest hill (Mwingi district)
Relative Relative Relative
Species Frequency density dominance frequency I. Value Rank
Commiphora baluensis 10 12.5 23.7 12.5 48.70 1
Alizia anthelmiintica 9 11.25 23.41 11.25 45.91 2
Acacia Senegal 8 10 12.5 10 32.5 3
Acacia seyal 6 7.5 7.05 7.5 22.05 4
Craibia zimmermannii 5 6.25 6.75 6.25 19.25 5
Acacia iotillis 4 5 6.41 5 16.41 6
Ba/anites aegyptiaca 4 5 6.14 5 16.14 7
Euphorbia scheff/eri 3 3.75 2.99 3.75 10.49 8
Boscia angustifolia 3 3.75 2.44 3.75 9.94 9
Crabia brownie 3 3.75 2.44 3.75 9.94 10
Terminalia brownie 2 2.5 1.53 2.5 6.53 11
A/bizia gummifera 2 2.5 0.97 2.5 5.97 12
Cassis abbreviate 2 2.5 0.64 2.5 5.74 13
Combretum apicu/atum 2 2.5 0.62 2.5 5.62 14
Entada leptoschya 2 2.5 0.47 2.5 5.47 15
Grewia bicctor 2 2.5 0.37 2.5 5.37 16
Commiphora africana 1 1.25 0.37 1.25 2.87 17
Steganotaenia araliacea 1 1.25 0.27 1.25 2.77 18
Combretum collinum 1 1.25 0.21 1.25 2.71 19
Acacia mellifera 1 1.25 0.15 1.25 2.65 20
Strychnos henningsii 1 1.25 0.15 1.25 2.65 21
Balanites glabra 1 1.25 0.07 1.25 2.57 22
Commiphora rostrata 1 1.25 0.07 1.25 2.57 23
Hap/ocoe/um toliotosum 1 1.25 0.06 1.25 2.56 24
Vitex doniana 1 1.25 0.05 1.25 2.55 25
Ximenia Americana 1 1.25 0.04 1.25 2.54 ' 26
Ochna ovata 1 1.25 0.1 1.25 2.51 27
Boscia spp 1 1.25 0.1 1.25 2.51 28
Me/ia volkensii 1 1.25 0.1 1.25 2.5 29
Total 80 100 100 100
133
Appendix 7: Relative values for plants in Endau forest (Kitui district)
Relative Relative Relative Importance
Species Density Density Dominance dominance frequency value Rank
Combretum schumannii 11 9.48 4.63 0.08 9.48 19.04 1
Terminalia brownii 10 8.62 5.93 0.10 8.62 17.34 2
Acacia drepanolobium 1 0.86 854.68 14.00 0.86 15.72 3
Adansonia digitata 1 0.86 688.12 11.27 0.86 12.99 4
Haplocoelum foliolosum 7 6.03 10.55 0.17 6.03 12.24 5
Ochna ovata 7 6.03 6.34 0.10 6.03 12.17 6 /-,I
Tamarindus indica 6 5.17 11.91 0.20 5.17 10.54 7 •
Chroton dichogamus 1 0.86 469.45 7.69 0.86 9.41 8 ••Commiphora africana 1 0.86 465.94 7.63 0.86 9.35 9
Spirostachys venenifera 5 4.31 16.49 0.27 4.31 8.89 10
Teclea simplicifolia 5 4.31 13.00 0.21 4.31 8.83 11
Combretum collinum 4 3.45 38.49 0.63 3.45 7.53 12
Commiphora habessinica 4 3.45 37.09 0.61 3.45 7.50 13
Entada leptostachya 1 0.86 333.82 5.47 0.86 7.19 14
Strychnos decussata 4 3.45 17.60 0.29 3.45 7.18 15
Strychnos henningsii 4 3.45 17.40 0.28 3.45 7.18 16
Euphorbia divinorum 1 0.86 325.28 5.33 0.86 7.05 17
Terminalia prunioides 1 0.86 316.30 5.18 0.86 6.90 18
Acacia mellifera 2 1.72 183.65 3.01 1.72 6.46 19
Acacia nilotica 3 2.59 75.09 1.23 2.59 6.40 20
Boscia angustifo/ia 3 2.59 60.90 1.00 2.59 6.17 21
Clerodendrum myricoides 1 0.86 267.21 4.38 0.86 6.10 22
Combretum constrictum 3 2.59 54.01 0.88 2.59 6.06 23
Commiphora baluensis 3 2.59 53.41 0.87 2.59 6.05 24
Diospyros cornii 3 2.59 51.92 0.85 2.59 6.02 25
Acacia tortilis 2 1.72 155.13 2.54 1.72 5.99 26
134
Grewia bicolor 3 2.59 49.08 0.80 2.59 5.98 27
Albizia amara 3 2.59 45.55 0.75 2.59 5.92 28
Albizia anthelmintica 2 1.72 149.18 2.44 1.72 5.89 29
Cassia abbreviata 2 1.72 140.49 2.30 1.72 5.75 30
Dalbergia melanoxylon 2 1.72 127.31 2.08 1.72 5.53 31
Sclerocarya birrea 1 0.86 213.01 3.49 0.86 5.21 32
Lonchocarpus eriocalyx 2 1.72 107.18 1.76 1.72 5.20 33
Newtonia hildebrandii 2 1.72 94.95 1.55 1.72 5.00 34
Steganotaenia araliacea 1 0.86 193.19 3.16 0.86 4.89 35
Synadenium compactum 1 0.86 190.57 3.12 0.86 4.84 36
Zanthoxylum chalybeum 1 0.86 184.18 3.02 0.86 4.74 37
Terminalia prunioides 2 1.72 77.89 1.28 1.72 4.72 38
Total 116 100.00 6106.90 100.00 100.00 38
135
Appendix 8: Herbalist Questionnaire
Date .
Evaluation of Indigenous Medicinal Plants and Setting Priorities for their
Domestication in Ukambani Districts in Kenya
Herbalist (practitioner) interview schedule No .
Name of herbalist Sex 1 (M) 2 (F)
District. . r ••••••• Division Location Sublocation .
Village Religion .
1. Which age category (1) 10-20 (2) 21-30 (3) 31-40 (4) 41-50 (5) 51-60 (6) 60-
70 (7) 71-80 (8) 81-90
2. Marital-status (IjMarried (2) Divorced (3) Widowed ... (4) Widower
3. Education level (1) No schooling (2) Primary education
education (6) College
(4) Secondary
4. How long (in years) have you been in the herbal medicinal practice?
(1) 0-5 (2) 6-10 (3) 11-15 (4) 16-20 (5) 21 25 (6) 26-30 (7) 31-35 (8) 36 40
(9) 4~-45 (10) 46-50 (11) 51-55 (12) 56-60 (13) 61-70
5. From where did you learn or acquire the knowledge in this field?
(1) From Father (2) From mother (3) From Grandfather (4) From
Grandmother (5) From Friends/herbalists (4) from school (5)
Inherent/vision (6) other (specify)
6. How do you acquire the materia1s for treatment?
(1) Collect myself (2) Buy (3) Send collectors (4) From farmers (5) Other
(specify)
7. Are you training anybody to continue with the medicinal practice once you
retire? (1) Y (2)N
8. If yes, who are you training (1) Son (2) Daughter (3) Nephew (4) Niece (5)
Grand son (6) Other
9. Whichare the most popular plants and parts that you use as medicinal plants?
Species
.. - - Plant part ,. . Preparation method - - SourceSpecies
Local Botanical Root, bark, Boiling, Grinding, Eaten State forest, farms,
name name Leaves, fruit, raw, Soaking, Burning Riverine, other
flower etc. countries (specify)
136
10. What tools do you use in medicinal plant harvesting? (1) Jembe (2) Panga
(3) Axe {4) Knife (5) Mattock (6) Other - specify
11. How do you harvest the plant roots (1) By uprooting the plant (2) Cutting a
few roots (3) Cutting root tips (4) By debarking all the roots (5) By debarking
a few roots
12. How do you harvest the bark (1) Vertical bark stripping (2) Ringing the plant
(3) By removing separate patches (spots)
13. What is the common method of preparing the herbal medicine?
(1) Eaten raw (2) Soaking (3) Boiling (4) Burning (5) Grinding/pounding
(6) Heating (7) Frying
14. How has been the availability of the above plants over the last 5 years varied?
S ecies Botanicalname Increased Decreased Same Reason
15. What are the feasible and preferred solutions or alternatives with respect to
acquisition of the above plants? (1) Planting the plants (2) buying synthetic
medicines (3) collect from other areas.
16. What determines the amount of medicines for yout storage?
Localname Botanicalname Cost Demand Availability Diseaseoccurrence
17. In what dosages are the plants mainly used?
Localname Botanicalname PlantPart ClientA e
18. How do you store them? (1) Powder in containers (2) Natural state in a room.
(3) Other (specify)
19. For how long do you store the plants? (1) Few days (2) Few weeks (3) Few
months (4) Few years (5) many years
20. Do the plants loose the active ingredient after sometime while in storage?
(1)Y (2)N (3)Don't know
21. IfY, which species?
Localname Botanicalname
137
22. Are there other species, which are threatened? (1) Y (2) N. If Y, which are
they?
Local name Botanical name Cause(s) of threats (Natural distribution,
overexploitation, climate etc
23. What are the major causes of destruction of the medicinal plants?
(1) Wood carving (2) Fuel wood use (3) Timber harvesting (4) Fire
occurrence (5) Settlement
24. Have you planted any medicinal plants? (1) Y (2) N.
25. If yes,which species?I Local name '-B-O-taru-·-ca-I-n-am-e---I_R_e_a_so_n _
26. What other plans do you have to conserve these medicinal plants? (1) Contract
people to plant (2) pay for conservation (3) create more awareness. Please
explain.
27. As a herbalist, do you use "modem" medicines or go to hospital? (1) Y (2)
N. If yes, under what circumstances?
Markets Assessment
28.Which medicinal plants have the highest demand and price?
Local name Botanical (1) Demand Unit sold (g, Cost per Determinate to
name (2) High kg, spoons, unit cost
(3) Moderate glass, cups, (Kshs) (1) Availability
(4) Low Piece (vol.) (2) Disease type
(3) Client status
29.Have the prices been changing with time over the last 5 years? (1) Y (2) N.
30.What .are the causes of the price fluctuations? (1) Poor supp1y and
unavailability (2) Cost of processing (3) High demand (4) Other (specify)?
31. Which times of the year are these medicinal plants in high demand?- - . - .- .- - - ,. --, - Demand time (dry.Rainy, .. - 'Typ-eof DIsease treatedLocal name Botanical
name Year round)
32. Do Y{)U pack medicines for sale? (1) Y (2)N.lfY, please explain.
138
33.Why do customers come to you instead of going to Government or private
clinics? (1) Effectiveness (2) Low cost (3) Short distance (4) Confidentiality
(5) Convenience (6) other (specify)
34. Are there external markets as well as international markets? (1) Y (2) N.
Explain. . .
35. Which are the main age groups of your main customers?
(1) 1-15 (2) 15-25 (3) 26-35 (4) 36-45 (5) 46- 55 (6) 56-65 (7) 66-75 (8) 66-
85
36. What is the level of education for your customers?
(1) Illiterate (2) Literate
37. What are the main customers in terms of gender (Sex)? Gender: (1) Male),
(2) Female) (3) Equal
38. What would you do if common and popular medicinal plants were no longer
available?
• (1) Settle for other alternative medicinal plants
• (2) Look elsewhere for synthetic medicines
• (3) Not sure
139
Appendix 9: Respondents (herbalist's customers) questionnaire
Date .
Evaluation of Indigenous Medicinal Plants and Setting Priorities for their
Domestication in Ukambani Districts in Kenya
Patients Interview Schedule No .
Name , Sex (1) M (2) F .
District. Division Location .
Sub location Village /Town .
l.Marital status: (1) Married (2) Single (3) Single parent (4) Widow (5)
Widower
2.Age: (1) Under 20 (2) 21-30 (3) 31-40 (4) 41-50 (5) 51-60 (6) 61-70 (7)
71-80 (8) 81-90 (9) 91-100 (10) 101-110
3.What is your religion? .
4. At what category did you lastleave school? (1) No schooling (2) Primary
education (3) Secondary education (4) DiplomalDegree
5. What is you occupation?
(1). Unemployed (2). Self employed (3). 'Employed full time (4). Other
Attitude
6. Have you (or any member of your family) ever used Medicinal plants for treatment
(l)Y (2) N
7. Do you {ill any member of your family) visit herbalists for treatment (1) Y (2) N
8. How many times per month do you visit the herbalist? (1) Once a month (2)
Twice (3) 3-5 times (4) 6-8 times (5) Over 10 times
9.What has been the trend in traditional treatment from herbalist over the last 5-15
years?
(1) Frequency increased
(2) Frequency decreased
(3) No change
10. What means of transport do you use while going to the herbalist?
(1). Walk. (2). Eus. (3). Drive. (4). Taxi
140
11. If your answer is (1), how long do you take to reach the herbalist?
(1). Less than 15 Mines. (2). 15-30 Mins. (3).30-60 Mins.
(4) Over one hour
12. Do you ever visit Government Hospitals and Clinics? (1) Y. (2). N. Please
explain the circumstances, which make you visit the government
clinic .
13. What is your opinion on the cost of treatment at herbal clinic? (1). Herbalist
is cheaper (2).Cost is the same. (3) Herbalist is more expensive
14. Assuming the cost of treatment of the herbalist and government clinics were
the same, which one would you prefer for your treatment?
(1). Herbalist. (2). Clinic. (3). Depends on the type of disease.
15. Do you think we will need more herbalists in the future?
(1). Mme. (2). Less. (3). Same
16. If the Government clinics were closer to you, would you still rely on the
herbalist? medicine more or less? (1) More (2) Less (3) Same as before (4)
Depends on treatment
17. Have you ever experienced some negative effects after taking herbal
medicine? (1) Y (2) N
18. Have you ever planted any common medicinal plant? (1) Y (2). N
19. If medicinal plants/herbs were introduced for planting (cultivation) will you
be Willing to participate in the planting at your own farm? (1) Y (2) N
20. Will you be willing to be treated with cultivated p1ants? (I)Y (2). N
21. If your answer in question 20 is N, please give reasons
22. Would you like the traditional medicines to be packed in a more scientific or
modern way? (1) Y (2) N (3). Doesn't matter.
23. How do you view the cost of herbal drugs to your own economic status?
(1). Sertisfied. (2). Not sertisfied. (3). I have no choice
24. Are there some negative effects you have ever experienced after taking herbal
medicine? (1) Y (2) N (3) Do not know.
141
Appendix 10: Medicinal plant Harvesters questionnaire
Date .
Evaluation of Indigenous Medicinal Plants and Setting Priorities for their
Domestication in Ukambani Districts in Kenya
Harvester (Gatherers) Interview Schedule. No .
Name of harvester. Sex 1(M) .2(F)
District Division Location Sublocation .
Village Religion .
1. Age (1) Under 20 (2)21-30 (3)31-40 (4)41-50 (5)51-60(6)61-70(7)71-80
2. Marital status (1) Married (2) Divorced (3) Widowed (4) Widower
3. Education level (1) Literate (2) Illiterate
4. For how long (years) have you been involved in collection of medicinal plants?
(1) 1-5 (2) 6-10 (3) 11-15 (4) 16-20 (5) 20-25 (6) 26-30 (7) 31-35 (8) 36-40
(9) 41-46
3. What percentage of your time for a week do you spend in this business of
medicinal plant Collection? (1) All my time (2). Half of my time. (3). Less than
half of my time
6. How did you get in to this practice? (Please explain) .
7. For who do you collect the medicinal plants?
(1) Herbalist (2) For export (3) Local brew making (4) My own herbal use (5)
other
8. What distances did you cover 5 years ago? .
9. What distances do you cover now? .
10. Which are the most popular plant species that are mainly used and you are
Involved in their collection? (Please tick the correct box).
Local name Botanical name Level of popularity
Most popular I Moderate I Low
I I
11. Where do you collect the Medicinal plants?
(1) Forest areas (2) Farms (3) Other countries (4) Other (specify)
12. Are there some plants that have totally disappeared? (1) Y (2) N
142
13. If yes, which ones and what illness did they treat?
Local name Botanical name Where last found Disease treated
14. Do you have your own medicinal garden? (1) Y (2) N
15. Have the sales or collection decreased or increased over the last 5 years?
Local name Botanical name Part Increased Decreased Same
16. What are the reasons for the changes observed in question 15? Please tick
(1) High demand (2) Disease increase (5) other
17. Which times of the year are the medicinal plants most available?
Local name Botanical name All year Rainy season Dry season
18. Which medicinal plants are you willing to plant in your own farm?I Local name I Botanical name I-R-e-a-so-n------
19. Are you willing to buy the medicinal plants if planted by farmers/ other
herbalists? U)Y (2) N.
Usage
21. How long can you keep or store the medicinal plants parts before they lose
their healing properties?
Local name Botanical name Store for weeks
22. Are there other costs involved in the activities of collecting the medicinal
plants? (1) Y (2) N, IfY, please explain and estimate the
23. Are there specific plants asked by the customers? (1) Y (2) N. If Y which
h ?are t ey;
Local name Botanical name Known customers Other
customers
24. Where do most of the clients come from?
(1) Towns (2) within District (2) within the province (3) Outside the
province (4) other countries.
25. What plans do you have to ensure the supply is sustained in the future? (1)
Planting (2) Pay for conservation (3) Other, explain
143
26. Who helps you in this business? (1) No body (2) My wife (3) My children (4)
Oldest Son (5) Employ people
Prices
27. What are your selling prices for the most expensive medicinal plants that you
sell?
Local name Botanical name Part sold (root, leaf, bark, Unit (g, kg, Unit price
seed etc Vol, piece.
28. What are the main constraints in your medicinal harvesting activities? Please
tick.
Few customers Little knowled e
29. What opportunities do you encounter in your medicinal plant harvesting?
(1) By walking, I meet many other customers
(2) Travelling in vehicles enables many customers to be reached easily
144
Appendix 11: Transect walk data sheet.
EV ALUA TION OF INDIGENOUS MEDICINAL PLANTS AND SETTING
PRIORITIES FOR THEIR DOMESTICATION IN UKAMBANI DISTRICTS OF
KENYA
Date Altitude Bearing .
District Division Location .
Transect No Quadrat Point No Area name .
(a) Herbs and seedlings within lxlm
Local name Botanical name Observation
(b) Saplings within 4x4m
Local name Botanical name Observation
(c) Plants within 1Oxl Om
Local name Botanical name Observation
(d) Nearest tree in each quadrat
Distance DBH - - --Quadrat Local tree Botanical Family Height
No. name name (m) (em) (m)
1
2
3 - -- -- -4
Observations
Quadrat 1
Quadrat 2
Quadrat 3
Quadrat 4
•••• 06_ .•.••••_ .••• ~ •.•..•.• •. •