\\
ASSESSMENT OF ENERGY ALTERNATIVES FOR RURAL
MICROENTERPRISE DEVELOPMENT AND ENVIRONMENTAL
PROTECTION IN THE AGRO-ECOLOGICAL ZONES OF KILIFI
DISTRICT I
JUMA KHAMIS 'C"lULLLTJlED(Bsc. Agriculture)
ENVIRONMENTAL PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT
Project Submitted in partial fulfilment for the Degree of Masters of
Environmental Planning and Management in the School of Environmental Studies
Kenyatta University
October 2009
Ahmed, ]uma Khamis
Assessment of energy
alternatives for
111111111111111111_
2011/353105
KENVATTA UNIVEf· 'TY ~IBRAR'
DECLARATIONS
This project is my original work and has not been presented for a degree in any other University.
Signature ....
~'i ac~ rsE?tt.. Q...OO;. ])ate .
Reg No. N50/10306/2007
We confirm that the work reported in this project was canied out by the candidate under our
supervision.
Supervisors:
Madam Carolyne Getao, Kenyatta University
Signature m(Ji\.j;j ~ u u .. Date ..... .:2.. Jr? ..I.;lD.O~ .....
~~~~ Ken~~~v~~ Date u •• ~~.I1?l.~.'1 .
. J
DEDICATIONS
To my late father Ahmed Mohamed Juma for teaching us (his children), the
importance of values and knowledge in all our pursuits and interactions and to all
members of my family for their patience, support and encouragement during the
study.
11
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I sincerely thank the following people without whose help this project would not have
- <
been completed. First, Ms Carolyne M. Getao and Dr Fuchaka Waswa who provided
supervision and guidance during the project. Dr. Abraham Ndung'u, Dr Simon
Onywere and Professor Shem Manohar who through their respective course lectures
and discussions provided me with the basis and impetus for this inquiry. The
Kilifi/Kaloleni district and Coast province staff of the Ministries of Agriculture,
Livestock Education and staff at KARl Mtwapa who gave me useful information and
secondary data on different issues relevant to the project.
My sincere thanks also go to Professor David C. Sperling who apart from providing
valuable suggestions and guidance for this study, he has also been a great source of
encouragement during my academic pursuits in general.
I want to also thank most sincerely the residents of Bamba, Jibana, Kilifi
TownshiplTezo locations who allowed me access to their homes and provided me with
very useful information. Mzee Zahoro Mwaruwa and Mzee John Katana were
particularly resourceful in providing information related to how local institution
influence use and choice of energy sources. Finally, I sincerely thank all those who in
one way or another helped in the conceptualisation and the execution ofthis study.
111
ABSTRACT
Energy, specifically energy services affects social, econormc, and environmental
aspects of development such as livelihoods; agricultural productivity, health, education,
and gender-related issues. Kilifi district in the Coast region of Kenya has very high
poverty. prevalence (70%).. There is dependence on solid biomass for energy and
traditional energy end-use technologies. Hence, appropriate energy services for
microenterprise development are lacking. This increases the poverty situation and
environmental degradation. A household survey, focus group discussions and
interviews were used to assess the relative importance of rural micro-enterprises current
energy choices, the influence of agro-ecological factors on current energy choices and
the environmental impacts of current energy use. The study also determined sustainable
energy alternatives for the agro ecological of Kilifi district. The study findings show
currently, traditional use of biomass and human energy mainly from women are the
main sources of energy for micro-enterprise. activities. These findings also show that,
agro ecological factors influence both the type and quality of energy sources and
microenterprise. Despite this link it appears that, there is no model which uses
ecological concepts and principles-to assist u;. designingvdeveloping, and managing
sustainable rural renewable energy systems. Rural microenterprise existing energy use
impact on the ecological stability and ecosystem services in Kilifi district and beyond
which threatens current and future livelihoods. This also undermines human
development and well being especially among women. Energy alternatives exists across
all agro ecological zones in the district that can offer energy services for
microenterprise development and environmental protection but are not being fully
utilised. According to this study the district can have between 80.0 billion and 80.1
billion kWh per year of electricity if 10% of its current bioenergy potential is converted
to electricity. The study recommends further research on agro ecological approach to
sustainable rural communities' renewable energy systems. Development of a Predictive
Ecosystem Mapping (PEM) model for Kilifi district so as to improve natural capital
(increased soil water retention hence high water table and increased agro-biodiversity).
IV
AEZ
CIR
DEM
FAO
GEF
GIS
GVEP
lIDI
lIDR
KIHBS
KNBS
LPG
ME
MDG
ME
PEM
TOPB
TORA-
UNDP
UNEP
WDR
WEC
ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS
Agro Ecological Zone
Crop Independent Residue
Digital Elevation Model
Food and Agriculture Organisation
Global Environment Fund
Geographic Information Systems
Global Village Energy Project
Human Development Index
Human Development Report
Kenya Integrated Household Survey
Kenya National Bureau of Statistics
Liquefied Petroleum Gas
Micro enterprise
Millennium Development Goal
Microenterprise
Predictive Ecological Model
Theory of Planned Behaviour
Theory of Reasoned Action
United Nation development Program
United Nations Environmental Program
World Development Report
World Energy Council
v
TABLE OF CONTENTS
DECLARA TIONS ..................................................................................................•.... I
DEDICATIONS· : n
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT m
·v, ."." .ABSTRACT ~.~':.~:'~~.'.~.~.~. : ., ~ IV
ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS V
TABLE OF CONTENTS VI
LIST OF TABLES vm
1 INTRODUCTION .......•....................................................................................... 1
1.1 BACKGROUND TO TIffi STIJDY 1
1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT AND JUSTIFICATION .4
1.3 RESEARCH QUESTIONS 5
1.4 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES 5
1.5 RESEARCH PREMISES 6
1.6 SIGNIFICANCE OF lHIS RESEARCH 6
1.7 JUSTIFICATION OF lHIS RESEARCH 6
1.8 1HEoRETICAIlCONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK 7
1.9 1HE SCOPE OF 11ffi STIJDY ~ : : .' 9
2 LITERATURE REVlEW 1S
3 METHODOLOGY 24
3.1 RESEARCH DESIGN 24
3.2 SAMPLE DESIGN 24
3.3 DATA COLLECTION 24
3.4 DATA ANALYSIS 25
4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 26
4.1 1HE RELATIVE IMPORTANCE OF CURRENT ENERGY CHOICES FOR RURAL
MICROENTERPRISE 26
4.1.1 Sources of cash income 26
4.1.2 Types of microenterprise 27
4.1.3 Current energy choices 29
4.2 THE INFLUENCE OF AGRO-ECOLOGICAL FACTORS ON RURAL MICROENTERPRISES .
CURRENT ENERGY CHOICES IN 11ffi AGRO-ECOLOGICAL ZONES OF THE DISTRICT. 32
VI
4.2.1 The Influence.of Agroecological Factors on rural micro enterprise current
biomass energy choices 32
4.2.2 The Influence of Agro Ecological Factors on Rural Microenterprises
Current Human Energy Choices , 48
4.3 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF THE EXISTING RURAL MICROENlERPRISE ENERGY
CHOICE IN THE AGRO-ECOLOGICAL ZONES OF THE DISTRICT 52
4.3.1 The Ecological impacts of the current energy choices 52
4.3.2 The Economic Impacts of'the current energy choices ' :.55
4.3.3 Socio cultural impacts of the current energy choices 58
4.4 POTENTIAL SUSTAINABLE ENERGY ALTERNATIVES FORMICROENlERPRISE
DEVELOPMENT IN DIFFERENT AGRO ECOLOQICAL ZONES 61
4.4.1 Selected micro enterprises for the different agro ecological zones, their
corresponding energy services and end-use energy required 61
4.4.2 Potential Bio energy Alternatives and end-Use Technology for the different
Agro ecological zones ofKilifi district 64
5 SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ...............•.•.... 81
5.1 SUMMARY OF FINDINGS ........•..................................................................... , 81
5.2 CONCLUSIONS 82
5.3 RECOMMENDATIONS 83
REFERENCES .........................•......................................•...............................•......... 85
APPENDICES .. .,o1ll! •• a •••••••• co •• •••••• a •••••••••••••• e •••••••••••••• _ ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 90
Vll
..LIST OF TABLES
Table 1-1 Demography 12
Table 4-1 So{u-ceof household income by Agro ecological zone 26
Table 4-2 Types of on-farm micro enterprise by Agro ecological zone 28
Table 4-3 Types of off-farm micro enterprise by Agro ecological zone 28
Table 4-4 Use of different energy source across the agro ecological zones 29
Table 4-5 Type of biomass byagro ecological zones and percentage 30
Table 4-6 Access to electricity by agro ecological zone an percentage 30
Table 4-7 Ranking of gender-age energy contribution by Agro ecological zones 31
Table 4-8: Climatic seasonality at selected stations in Kilifi district.. 35
Table 4-9 Population 1969-2030 byagro ecological zone or Administrative Unit 37
Table 4-10 Continuation of Table 4-9 37
Table 4-11 Population Density by Agro ecological zone 37
Table 4-12 Energy Sources Prices by Agro Ecological zone by Selling Units 39
Table 4-13 Location of the micro enterprise activities by agro ecological zones 39
Table 4-14 Challenges from Current Energy Use by AEZ and percentage .47
Table 4-15Continuation of table 12 .47
Table 4-16 Respondents by Agro ecological zone, gender and age group 51
Table 4-17 Raw and processed products of the cashew tree and their uses 57
Table 4-18 Selected micro enterprise for agro ecological zones CL3 and CL4 energy
services and end use energy 62
Table 4-19 Selected micro enterprise for CL5 and CL6, energy services and end use
energy 63
Table 4-20 Energy from Agro-residues in Kilifi district (energy units in 106Mkcal) 66
Table 4-21 Continuation of Table 20 67
Table 4-22 Bioenergy potential from forest sources in Kilifi district.. 68
Table 4-23 Dung Yield by livestock type, Biogas Yield and Energy Equivalents for
Kilifi district 70
Table 4-24 Continuation of Table 23 71
Vlll
Table 4-25 Biodiesel from Coconut (Cocos nucifera) in Kilifi district : ..7;3"
Table 4-26 Continuation of Table 24 73
Table 4-27 Bio energy potential of Kilifi district from selected sources Bio energy ..... 74
<
Table 4-28 Table 6: Calorific Values of some Fuel wood species 77
Table 4-29 Energy services for selected micro enterprise for a 60 household village 80
IX
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1-1The Conceptual framework energy and micro enterprise development 8
Figure 1-2 Kilifi District and Study Administrative Location : - 10
Source: ALMP 2007 Figure 1-3: Kilifi district Agro-ecological zones ll
Figure 4-1 'Types of Micro-enterprise by Agro ecological zone 27
Figure 4-2 Use of human energy by the agro ecological zone 31
Figure 4-3 Topography Influence on distribution of ecosystems CL5 33
Figure 4-4 Long term annual rainfall distribution by agro ecological zone 34
Figure 4-5 Natural Vegetation Replaced by Agricultural crops CL3 34
Figure 4-6 Use of cashew nut shell as fuel for cashew nut processing microenterprise.36
Figure 4-7 charcoal selling in CL5 livestock millet zone 38
Figure 4-8 Separate household energy use from that for Microenterprise activities .40
Figure 4-9Advantages of the current energy sources .46
Figure 4-10 Household maize self sufficiency and labour demands by AEZ .49
Figure 4-13 Water resources in CL3 Coconut cassava zone 53
Figure 4-14 Water resource in CI5 Livestock millet zone 53
Figure 4-15 Damage to infrastructure Kombeni river Mazera/Kaloleni Road 2006 the
same river in dry season 54
Figure 4-16 Charcoal selling in the agro ecological zone CL5 and impact of Acacia 55
Figure 4-17 Acacia trees in protected area CL5 55
Figure 4-12 Sex Ratio by Agro ecological zone or admin 60
Figure 4-18 Coconut shell, husk and frond 65
Figure 4-19 Coconut husks a potential bioenergy outside a homestead in CL4 66
Figure 4-20 TEAM digester with six acidification reactors and a UASB unit.. 69
Figure 4-21 Rhinoceros beetles (Oryctes rhinoceros) damage on coconut palms 73
Figure 4-22 Moringa tree and pods 74
Figure 4-23 Green Moringa seedpods a vegetable at Mackinnon Market in Mombasa 75
Figure 4-24 Improved cooking stove 78
x
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Backgroundto the study
Energy is central to sustainable development and poverty reduction efforts. Energy is
not required on its own but for what it can do i.e. energy services. Energy services, the
capability derived from energy carriers affects social, economic, and environmental
aspects of development including, livelihoods, access to water, agricultural
productivity, health, population levels, education, and gender-related issues. In addition,
availability of modem energy sources to low income groups form a very useful means
of reducing poverty, improving social equality, and human development (Goldemberg
et aI1995).
Three out of four people in the developing countries live in the rural areas and majority
are poor. These rural poor are part of 2.1 billion people in the world who live on less
than $ 2 a day and 880 million survive on less than $ 1 a day (WDR 2008). The
resources that the rural poor depend on for their livelihoods are determined by their
agro-ecological situation. These include food, water, shelter and energy. The energy
depended upon by the poor include solar energy (for drying crops, cloths e.t.c.) and
solid biomass i.e. charcoal, firewood, cow dung and agricultural residues. The use of
biomass fuel and lack of access to modern energy sources has negative impacts on-the
poor's income, health and the bio physical environment.
"It is simply unacceptable that such widespread energy deprivation, with its
consequences for nutrition, health, education, welfare and environment, should
continue into the next millennium" (WECIF AO 1999)
Poverty also has implications on human rights such as the right to life and to physical
integrity as enshrined in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, article 3 and the
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, article 6. The lives and physical
well-being of people living in extreme poverty are continuously threatened by lack of
food, risk of disease, hazardous work and precarious living conditions. They experience
1
violence of all types, including attacks, harassment, intimidation, severe discrimination
and, in some cases, even death threats. Since the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in
1992 it is increasingly recognised that, improving access to reliable energy of the right,
quantity and quality to the poor of the world is essential for promoting their human
development, well being and tackling the increasing environmental degradation (Rath et
al,2005).
The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) is currently the main driver of sustainable
human development efforts. MDGs include eradication of extreme poverty and hunger,
achievement of universal primary education, gender equality plus women
empowerment, reduced child mortality, maternal health, and environmental
sustainability (UNI?P 2007). None of the MDGs can be met without major
improvement in the quality and quantity of energy services in the developing countries
(Ibid, 2007).
Poverty prevalence in Kenya is 56% and compares very poorly with some ofthe leading
countries in the world with respect to other development indicators (HDR 2006). For
example World GDP at purchasing power parity is $10,000 while Kenya's is $ 1240
(HDR 2006). More than 80% of the people in the Coast Province of Kenya live in rural
areas and majority of them are poor. According to UNDP in its 2006 Human
Development Report (HDR) the Coast province ranks 2nd last with poverty incidence of
62%. The Province's life expectancy of 55.1 years is the 3rd lowest among the provinces
reviewed. Primary school enrolment was 90.4% and secondary school 19.3% both of
which are below national averages. Kilifi district is found in the Coast Province whose
poverty situation and the general state of human development is far worse in relation to
the Province and the country in general.
Kilifi district has about 70% poverty incidence one of the highest in the country. (CBS
2003). 45% of the poor are male and 55 % are female (Ibid 2005). Ganze the poorest
constituency in the country with poverty prevalence of 84% is found in the district
(CBS 2005). Kilifi continues to rely on food and non-food assistance during dry spells
2
to prevent loss of human lives. The most vulnerable persons are those who practice
marginal farming, the disabled (10%), the AIDS orphans and the female-headed
households-(15.8%) (Ibid 2005). In the dist~ict literacy levels are very low at 63% with
women being the worst affected (GoK 2005). High illiteracy among the women at
76.9% compared to 35% among men means the women have less access toeconomic .
opportunities and consequently lower incomes and higher levels of vulnerability to food
insecurity and other environmental shocks and stresses.
The overarching theme of MDGs is poverty reduction and within that education and
health (UNDP 2007). Therefore, improving incomes is necessary in order to promote
the MDGs and enhance the human development situation in Kilifi district. Given that
Kenya's industrial base cannot absorb in gainful employment, more than twenty-percent
of its employable people (King, 2005; 428~430),micro-enterprise will continue to be a
source of livelihood for the poor rural households in Kilifi district.
Micro-enterprise undertaken by rural communities along the Kenya coast can be
categorised into on farm and off farm activities. Off- farm MEs include grain and .
vegetable production, animal husbandry (poultry, goat, bee keeping e.t.c.). The off farm
consist of agro based MEs such as food processing e.g. bakeries, honey processing,
dairy processing, edible oil processing (e.g. coconut oil), cashew nut processing, fish
frying and smoking, fresh juice making and ice-making. Other agro based MEs include
grain milling and soap making.. The other off farm MEs include craftwork (wood
carving, pottery, knitting, crocheting, weaving and clothes-making / tailoring). There
are also off farm MEs dealing with wood and metal fabrication workshops, automobile
garages and bicycle repair shops. Consequently Rural microenterprise development and
environmental protection offers economic salvation for poorer households a safety net
against environmental shocks and stresses. However, access to sustainable energy
alternatives among rural communities is critical for microenterprise development
(Kirubi 2006). It is within this context the study aimed at assessing energy alternatives
for rural microenterprise development in agro-ecological zones of Kilifi district.
3
1.2 Problem Statement and Justification
Kilifi district continues to have one of the highest poverty prevalence in the country.
This means majority of the households lack the income necessary to obtain the
minimum calorific inputs required to sustain life. In the district, poor households and
their micro enterprises obtain energy services from biomass energy through the use
traditional technology. This trend is inefficient and produces serious gaseous and
particulate pollution. Furthermore, the biomass energy sources particularly wood fuel
and charcoal are obtained largely from communal drier savannah woodland and range
lands as a 'free good'. This increases degradation of the physical environment and its
ecosystem services of which the rural poor depend on for their livelihoods. Therefore
the poverty situation and environmental degradation mutually reinforce each other since
poverty and environmental degradation have a causal linkage (IFAD 2002).
Kenya's wood fuel consumption is above 68% and fossil fuel 21% (GVEP-Kenya
2006). In Kenya consumption of electricity the most versatile and the most sought after
energy form, is low with per capita consumption of 12lkilowatt-hours (kWh) (Ibid
2006). Moreover the level of access to electricity nationally is below 15 per cent in the
rural areas it is much lower at about 4 per cent (Ibid 2006). The recent massive increase
in the world fossil fuel have led to a surge in world food prices and an impending food
crisis due to increased diversion of food crops to the production of biofuels. This has
also led to an increase in price of fertilizers and local electricity rates the former is a
major input in food production and. The net effect is to make access to appropriate mix
of energy services for rural micro enterprises limited or unaffordable thus worsening the
poverty situation in Kilifi district.
Most reproductive work in rural areas such as fetching water, washing clothes, cooking
and collecting firewood is done by women and the girl child. This trend apart from
reducing time spent on productive activities such as income generating activities,
education it also exposes women to hazards including injuries and snake bites.
Consequently, lack of access to sustainable energy alternatives in rural Kilifi district
4
continue to have a negative impact on gender equity, the environment and community
well being in general.
1.3 Research questions
1. How important are rural microenterprise as a source of livelihoods for the poor
households in the agro-ecological zones of Kilifi district?
Il. What are the current energy choices for the rural microenterprises in the agro-
ecological zones of the district?
Ill. What is the influence of agro-ecological factors on rural microenterprises
current energy choices in the agro-ecological zones of the district?
IV. What are the environmental impacts of rural microenterprise current energy
choices in the agro-ecological zones of the district?
v. What are potential sustainable energy alternatives for rural microenterprise
activities in the agro-ecological zones of the district?
1.4 Research objectives
The.. overall goal of this research is to assess energy alternatives for rural
microenterprise development and environmental protection in the context of poverty
reduction, gender equality, environmental sustainability and the Millennium
Development Goals in the agro-ecological zones of Kilifi district. In order to achieve its
overall goal the study seeks to achieve the following specific objectives: -
1. To assess the relative importance of current energy choices for rural
microenterprise in the agro-ecological zones of Kilifi district.
ll. To determine the influence of agro-ecological factors on rural microenterprises'
current energy choices in the agro-ecological zones of the district.
Ill. To assess the environmental impacts of the existing rural microenterprise energy
choices in the agro-ecological zones of the district
IV. To determine potential sustainable energy alternatives for rural microenterprise
activities in the agro-ecological zones of the district.
5
1.5 Research premises
Premise 1
Current energy choices rural microenterprises impacts negatively on the environment
and community well being.
Premise 2
Energy Alternatives exist but have not been fully tapped into.
Premise 3
Rural microenterprise energy choices are influenced by their agro ecological situation.
1.6 Significance of this research
Past studies concluded that household switches to more modem sources of energy as
income increases ('Energy ladder theory' Leach, 1988; Leach, 1992). However, more
recent studies on energy use in developing countries show evidence contrary to this
simple progression i.e. the switch to more efficient fuels and equipment is not a linear
or unidirect-ionalprocess as suggested by the energy-ladder theory' (Davis 1998, Masera
et al 2000, Barnet 2000 quoted in Shonali et al 2003). This study therefore will further
highlight how other factors such as agro ecological conditions influence energy choices.
1. 7 Justification of this research
The majority of people in Kilifi district and the rural areas of the Coast Province in
general depend largely on agriculture for their livelihoods. Therefore promoting agro-
based microenterprise is one of the necessary actions if MDG goals of halving poverty
and hunger in 2015 are to be met (WDR 2008). Sustainable, affordable energy can
make agriculture more productive through diversification into horticulture which is
relatively more energy intensive than cereals but brings in more returns to land and
creates two times the off-farm employment compared to cereals in processing, packing
and marketing.
6
Household income depends on the time spent in income generating activities such as
microenterprise. Therefore it is necessary to increase access to convenient and clean bio
- -energy sources such as electricity and biogas respectively which in turn may provide
energy services that end up freeing time from non income generating domestic chores
(fetching firewood and water) towards microenterprises.
The agro-ecological zone approach will enable identification of constraints and
opportunities posed by the zones' topography and production environment i.e. agro-
climate, resource base and socioeconomic conditions. Hence, facilitate the use of energy
alternatives i.e. energy choices or energy end use technologies and practices that
improve microenterprise development, gender equity and environmental protection.
Given that electricity penetration in rural areas is only 4% this study therefore will
provide information that may be the basis for improving access to energy services for
microenterprises by identifying viable energy alternatives existing in rural coast of
Kenya. Consequently promote the attainment of the Millennium Development Goals.
1.8 Theoretical/Conceptual Framework
The theoretical framework for this study is founded on the Basic Needs theory by
Abraham Maslow 1943 and the Attitude-Behaviour Theory i.e. the Theory of
PersonallPlanned Behaviour (TOPB; Ajzen, 1985) The TOPB is based on the Theory of
Reasoned Action (TORA; Ajzen & Fishbein, 1975). There are two general premises
that support this theory. First, individuals act rationally and, therefore, use and process
available information before acting, and once they establish their intent, the individual
is expected to behave accordingly. Secondly, attitudes determine intentions toward the
specific behaviour. The basic needs theory is premised on the following; there are
certain minimum requirements that are essential to decent standard of living also known
as physiological needs. These are food, shelter, health and clothing. They are primary
needs and have to be catere-dfor before .other needs such as security and shelter, sense
of belonging, affection and love, esteem and finally self actualization are pursued. Food
is on top of the list.
7
On the basis of the TOPB one can infer that the rural poor continued to use biomass
fuels despite the negative effects on the women health, and gender equity and the
environment are influenced by certain attitudes and values. Hence, understanding these
attitudes and values is necessary in order to identify local, conventions or local
institutional constraints and opportunities related to the promotion of gender equity and
sustainable environment through sustainable energy alternatives for rural
microenterprise development. Furthermore, for the poor, 'a better life' first means
satisfying the basic human needs, including access to jobs, food, health services,
education, housing, running water, waste disposal etc. In providing for these needs,
energy is an important element (Goldemberg et aI1995). Hence, providing sustainable
energy alternatives for rural microenterprises will promote income generation,
employment, environmental protection, gender equity and the Millennium Development
Goals in general.
LNSU5rA IIIIA BLEL ENE ~Y
C K)(; ES AND USE
LI INTER\IE NTlON 1
1
SUST.oJ NO.BLE MI X 0 F ENERGY
SER"!DCES
••
STRENGTH: NED MI CR:) ENTERPRIS E ACTIVITIE S
ENVI RONM ENTAL P RorE en ON
l !
HOUSE HOLD EXPE NDITURE, MI CROENTE RPRIS E
DRJGERY, TIME SAVING, PRODUCTIVITY AND
INDOOR PO-LLUTION PROFIT PBILITY,
L LI NUTRITION LE\lELS,I/lJOMEN ACCESS TOEDUCPJ"ION, QUALITY HEALTH ISERVICES, MPJ"EflNAL HEALTH AND RECUCED a"IILD MORTALITY
1
MILLENIUM DEVE LOPME Nr GOA LS FUIICTO N.
G ENDE R EQ UITY RJIICTION
Figure 1-1The Conceptual framework energy and microenterprise development
8
1.9 The scope of the study
The study covered all the five agro ecological zones (AEZ) found}n the administrative
district of Kilifi namely Coconut-cassava CL3, Cashew nut-cassava CL4, Livestock-
millet CIS, Lowland ranching CL6 and Coconut-Cassava-Cashewnut CL3-4. Data was
collected from government Ministries, and organizations linked to Rural Development,
Rural Electrification, Agriculture, Livestock Development, Micro enterprise
development, and the Environment and Natural Resources.
The study determined which one between wage and micro enterprise is an important
source of cash income, types of microenterprises and their current energy choices. The.
study sought to determine how agro-ecological factors i.e. Topography, agro-climatic
conditions and social conditions influence current energy choices for micro enterprises.
Assessment of the ecological, economic and social impacts of current energy choices
were also carried out. Finally determined existing and potential bioenergy alternatives
and end-use technology that may protect the environment at the same time provide
energy services. for the development of selected microenterprise leading to increas~(t:.-
income and employment in the agro-ecological zones of the district.
The Study Area
The Administrative Profile
Kilifi district lies between latitudes 3 0 16' and 4 0 south and longitude 39 0 OS' east
and 40 0 east. The district is one of the seven districts of Coast Province, covers 4,878.
km'. The shoreline is 144 km from Mtwapa to Mida Creek. The district consists of 7
divisions: Bahari, Kikambala, Chonyi, Kaloleni, Bamba, Ganze and Vitengeni. It has 36
locations and 108 sub locations. Politically the district is divided into three
constituencies namely: Kaloleni, Ganze and Bahari
9
KlliFI DISTRICT AND STUDY
ADMINISTRATIVE LOCATIONS
r-------------~~------------~--~4
10 0 10 20 Kilometers
M
••
LEGENDa Indi.llnOcunN D5trictbound.llry
Figure 1-2 Kilifi District and Study Administrative Location
Agro-ecological Conditions
Rainfall is bimodal and varies from 400mm in the hinterland to 1,300 mm in the high
potential areas of the coastal plains, with a reliability of about 66%2. Temperatures
range from minimum of 21°C to a maximum of 32° C. Arable land makes up 18.9% of
the total land area while water mass and gazetted forests (Arabuko Sokoke) cover 3.4%
and 4.8% respectively. Kilifi has 5 agro-ecological zones3: CL3 that has high potential
for crop production, CL4 with relatively lower potential for production and CL3-4 zone
that falls between the zones CL3 and CL4. CL5 and CL6 zones are regions of lower
potential, suitable for dry land farming and ranching (see figure 1-3).
10
In addition to the agricultural crops the flora in Kilifi district also consists of natural
vegetation. The natural vegetation in Kilifi varies across agro-ecological zones. Coastal
palm woodlands and mangrove groves are found along the coastline in the east. As one
moves inland from the shore line Coastal woodlands are found. There are patches of fire
induced grassland. The largest proportion of the natural vegetation consists of arid thorn
bush land and woodland on the western end of the district.
Geomorphology
Key
"+t.groe::ozor.e
~
~ csnewwt-c csseve
Cccomr-Cassaea
Cccorar-Casaave-Cuseewnur
! C'HA.thnd I iv,*~rr.~k_~."ili'!t
Lc .•••bnd Ran cong
The district's soils vary from Triassic sediments of marine and deltaic origin along the
coastal line and in Sabaki to sandy soils in the hinterland. The major topographical
features in Kilifi district are the coastal plain, the Foot Plateau, the coastal range and the
Nyika Plateau. The coastal belt is a narrow belt varying in width between 3km to 20
km. it is not more than 30 m above sea level except for the occasional prominent peaks
on the western boundary. The area is also broken by creeks and estuaries. The drainage
pattern is formed by seasonal rivers and streams such as Goshi, Ndzovuni, Wimbi and
Mtomkuu which drain into Sabaki River and the Indian Ocean Figure.
Source: ALMP 2007 Figure 1-3: Kilifi district Agro-ecological zones
11
Demography
The district has an estimated population of 738,740 (estimatefor 2009). The Agro
ecological zones of Jibana (CL3), Kilifi Township and Tezo (CL5) and Bamba (CL5)
have estimated populations of 15,890,58,167 and 40,169 respectively(study estimates).
The district has a mean density of 155 persons per km2 with average annual population
growth of3.05%.
Table 1-1 Demography
Total population 738740**
Mean density 155 persons per km2 *
Population Growth Rate 3.17%
Sex ratio 90 males per 100 females**
Total No. of households 85696*
Average household size 6.17
Women headed households 14,296***..Source: 2000 Kilifi long Term Strategic Development plan 2001-2015
*KllIBS 2008 ** Study estimates
Kikambala along the coastal plain is the most densely populated with a density of 358
persons per sq km. Bamba is the least dense with only 23 persons per sq km. Women
outnumber men such that there are 100 females to every 90 males. The (15-25) age
bracket make up about 20% of the population (CBS 2005).
Education
Primary school enrolment was 90.4% and secondary school and 19.3% both of which
are below national averages. The district has low levels of education (literacy levels of
63%) hence high levels of illiteracy. However there is High illiteracy among the women
(76.9%) as compared to males (35%) (CBS 2003).
12
Income and Employment
Agricultural sector is the highest employer with over 80% e~gaged in the sector.
Slightly above 6.% are engaged in wage employment (CBS 2005).
'," Resource Use ., -;" ~,.. , .: ' .;. ' ..
Kilifi district residents rely on rain water harvesting mainly through roof catchment and
water pans for a considerable proportion of their water needs. Nearly 90% of the
households' energy requirements are met by charcoal and firewood (FSM 2008).
Food Security
Kilifi is a food deficit region and food production hinges heavily on the prevailing
climatic patterns. In 2005, cereal production in the district was only 20% of the total
yearly demand of 92,245 Metric Tonnes. This production can only sustain the residents
for two and a half months and therefore Kilifi relies on trade with other districts to meet
the food gap (GoK 2005).
Limitation of the Study
The limitations of this study were high illiteracy rates, time, financial resources and
secondary data. Poor infrastructure also made travelling challenging in terms of material
cost and time. The areas high illiteracy hence it took relatively more time to administer
the household questionnaires further put constraints on time. The fmancial resources
constrained the number of questionnaires and therefore the sample size. Like all
developing countries obtaining accurate and up to date secondary data was a challenge.
For example, the last Population and housing was conducted in 1999 therefore current
data regarding the same are projections and estimates.
Definition of terms
Agro-ecolegical zone: Agro-ecological zone refers to area that is topographically
homogenous and its production environment in terms of agro-climate, resource bases
and expectedly the socioeconomic conditions also being homogenous.
13
Biodiversity: the variability among living organisms from all sources, including, 'inter
alia', terrestriai, marine, and other aquatic ecosystems, and the ecological complexes of
which they are part: this includes diversity within species, between species and of
ecosystems.
Energy choices: Energy choices refer to end-use energy sources sold to or consumed
by a household or microenterprise to provide energy services.
Energy services: Energy services are products or services resulting from the
consumption of end use energy sources.
Energy use: Energy uses refer to the different end-use technologies employed to extract
the energy services from their sources.
Institutions: rules, laws and organizations and social norms that coordinate human
behaviour.
Microenterprise: Microenterprises are very small businesses that produce goods or
services for cash income. They are owned and operated by rural households ..
Poverty: At the very least it is the absence of income necessary to obtain the minimum
calorific inputs required to sustain life
Primary energy: Primary energy refers to energy earners: e.g. firewood, coal,
kerosene, rivers lakes oceans e.t.c.
Sustainable Energy alternatives: Primary energy alternatives or end use energy
technologies that are ecologically economically and socially sustainable.
Useful energy: Energy from energy choices which actually provides the energy service
discounting on losses as a result of conversion or due to the effect of the
equipment/technology being used.
Bio energy sources: Fuels constituting any plant or animal matter used directly as fuel
or a source of primary energy that is converted into other forms of end- use energy.
14
2 LITERATURE REVIEW
Energy in Human Development
Energy is essential for of basic needs of food, lighting and heating at the household
level. Energy is an important driver of any economy hence it is important at the
community and national level (Goldemgerg et al 1995). More recently it is recognised
that improving access to affordable, reliable energy contributes to human development,
human well being and promoting gender related issues particularly in the rural areas.
Several studies show that, up to a certain point increased per capita consumption of
'modem' or commercial energy such as electricity causes a significant increase to the
human development indicator. (Cecelski 2002, Rath 2005, the millennium Project,
2005, Garcia 2006, GVEP-Kenya 2006).
Historically economic development has been linked to increasing per capita
energy consumption. Progressive substitution of inanimate forms of energy for
human and animal power in agriculture, industry and in the households has
been a characteristic of a growing economy (Garcia Jr. 2006).
In 2002, the United Nations indicated that per capita consumption of electricity of just
over 1000 kilowatt-hours was needed for a society to experience a medium level of
human development. Alan Pasternak looked at a selection of 60 countries in 1997, "and
found an 84% correlation between Human Development Index (IIDI) and annual
electricity use per capita in kilowatt-hours (Garcia, 2006).
Energy Chain and Energy Levels
Energy can looked at from energy levels of the energy supply chain. These levels are
primary energy, end-use energy, useful energy and energy services (Pachauri et al
2003). Primary energy is the energy contained in energy carriers such as coal, crude oil
or, trunks of wood and other biomass collected by householders directly from the
environment, before being transported, stored and dried, can also be termed primary
energy. End-use energy is the energy bought or obtained by a household or
15
microenterprise its own use. What households and microenterprise are looking for is not
so much fuel or electricity, but rather heat supplied to a cooking pot or the mechanical
- -
energy applied to air for air circulation or to water to be lifted to it tank. Therefore, they
do not only have to acquire end-use energy, but also equipment, such as heaters, stoves,
pumps and lamps ( end use technology or gadgets), to transform the end-use energy into
heat, mechanical drive and light at the desired location and time. This latter energy is
called useful energy. But ultimately, the direct demand is on energy services e.g. a
cooked meal or teas, a well-lit retail shop or food kiosk, goods transported from
production site to market e.t.c. It suffices to note that, all products and services take
some energy to produce, i.e. contain some embodied energy, and are, therefore, energy
services in some sense (Ibid 2003).
Rural poverty and energy choices
Numerous literature reviewed acknowledge that there is widespread poor state of
human development among the people of the world particularly in the rural areas.
Furthermore of those affected women and children are more adversely affected than
men (Goldemberg, 1995, Rath, 2005, Cecelski, 2002, GoK 2003, GoK 2007). Since the
World Summit on Sustainable Development in 2001 where the Millennium Goals
Initiative was launched many studies and reports point out that first, majority of the
poor of the world live in the rural areas and depend on ecosystem services for their
livelihoods. One of these ecosystem services include traditional biomass fuels such as
charcoal, wood fuel, agricultural residues and cow dung.
Subsistence-based societies depend on their physical environment for survival.
On a daily basis they collect water, gather fuel, and tend to crops and livestock.
By manipulating their natural environment, they carve out their existence from
the surrounding natural resources (Fraser 2003).
The use of these sources of energy isa major contributor to rural poverty, illiteracy,
poor health, the gender imbalance and environmental degradation (UNEP 2000, 2003
The World Bank 2000).
16
Access to affordable energy is central to poverty alleviation by way of increasing
agricultural productivity, encouraging economic activity, generating employment and
. .
income opportunities. The literature reviewed emphasizes that tlie availability of jobs
and productivity increase or economic opportunities are severely limited without access
to modem energy services and fuels. Access to modem energy can catalyze the creation
of micro enterprises and livelihood activities beyond daylight hours and locally owned
businesses. (UNDP 2002,2005,2006, GET-FAO, 2002, Somali et a/; 2003).
Rural Microenterprises and sustainable agricultures
Microenterprise development in rural areas offers economic salvation for poorer
households by providing them with a safety net against environmental shocks and
stresses. Since most of the entrepreneurial activities in rural areas are based on
agricultural and natural resource products, the rural poor can broaden their income
opportunities by diversifying into higher value enterprises, both on-farm and off farm.
The off farm can be value addition to a food and industrial crops (Allderdice et al 2000,
Kirubi 2006, World Bank 2008). Nevertheless in order to achieve this goal the high
value on and off farm agro-based micro enterprises of necessity depend on sustainable
agriculture.
Sustainable agriculture can be attained only when land is used in a proper way. When
land is utilized improperly, productivity rapidly falls and the ecosystem is jeopardized.
Proper land use ensures that resources can be used for future generations. Integrated
land use management should be directed at an optimal, sustainable use of natural
resources. This may include regulation of hydrology, climate stabilization, and
preservation of biodiversity such as gene pools, wild-life and plant habitats, as well as
appropriate research and education. Proper land utilization improves efficiency in the
production process, because relatively few inputs are required to attain the desired
output, thus making production more profitable. Forest or permanent tree crops provide
natural land cover in the upper watershed. In coastal regions, mangrove forests should
also be conserved to protect the coast from erosion. There is a growing awareness that
native vegetation savannah, shrubs and trees need to be conserved (Arnien 2003).
17
Rural micro enterprises often suffer from the general neglect of rural areas.
Infrastructure is usually very limited and characterized by a lack of good roads,
inadequate water supply, minimal telecommunications, and electrical distribution
supplied only to concentrated population centres (Allderdice et at 2000). In so far as
modern energy alternatives in relation to the development or rural microenterprisethe
literature reviewed converge on the view that sustainable energy alternatives are
necessary for poverty reduction, social equity and environmental sustainability among
the rural communities and the country as a whole (Kirubi 2006, Wanambwa 2006,
GVEP 2006).
Energy Policies and Rural Microenterprise
The broad objective of the national energy policy is to ensure adequate, quality, cost
effective and affordable supply of energy to meet development needs, while protecting
and conserving the environment. The specific objectives are to: (i) provide sustainable
quality energy services for development; (ii) utilise energy as tool to accelerate
economic empowerment for urban and rural development; (iii) improve access to
affordable energy services; (iv) provide an enabling environment for the provision of
energy services; (v) enhance security of supply; (vi) promote development of
indigenous energy resources; and(vii) promote energy efficiency and conservation as
well as prudent environmental, health and safety practices(GVEP-Kenya 2006).
Many energy programs from governments and development agencies are based on
poverty reduction, on the assumption that energy creates income generating
opportunities. Income generation increases the ability to pay for energy services also
increase. However, there is little knowledge about such linkages to underpin these
strategies despite there being many examples of best practice where provision of energy
services has indeed lead to establishment or growth of small enterprises (Shonali et al;
2003, GVEP-Kenya, 2006).
Electricity supply has not always led to the establishment or growth of microenterprise.
This it is argued is due to lack of understanding of the factors underlying the
18
mechanisms that influence the role of energy in the establishment and growth of small
enterprises (Macht et aI2007). Furthermore, where modem energy services have lead to
. -
use in enterprises, there is lack of understanding of the social and economic impacts,
both in the enterprises and in the community. Hence research is needed to understand
the linkages betweenenergy services and productive uses (Ibid 2007). This can be done
by first, identifying factors that can playa role in shaping these linkages such as those
influencing the choice of energy and its use. Factors emanating from the differences in
the entrepreneurs themselves, the energy supply characteristics, economic
circumstances and other forces or mechanisms at play are also taken into consideration
(Ibid 2007).
Recent studies done in Kenya clearly points to this failure or lack of connection
between human development objectives of the current economic policies and energy
access and its environmental implication. (UNEP 2006, GVEP-Kenya). The Energy
Road Map to Achieving MDG Targets; Kenya Sectoral Energy Requirement study
report of September 2006 states that; -
"The study finds considerable synergy between the Energy Policy and the
Economic Recovery Strategy (ERS) as well as forestry and environmental
policies. However, there is little or no integration with other sectoral policies in
agriculture and health' '.
A series of policy documents aimed at poverty reduction and human development in
Kenya starting with the Sessional No 10 of 1965 followed later by the. Poverty
Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP), National Poverty Eradication Plan (NPEP),
Economic Recovery for Wealth and Employment Creation Strategy ERS an more
recently the Vision 2030. The main objectives of the Sessional paper number 10 of
1965 were to free Kenya from hunger, disease and ignorance. The over arching theme
of the recently launched Vision 2030 is poverty reduction and sustainable human
development based on three pillars i.e. economic, political and environmental. However
19
no mention of energy within the context of its central role in the economy, human
development, socio equity and sustainability of the environment.
Some literature reviewed that dealt with energy and micro enterprise in rural parts of
China and India unite on a number of issues. First, impact on poverty and gender
relations of energy interventions are strongly affected by "supporting inputs" hence
combining a number of interventions, together with improved energy services, appears
to have more than proportionate effect. For instance, the choice of energy end-use
technology plays a large part in determining, the nature, scale and distribution (between
women and men) of energy interventions. Second, the patterns of impacts of energy
interventions are often complex, involving both direct and indirect linkages to the
reduction of poverty of women and men. Lastly, the vicious circle of energy poverty
will often be broken only by combining improved energy services with end uses that
generate cash income such as micro enterprise development (World Bank 2003,
Govinda et al 2003, and UNEP 2008) Thus current emphasis of the REP is the
electrification of the household and does not cater for other energy needs of the poor
households.
If Mrs. Mohlamonyane's time is so constrained by her unpaid employment in
pursuing her livelihood, does household electrification represent an opportunity
for labour saving and thus time saving? Will the electrification of her dwelling
mean that Mrs. Mohlamonyane will "save" the time she currently "spends" on
fetching and carrying wood and that she will "invest" this time in "more
productive" activities, thus obliquely or directly addressing the question of her
extreme poverty and immiseration? Crawford-Cousins, C; 1998, (quoted in
Cecelski E.2002)
Agro ecological Approach and Sustainabifity of Rural Renewable Energy
Alternatives
Energy services for micro enterprise can be provided by renewable energy sources.
Renewable energy sources include the sun, wind, energy from moving water (rivers,
20
oceans), biofuels and human labour. Renewable energy sources have numerous
advantages over" non-renewable sources. Apart from being "infinite', advantages of
renewable energy sources include being environmentally more friendly and have been
used by human since time memorable (REDP 2009). One of these renewable energy
source is biomass
Biomass is a rather simple term for all orgaruc material that stems from plants
(including algae), trees, and crops. Biomass sources are therefore diverse, including
organic waste streams, agricultural and forestry residues, as well as crops grown to
produce heat, fuels, and electricity (UNDP 2001). Among all the renewable energy
sources, biomass is the largest, most diverse and readily exploitable resource. Biomass
can also deliver energy in all forms that people need (liquid and gaseous fuels, heat and
electricity). It is carbon dioxide-neutral and can even act as carbon sinks; and it helps to
restore unproductive and degraded lands, increasing biodiversity, soil fertility and water
retention (Best and Christensen, 2003). Of priority interest in developing countries is
the need to first, improve the current use of traditional biomass and secondly to
transform biomass into high-quality low-emission electricity, fuels and· gases
(Goldemberg and Coelho, 2003).
Reviewing literature relating to agro ecological zones, rural micro enterprise, agriculture
and rural energy alternatives one key conclusion emerged. That Despite the inter
connectedness and interdependence between agro ecological zones , agriculture and
rural energy alternatives there is apparent lack of a paradigm that applies ecological
concepts and principles to the design, development, and management of sustainable
renewable energy systems. a framework that should often incorporate ideas about a
more environmentally and socially sensitive approach to renewable energy sources, one
that focuses not only on production, but also on the ecological sustainability of the
generation system.
Most of the entrepreneurial activities in rural areas are based on agriculture and natural
resource products. As has been pointed out previously the rural poor can broaden their
21
income opportunities by diversifying into on-farm and off farm higher value enterprises.
The off farm can be value addition to a food and industrial crops(Allderdice et al 2000,
Kirubi 2006, World "Bank 2008). This m~ans depend on sustainable agriculture
production systems. a number of literature reviewed agree that modem and clean energy
choices based on renewable energy sources' are necessary for rural microenterprise
development and the sustainable well-being of rural communities and rural physical
environmental. The proposed renewable energy alternatives include wind, micro and
small hydro, solar and bioenergy (REDP 2009, Kirubi 2006, Wanambwa 2006, GVEP
2006).
Like agricultural production systems, nature and viability of renewable energy systems
for a given area based on renewable energy sources (wind, sun, micro/mini hydro and
bioenergy) is influenced by the agro ecological situation ofthe area. For example, Wind
speed a major determinant of wind energy potential for an areas is influenced by
topography and agro climate i.e. seasonality, temperature e.t.c. hydro power potential is
also influenced by among others stream and river flow, the availability of a suitable
head which are aUdetermined by topography, climatic seasonality e.t.c. bioenergy as a
viable energy alternative is also influenced by agro ecological factors. Above all, Socio-
economic condition is an important aspect of an agro ecological zones answer questions
such as how is the renewable energy to be produced, for who and for what purpose is
the energy being propose. This in turn will answer the question of type of technology
and feasibility oftechnology transfer.
According to Patzek et al, energy sources renewability and sustainability are concepts
that more often than not are taken to mean the same thing. Or sustainability is not
regarded as a critical concern.
It is not uncommonfor the researchers involved in biomass processing for fuels
to claim that there are billions of tonnes of "biowaste" out there, ready to be
picked up each year, and processed, providing in effect an almost free,
abundant and environmentally benign source of energy for humanity. We will
22
argue that ecosystems (the Earth Households) are the intricately linked webs of
life thai know of no waste, see e.g., (Capra, 1996; Patzek, 2004). Quoted in
Patzek et al 2006
Whereas Capra was specifically referring, to bio waste the same can be said for all other
renewable energy resources. The now common closure of hydro electric generation
dams on river Tana and the going controversy regarding eucalyptus as a renewable
source of energy and its effect on water resources are but only two examples that
illustrates this point. Sustainable agriculture which rural microenterprise development
closely depends on is guided by agro ecology.
Ecology as a scientific approach has only existed since the late 19th century and
relatively more recent is agro ecological research which is less than 50 years old
(MacRae et al 1993). The fact that The United Nations Commission on Sustainable
Development (UNCSD) is yet to develop a working definition of the term
'agroecology' (American society on agronomy, 2009) perhaps emphasise this point. in
addition, the push for renewable energy sources as a means of promoting sustainable
development is not more than a decade old. Therefore it is within this context that this
literature review also concludes that, there is a knowledge gap i.e. a lack of a model
that may provide ecological concepts and principles that will assist in designing,
developing, and managing sustainable rural renewable energy systems.
23
3 METHODOLOGY
3.1 Research design
This study is qualitative covered the three agro-ecological zones out of the five found in
the administrative district of Kilifi. However the research design proceeded on the.
assumption that the micro enterprise found in AEZ CL6 will be found in CL5 because in
both livestock is a dominant activity in the same way, it was also assumed the
micro enterprise found in AEZ Coconut-Cassava-Cashewnut (CL3-4) will be found in
AEZs CL3 and CL4 .. The zones covered were Coconut-Cassava (CL3), Cashew-
cassava (CL4) and Livestock-Millet (CL5). The research carried out a household survey
using stratified random sampling. Focus group discussions and interviews were also
conducted with individuals including officials of government ministries and
organisations dealing with rural development, energy, agriculture, micro enterprise, and
environment issues.
3.2 Sample design
The sampling was done ..usingstratified simple random sampling. The three AEZs CL3; .'
CL4 and CL5 formed the strata The administrative locations within each of the agro-
ecological zones CL3, CL4 and CL5 were then assigned numbers and a number was
randomly picked within each zone. A questionnaire was administered to 35 households
in each of the three randomly selected administrative locations thus yielding a total
sample size of 105 households. for each of the three randomly selected administrative
units Two focus group discussion conducted.
3.3 Data coUection
Structured questionnaires were administered to households to collected information on
sources of income, types of micro enterprise and information related to on current and
potential energy choices and use. The structured questionnaires was use to collect
household characteristic, (gender, education, age). Personal Interviews were used to
collect additional data on traditions related to energy choices and use. Direct
observations and photographs were also used to collect primary data.
24
Secondary data was collected from published materials, reports, newsletters, books,
records, journals and statistics from government department and parastatals.
3.4 Data analysis
There was field editing followed by,central editing of the raw data. The field editing
entailed correcting spelling mistakes linked to local words, name of places, local names
of trees. The central editing largely dealt with unit conversions and harmonising units of
rates i.e. from say consumption per day to consumption pwer week e.t.c. thematic
analysis of data from the interviews and focus group discussions was done
subsequently, the data was coded and classified. Using SPSS and MS excel the data was
then organized into summary tables and graphs. Data from the interviews and focus
group discussions was used to explain or validate the results household surveyor the
variations of the parameters under investigation across the agro-ecological zones in
Kilifi district.
25
4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
4.1 The relative Importance of Current Energy Choices for Rural
mlcroeaterprise
Poverty and environmental problems are correlated therefore the study sought to first
determined which between wage employment and microenterprise is the important
, ," source of cash income the rural household in the study area? Secondly identification ' "
and ranking of the current rural microenterprise energy choices was done. This was
achieved through a household survey by administering a questionnaire to 105
households using stratified simple random sampling in Jibana, Kilifi +Tezo and
Bamba representing agro ecological zones CL3, CL4 and CL5 respectively. Three
focus group discussions (FDG) helped to first fill the apparent data gaps arising from
the household survey. It was envisaged that, showing the importance of rural
microenterprises as source of cash income in the study area, the important type of
microenterprise across the agro ecological zones under review and their
corresponding energy choice will illustrate the relative importance of current rural
microenterprise energy choices.
4.1.1 Sources of cash income
The study found that in all agro ecological zones (AEZs) under review over 94.4%
household across all agro ecological zones under review obtained part or all of their
cash income from microenterprise activities. CL5 livestock millet zone had highest
proportion (42.9%) of households that obtained part or whole their cash income from
wage employment. Other sources of cash income in Kilifi district include savings,
interests, pension e.t.c. (KNBS, 2008). These sources are nevertheless very
insignificant in terms of their contribution in the providing livelihoods.
Table 4-1 Source of household income by Agro ecological zone
Source of Cash CL3 coconut CL4Cashewnut CL5 livestock
income cassava Cassava millet
Wage Employment
Only 5.6% 0.0% 2.9%
Microenterprise Only 69.4% 83.3% 57.1%
Wage and
Microenterprise 25.0% 16.7% 40.0%
Total 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%
26
The study shows, diversification of sources of cash incomes increases decreasing
agricultural potential. The low agricultural potential in CL5 livestock millet compared
to CL3 coconut cassava and CUCashewnut Cassava means relatively more people
have to rely more on wage employment for their livelihoods. In the FGD it emerged
that, the wage employment was spatially distant from the household and entailed
seasonal or long-term migration (migratory wage labour).
4.1.2 Types of microenterprise
To determine the types of microenterprise and their importance across the AEZs
under review microenterprises were categorised into two broad categories i.e. on-farm
and off farm microenterprises.
The results as illustrated by figure 4-1show that, in zone the highest number of
respondents (45.7%) indicated that they obtained their cash income from both on farm
and off-farm MEs activities. Only 5.7% of the respondents in CL5 livestock millet
obtained cash income from off farm activities only. While in CL3 coconut cassava
and CL4Cashewnut Cassava relatively higher proportion of respondents indicated that
they depended on off-farm MEs for their cash income.=J 70••~....- _
IiII.OK -+-1----t.I-----
so.- 14&R 45..'1%
~. ---i/+---;~,~----_;~
3O.(J%
1JI.IJ5 -
lCI.05
0..05
.Agro ecologlcel zone
Livestock
-Millet
CL5
Figure 4-1 Types of Micro-enterprise by Agro ecological zone
27
Table 4-2 illustrates that, households in CL5 livestock millet have relatively wide
variety or mix of on-farm micro enterprises activities compared to CL3 coconut
cassava and CL4 Cashewnut Cassava.
Table 4-2 Types of on-farm microenterprise by Agro ecological zone
Agro ecological zone
Farm based microenterprise CL3 CL4 CL5coconut Cashewnut livestock
cassava Cassava millet
Others 91.7% 90.0% 8.6%
Crops 8.3% 10.0% 22.9%
Traditional animal husbandry 0.0% 0.0% 17.1%
Crop and traditional animal husbandry 0.0% 0.0% 34.3%
crops and/or modern poultry 0.0% 0.0% 8.6%
apiculture/crops/livestock 0.0% 0.0% 8.6%
Total 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%
'.Note: Othersinclude respondents who did not give any answer or the questions were not applicable.
Table 4-3 illustrates that In CL5 off-farm microenterprise largely in cooking and
selling of food plays an important role in providing households with cash income. In
CL3 and CL4 the off-farm microenterprises are more diverse.
Table 4-3 Types of off-farm microenterprise by Agro ecological zone
Agro ecological zone
CL3 CL4 CL5
OfJ- farm microenterprise coconut Cashewnut livestock
cassava Cassava millet
Others 50.0% 30.0% 40.0%
Food and/or tea vendor 11.1% 36.7% 54.3%
Hardware 0.0% 3.3% 0.0%
Retail shoplkiosk 11.1% 6.7% 2.9%
fire wood and/or charcoal selling 0.0% 3.3% 2.9%
buying and selling of farm produce 13.9% 6.7% 0.0%
Tailoring 5.6% 6.7% 0.0%
Toddy tapper 2.8% 0.0% 0.0%
Transport 2.8% 0.0% 0.0%
wood/metal works 2.8% 0.0% 0.0%
Entertainment 0.0% 6.7% 0.0%
Total 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%
Note: Others includes the respondents who did not give any answer or the questions were not
applicable
28
These results mean that, majority of the off-farm micro enterprise are agro based. This
is particular so in the low potential high poverty CL5 livestock millet where food
vending is the most dominant off farm microenterprise. This scenario appears to be
consistent with Maslow's basic need theory (see section 1.6) i.e. the relatively high
poverty prevalence in CL5 livestock millet means the people spend most of their
income on food while the high agricultural potential means people have relatively
more incomes hence can afford to buy other things apart from food items only thus
supporting a relatively wide variety of off-farm MEs
Furthermore, as agricultural potential decreases diversification of on farm
microenterprises and income sources in the household increases. This is perhaps a
coping strategy employed by the households to mitigate the often challenging
production environment as a result of low and often unreliable rainfall. However the
dependence on off-farm micro enterprise in CL3 coconut cassava and CL4 Cashewnut
Cassava can perhaps be explained by limited or lack of land for on farm MEs due to
the relatively high population density in these high agricultural potential zones.
4.1.3 Current energy choices
Tables 4-4, 4-5, 4-6 and figure 4-2 illustrates the results of the study regarding current
energy choices for rural MEs across the AEZs under review. The study found that
with regard to energy choices majority of microenterprise in the study area (table 4-
2) use traditional biomass energy, human energy and kerosene. Apart from biomass
other sources of energy for microenterprise activities included electricity, fossil fuels
(kerosene and petrol). Nevertheless, it is only in the agro ecological zone CL3 where
respondents indicated they were using agriculture residues.
Table 4-4 use of different energy source across the agro ecological zones
Agro ecological zone Others Biomass only Fossil fuel Biomass and
only fossil
CL3 coconut cassava 36.1% 61.1% 0% 2.8%
CL4 Cashewnut Cassava 36.7% 36.7% 10.0% 16.7%
CL5 livestock millet 8.6% 5.7% 0% 85.7%
Note: Others includes the respondents who did not give any answer or the questions
were not applicable
29
Paradoxically, the highest proportion of microenterprise using charcoal a relatively
high quality' biomass energy source were found in Bamba CL5 an area with the
highest poverty prevalence across all the AEZs under review.
Table 4-5 Type of biomass by agro ecological zones and percentage
."
Agro ecological Others Firewood Firewood and Charcoal Agricultural
zones Charcoal only residue
CL3 coconut 36.1% 38.9% 5.6% 11.1% 8.3%
cassava
CL4 Cashewnut 40.0% 33.3% 13.3% 13.3% 0%
Cassava
CL5 livestock 8.6% 22.9% 68.6% 0% 0%
millet
Note: Others includes the respondents who did not give any answer or the questions
were not applicable
Majority of the 'respondents do not have access to electricity. In AEZ CL4
comparatively the highest proportion of households had access to electricity.
However, this may be due to the fact that in the area covered in the study Kilifi
Township + Tezo is more urban. The electricity is used mainly for lighting and to
small extent running fruit blenders and refrigerators. Majority of the respondents
obtained their electric from the grid (table 4-6).
Table 4-6 Access to electricity by agro ecological zone an percentage
Agro ecological Did not Grid Generator Photo- No generator and
zone indicate voltaic access photovoltaic
CL3 coconut cassava 25.0% 2,8% 2.8% 8.3% 6l.1% 0%
CL4 Cashewnut 16.7% 40.0% 0% 3.3% 36.7% 3.3%Cassava
CL5 livestock millet 2.9% 0.% 0.% 0% 97.1% 0%
Figure 4-2 demonstrates that, human energy is important source energy for the rural
micro enterprise in the different agro ecological zones of Kilifi district more so in the'
drier and poorer CL5 livestock millet zone.
30
AU R\
90.0%
80.0%
70.0%
60.0%
50.0%
40.0%
30.0%
20.0%
10.0%
0.0%
• Others
• Human
Cl3 coconut cassava CL4 Cashewnut CL51ivestock millet
Cassava
Agro ecological zone
Figure 4-2 Use of human energy by the agro ecological zone
Table 4-7 show that in all AEZs under review the adult woman was ranked first
followed by adult man. The woman child was ranked third higher the man child was
ranked last across all AEZs under review with respect to human energy contribution
for microenterprise activities.
Table 4-7 Ranking of gender-age energy contribution by Agro ecological zones
Gender-age Agro ecological zone Others 1st 2nd 3rd 4th
Boy child CL3 coconut cassava 97.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 2.8
CL4 Cashewnut Cassava 70.0 3.3 10.0 16.7 0.0
CL5 livestock millet 20.0 0.0 2.9 42.9 34.3
Girl-child CL3 coconut cassava 97.2 0.0 0.0 2.8 0.0
CL4 Cashewnut Cassava 86.7 3.3 0.0 10.0 0.0
CL5 livestock millet 14.3 2.9 45.7 34.3 2.9
Man-adult CL3 coconut cassava 77.8 19.4 2.8 0.0 0.0
CL4 Cashewnut Cassava 66.7 16.7 10.0 6.7 0.0
CL5 livestock millet 34.3 8.6 40.0 11.4 5.7
Woman-adult CL3 coconut cassava 75.0 22.2 2.8 0.0 0.0
CL4 Cashewnut Cassava 43.3 33.3 20.0 3.3 0.0
CL5 livestock millet 2.9 85.7 8.6 2.9 0.0
Relative to other AEZs under study, CL5 livestock millet had the highest proportion
respondents (85.7%) who ranked the adult woman as the highest contributor of human
energy for microenterprise activities. The adult male was ranked second by 40% of
the respondents in the same position with the girl child in terms of contribution to
human mechanical energy for microenterprise in CL5 livestock millet. These results
31
indicate that, as the potential for agricultural activities decline the contribution of
woman adult,and that of woman child in micro enterprise activities increases .
.
The relative importance of current energy sources is that, current energy sources i.e.
traditional biomass and human energy drive microenterprise activities which is the
, main 'Sourceof cash income and therefore livelihood for majority of the household in
the study area. In most cases these sources both provide the primary and end use and
with traditional end use technology. Consequently, conversion into useful energy is
low and absence of energy services that will enhance income generation and
employment among the rural microenterprise and environmental protection in the
study area.
4.2 The influence of Agro-ecological Factors on Rural Microenterprises
Current Energy Choices in the Agro-ecological zones of the District
As has been pointed in the previous section the most important sources of energy for
microenterprise in the study area are biomass energy and human energy. The study
sought understand the agro ecological factors that influence these energy choices by
first, collecting both primary secondary data relating to topography, agro-climatic
conditions (temperature, rainfall, and climatic seasonality), resource base and social
condition of the study area. In addition, The Focus Group Discussion (FGD) helped
to gather data on the peoples' perspectives on which agro ecological factors influence
current energy choices and how these factors exert the influence. Interviews were also
conducted using Purposeful sampling to the probe and document data relating to
institutions (policy, legal environment and institutions) these interviews covered
relevant ministry, parastatals and elders. Direct observation and photographs also
helped to collect data on how agro ecological factors influence current energy
choices.
4.2.1 The Influence ofAgro ecological Factors on rural microenterprise
current biomass energy choices
Influence of Topography on current biomass energy choices
The study found across AEZs under review Topography appears to influence type and
spatial distribution of biomass energy choices for the microenterprise (see figure 4-3
and 4-3). For example, it was observed that valleys considerable influenced on the
32
location and type of on-farm microenterprise, hence the choice of energy for these
microenterprises. This is because in addition to controlling directly the distribution of
mesoscale and macro scale climate patterns and it also influences the flow of water
through the landscape. These processes have in turn a key influence in natural
mechanisms like soil formation, soil erosion and deposition, and the distribution and
productivity of ecosystems of which biomass energy sources is but one of them.
Figure 4-3 Topography Influence on distribution of ecosystems CL5
Influence of Agro-climatic conditions on current biomass energy choices
It was observed that the biomass in there variations in the type of biomass across the
AEZs under review. Unlike CL5 the biomass energy sources for ME in the relative
high agricultural potential zones CL3 Coconut cassava and Cashewnut cassava mainly
come from outside the zone. This is due to the fact that CL3 and CL4 have relatively
high rainfall potential which is well distributed over the year(see figure 4-4 )the agro
climatic conditions have led to high agriculture potential leading to high population
density.
33
250
o
• CL4 Cashewnut CJssaVJ
300 T
200
150
• CL3 Coconut cassava
100 • CL5Livestock millet
50 I
Figure 4-4 Long term annual rainfall distribution by agro ecological zone
Source: meteorological department Nairobi
Consequently, natural vegetation is often cleared to pave way for human settlement
and agricultural production (see figure 4-5). This is also the reason why in AEZ CL3
agricultural residues are also one of biomass energy choices for ME.
Figure 4-5 Natural Vegetation Replaced by Agricultural crops CL3
Climatic seasonality influences quantity of biomass energy sources across all AEZs
under review. in the relatively high agricultural potential AEZs CL3 and CL4
Climatic seasonality causes rapid plant growth hence accumulation of the biomass
unlike in the low agricultural potential CL5. This is because in the CL3 and CL4 there
34
are fewer dry months compared to CL5 that water availability is the limiting factor in
plant growth in the study(see table 4-8).
Table 4-8: Climatic 'seasonality at selected stations in Kilifi district <
Altitude Agro ecological Station Number of Mean Number
(m) Zone recorded annual of dry
" years rainfall months
8 CL4Cashewnut Kilifi DO 53 954 9
Cassava
244 CL5 livestock Bamba 18 677 10
millet
256 CL3 coconut Chonyi 33 1150 9
cassava
226 CL3 coconut Kaloleni 15 1090 7
cassava
204 CL5 livestock Mariakani 34 856 9
millet
Source: Meteorological department Nairobi
The study found that climatic seasonality affects quality biomass energy sources
across aU agro ecological zones under view. Quality of biomass energy source is
indicated by its ability to light up quickly, burn longer and the amount of smoke
produced and all these are influence by moisture content among other things.
Consequently, due to the different climatic seasonality across the agro ecological
zones under review quality of biomass will be different. Therefore, the quality of
biomass as influenced by its moisture content is relatively higher in CL5 Given that
rainfall amount is lower and the number of dry months is higher compared to CL3 and .
CL5 zones.
Climatic seasonality also has influences the availability of agricultural residues that
are use as source of biomass energy source. This energy source is most abundant
during harvest. For example, the cashew nut processing microenterprises use the
cashew nut shells as a source of energy (see figure 4-6).
35
Figure 4-6 Use of cashew nut shell as fuel for cashew nut processing microenterprise
Influence ofthe Resource base on Rural Microenterprise Current Energy
Choices
Kilifi district has 310400 hectares or 3104 sq Ian of arable land which is 65% of the
total land in the district. Only 16.4% of the total land in the district or 25.3% of the
arable land (GoK 2009). This means the bulk of the arable land is unutilized or lies
fallow which provide shrubs that may be used sources of biomass .energy for
microenterprise
Gazetted forests constitute another important resource base as far as biomass choices
for the microenterprise activities are concerned. The total coverage of these forests is
20,000 ha or about 4.2% of the total area of Kilifi district. Comparatively, Kilifi
district still has great reservoir of biomass energy source particularly firewood in view
ofthe fact that almost 75% of arable land is not utilized or is under-utilized.
Influence ofthe Social Condition on rural Microenterprise Current Biomass
Energy Choices
It was observed that population and human settlement influence rural microenterprise
current biomass energy choices. AEZs CL3 coconut cassava and CL4 Cashewnut
Cassava have relatively higher populations compared to AEZ CL5 livestock millet
(see table 4-9.)
36
Table 4-9 Population 1969-2030 by agro ecological zone or Administrative Unit
Agro ecological zone or 1969 1979 1989 1999
Administrative unit
CL3 Jibana 7903 9423 10625 13704
CL4 Kilifi T/ship +Tezo 23358 30783 38200 47138
CL5 Bamba : - 11843 26107 31999 - 35~52
Kilifi 213900 301905 401042 544303
Mombasa 247073 341148 461753 665,018
Kenya )O94~705 15,327,061 21443636 28,686,607..Source: Kilifi district development plans 1974-1978,1989-1993,1994-1997,1997-2001Kenya housmg
and population census 1989,Kenya housing and population census 1999
Table 4-10 Continuation of Table 4-9
Agro ecological zone or 2009 2015 2019 2029
Administrative unit
CL3 Jibana 15890 17365 18969 22591
CL4 Kilifi T/ship +Tezo 58167 65988 71777 88572
CL6 Bamba 40169 43005 45006 50425
Kilifi 738740 887324 1002634 1360797
Mombasa 957761 1192096 1379370 1986573
Kenya 38376021 45697074 51338207 68678603
This led to the clearing of natural vegetation which was initially made of humid
forests was cleared fOThousing and farm land. Thus biomass energy particularly that
collected free of charge comes from residues ofthe main agricultural areas such as the
coconut palms (coconut frond, husks, shells) and off cuts from cashew nut trees.
Table 4-11 Population Density by Agro ecological zone
Agro ecological zone or 1969 1979 1989 1999 2009 2019 2029
Administrative unit
CL3 coconut cassava (Jibana) 225 262 366 422 454 542 652
CL4 Cashewnut Cassava (Kilifi 66 259 307 394 513 663 857
township+ Tezo)
CL5 livestock millet (Bamba) 39 48 59 76 98 127 163
Kilifi 45 63 84 114 155 210 285
Mombasa 876 1209 1637 2357 3395 4890 7042
. Kenya 19 26 37 49 66 89 119
Source: Source: Kilifi district development plans 1974-1978,1989-1993,1994-1997,1997-2001
Kenya housing and population census 1979, Kenya housing and population census 1989, Kenya
housing and population census 1999compared to the other
Population density influences the demand for environmental goods and services such
as land for food production, land for settlement, water and energy. In the hierarchy-of
37
needs food is at the top, hence availability of land that provides of biomass energy
sources is inversely related to land demand for food and settlement.
AEZs under review, CL5 livestock millet has a relatively low population density
(table 4-11) and the price of firewood and charcoal is significantly low (see table 4-
12). Charcoal making is a major microenterprise in this zone. The popular tree for
making charcoal are the acacia species particularly Acacia Senegal.
The study also sought to compare prices for selected energy choices in different The
prices of firewood and charcoal across the AEZs under review shows that prices in
CL3 and CL4 are higher compared to those found in Bamba (see table 4-12). This is
further indication that the demand for these energy sources in CL3 and CL4 outstrips
the supply.
Figure 4-7 charcoal selling in CLS livestock millet zone
38
Table 4-12 Prices for selected energy sources by Agro ecological zone by selling
units
Unit Price in Kshs
Agro ecological zone Charcoal Firewood Kerosene
CL3 coconut cassava 45 kg bagl3 tonne 500.00 100.00 70.00
10adILitre/KWh
;~., 20.00 150.00 90.00kgIBundle/125 ml
CL4 Cashewnut Cassava 45 kg bagl3 tonne 500.00 3500.00 80.00
10adlLitreIKWh
kgIBundle/125 ml 20.00 15
CL5 livestock millet 45 kg bag/3 Ton 200.00 1500.00 100.00
10adILitre/KWh
kgIBundle/125 ml unit 20.00 18.00
Mombasa 45 kg bagl3 tonne 600.00 4000 66.00
loadlLitrelK Wh
kgIBundle/125 ml 25.00 15.00
Influence of Households' characteristics on rural microenterprise biomass
energy choices
In the study area majority of those engaged in micro enterprise activitiesconducted all
or part of their activities within the household (see table 4-13). Bamba in Agro
ecological zone CL5 livestock millet leads with 80.0% of the surveyed household
having all or part of their microenterprise activities within the household. While agro
ecological zone CL4 Cashewnut Cassava and CL3 coconut cassava had 63.3% and
33.3% respectively had part or whole of their micro enterprise activities carried out
within the household. During the household survey and the FGDs the study also
determined whether or not households separated energy for microenterprise activities
from that geared for domestic activities. According to the results majority of the
household indicated that they did do not (figure 4-8).
Table 4-13 Location of the microenterprise activities by agro ecological zones
AgIO ecological Others Entirely within Partly within not in the Total
household household household
CL3 coconut 583% 25.0% 8.3% 8.3% 100%
cassava
CL4 CaShe\\11Ut 26.7% so.oss 13.3% HlO% 100%
Cassava .. ..' .
CL5 livestock 8,6% 62.9% 17,1% l1A% 100%
millet ...The category 'others' mcludes those house hold where the data for microenterpnse activrties was
inconsistent like for those who obtained their cash income from wage employment only
39
These results mean that domestic activities will also have implications for ME
activities. In addition the fact majority draw a distinction between energy for ME
activities and that for domestic activities it is reasonable to infer that, for the most part
agro ecological factors that influence household energy choices for domestic activities
,
will also influence ME energy choices and their activities in general.
separation of ME Energy from Household
Usel Activities by Agroecological zone
100
80
82
60
40 46
20
0
CL3 CL4
- Yes _ No
79
CL5
Figure 4-8 Separate household energy use from that for Microenterprise activities
An important aspect of the micro enterprise activities being located within the
household is that it allows for the poor households to gather together and 'optimise'
labour and other household capital assets including land, savings, and human energy
e.t.c.
Influence ofInstitutions on rural microenterprise on biomass energy choices
Analysis of the data from household survey, focus group discussions and interviews
the study found there are institutions in the study area that influence energy choice.
These institutions range from the formal such as policies, laws to informal ones such
as traditions, values and attitudes.
Energy Policy and legal environment
The study found out that past and present energy policy and legal environment has
contributed to the dependence on current biomass energy choices and lack of access to
convenient and clean energy sources for MEs and poor households in general. the policies
40
and legal measures aimed at addressing the situation such as the rural electrification
program notwithstanding. The current policy emphasis that financing of the
. commercial energy sector through private sources as opposed public funding has
made rural microenterprise and the rural poor in general to depend on traditional
biomass energy sources and human energy. However, privatisation has created an
environment where the private sector attempts to stifle competition and flout
regulation where possible in order to maximise profits. Thus, making access to the
more convenient sources of energy more expensive increases the reliance on the
traditional biomass fuels for cooking and process heating in most household and
microenterprise. The REA has not done better electricity penetration in the rural areas
is only 4% of the (GVEP-Kenya 2006).
Infrastructure Investment Policy
It appears that, Most of the public investments essential to improving the livelihoods
of the rural population in Kilifi district such as in energy, rural infrastructure,
agricultural services and human health and education have been biased towards areas
with high agricultural potential. In Kilifi district, there is currently no emphasis on
microenterprise. For example in the 1997-2001planning period, of the 149 projects
earmarked for the period none was energy. In the planning period 2002-2008 despite
energy being ranked 1 the targets were 34 (GoK 2003). These targets covered trading
centres, divisional headquarters, health facilities, markets and schools. In addition
these projects entailed extension of grid lines (Ibid 2003).
Electricity connection, payment modes and delivery standards
The study also found that, existing electricity payments modes connection and
delivery standards lack flexibility which is suitable for most of the rural
microenterprise operators. Most energy pricing and payment practices informed by
western styled standards have assumed monthly payments. Given that majority of the
household in the study area are poor and that their MEs are predominantly agro based,
modern energy will continue to be cut of reach because the incomes are not monthly
and often seasonal in line with agricultural production systems found in the area.
41
Energy planning
Energy planning in Kenya lacks organised attempt to approach it in an integrated and
. -
holistic way for purposes of policy formulation or analysis in the country (GVEP-
Kenya 2006). The current energy planning procedure does not consider the energy
sources and the consuming sectors (ibid 2006). In addition despite the rapid increase
in the demand for energy there has not been a corresponding increase in the supply
This situation is further aggravated by political and policy realities that continue
dependence on crude oil for energy supply and energy security. This in turn has led to
erratic and ever increasing costs. Furthermore, energy planning so far tends to follow
the blue print approach which disregards or assume adequate knowledge of regional
socio-economic and cultural environment.
Despite biomass energy soures being a major source of energy for ME and domestic
activities in general establishment of protected zones has neither succeeded in
ensuring supply of biomass to rural community nor conserve forests and their
biodiversity. A classic example in this regard is the ongoing Mau forest debate and
controversy is. Such protected zones, most of which were originally community
owned forests with indigenous and exotic plants were taken over by governments.
The fact that forest and forest resources were taken away from people, thereby taking
away a vital natural capital, without providing alternative played a key role in failure
of protectionist programs.
Energy legislation
The main law governing the energy sector and provide the legal framework for its
development the Energy Act 2006. Part Ill section 66 to 77 of the Act is of particular
relevance in the development, promoting access to modern and convenient energy
sources in the rural area. To achieve this goal the Act provides among other things the
establishment of the Rural Electrification Authority.
The Forest Act 2005 is part of the legal environment that influence biomass energy
sources because its main objective of the act is to provide for the establishment,
development and sustainable management, including conservation and rational
utilization of forest resources for the socio-economic development of the country. The
42
Act allows controlled use of products from the gazetted forests found in the district is
part of government land thus access to biomass is controlled if not restricted under
section 49 part V of the Act; .
Land tenure systems
The term land tenure is a derivative of Latin tenere, which means, "to hold". Land
tenure describes the method, by which individuals or groups hold, transfer or transmit
property right in land. Property rights may include a variety of rights commonly
referred to as a bundle of rights (e.g. to farm, to transfer to build on or obtain firewood
or other sources of biomass energy). Land tenure systems found in the study area
include, government land, community land, individual ownership and group ranches.
These different tenure systems influence in one or another current biomass energy
choices.
Government or public land tenure refers to the phenomenon of the government as a
private landowner. In Kilifi district government land includes, forest reserves,
national parks, townships and other urban centres, alienated government land un-
alienated government land. II) the national parks there is no any consumptive use
allowed. In the gazetted forests there is controlled sue of biomass energy resources
and other products through the issuance of permits. However in un-alienated
government land there is widespread use of the resources found therein including
biomass energy sources. A considerable proportion of the land in the study area
except that found within the 10 mile coastal strip existed as Community or Trust till
early 1970's during which adjudication sections were done declared, the tenure
changing to either private or group ranch . The individual tenure is common in the
relatively high potential Jibana CL3 and Kilifi Township + Tezo CL4. While in the
low agriculture potential arid and semi-arid i.e. in the CL5 and CL6 the most common
tenure is group ranch. The study found that This instrument was also used for
registering land in areas which, the people did not particularly favour individual
ownership of land as opposed to communal ownership ..
The study found that, the traditional tenure system is the de facto tenure system that
largely influences access to current energy choices in the study area. Given the
existing statutes on land are relatively 'recent' and for the most part have been
43
imposed from above and little or nothing has done to 'domesticate' the statutes in line
with the soci~-cultural environment of the area. The main objective of the traditional
tenure system is guaranteeing access land and it related resources <to individuals or
families and invests relevant rights of control over allocation and use to relevant
'..,',' .... political entities. Under customary-or communal ownership law; land rights including
those of access and use were guaranteed except for the right of alienation (Mkangi,
1983).
Regarding access biomass energy sources and specifically firewood the traditional
system did not provide for exclusive control by any individual. Indeed this is true for
all environmental resources such as grazing water and vegetables.
'Huku kwetu hakuna mipaka ya kuni, maji, mboga ama malisho, isipokuwa
zile sehemu zilizo gawanya' (personal interview)
'In our area there are no binderies when it comes to firewood, vegetables,
water and for animal grazing in adjudicated areas'
The introduction ofimodern' or individual tenure system and. the exclusive.control
that comes with private ownership curtailed the free access to biomass energy sources
and other environmental services which existed in the traditional tenure system. this is
because the individual tenure system appear to give room for the individualistic
values which has been hitherto masked by the collectivistic values inherent in the
traditional land tenure system.
In addition, the privatisation of land has also curtailed access to biomass energy
sources and other environment due rise in land transactions. These transactions have
lead to transfer of ownership to individuals or organisation from outside local
communities who do not necessarily adhere to the collectivistic ownership of
environmental services inherent in the traditional land tenure system of the local
communities ..
Traditions, Values and attitudes
The study revealed that in the study area i.e. traditions, attitudes and values influence
the type of plants to be used as a source of energy and those due to one reasons or
44
another cannot be used for this purposes. The most common plants that are used for
firewood include the following, "Mhowe", "Mkone", "Mkulu" (Brachylaena
huillensis), "Mtsome". These are mainly shrubs. Big trees are never cut done to
provide firewood. Such trees are used for other things such building houses making
furniture. These trees found in the area and include "Mvule" (Milicia excelsa),
"Mbambakofi" (Afzelia quanzensis), Mrihi. However the off cuts from such big trees
are dried and used for firewood.
It emerged from the study that there are traditions and attitudes that discourage the use
of some trees for fire wood. One such tree is the Bavu bavu which if used for
firewood is believed to cause severe chest and respiratory complications. Mtsonga
Mahana is another tree not used for firewood because it is believed to cause leprosy
among the Warabai. However among the Wagiriama this tree is used for firewood.
Why there are these differences regarding taboos related to same trees is perhaps a
subject for another research.
The majority of the population in the study area of Mijikenda origin (over 90%), and
in that sense the districts can be regarded to be virtually one cultural entity (CBS
1994). Seven of nine Mijikenda ethnic sub-groups are distinguished, (Giriama,
Kauma, Chonyi, Jibana, Kambe, Ribe, Rabai). The Mijikenda tribes originated from
an area called Singwaya in the southern Somali hinterland, and migrated towards the
coastal area at the turn of the 17th Century. Initially, they settled in nine, individual,
fortified hill-top villages called Kayas, along the ridge inland from the southern
Kenyan coast. As populations grew larger, people left to settle in the nearby lowlands
and beyond (Spear, 1971). These forests still exists to date and continue to provide a
.source of biomass energy sources however access to these sources is controlled by
very strict tradition and taboos.
The traditional method of grain storage influences the choice and use of biomass
energy source. The location of the traditional granaries 'uchaga' is such it is usually
located where near or above the fire pace where the heat and smoke from the wood
fuel fire can to keep the produce dry and hold off pests and other vermins.
45
During the FGD and interviews it became apparent that, communities in the study
area are patriarchal in orientation. Hence, household decisions especially that have
bearing on the household income are done by or sanctioned by men: In this context
therefore, Men are more likely to take decisions on behalf of households and in terms
of their own economic and social priorities. For example, women may value smoke
reduction on health grounds and to reduce the drudgery entailed in fetching water and
firewood. Men, on the other hand, valued fuel savings (money saving) above other
considerations. In addition, because of their different and unequal roles in the division
of labour, women and men have different needs and may have different priorities.
This means that they may make different tradeoffs between time and energy.
The study found that attitudes influencing current energy choices is due to real or
perceived advantages such as their affordability and availability(see figure 4-9). These
results mean that there are challenges towards the transition to more convenient and
clean energy sources particularly in view of their initial high capital cost. The
challenges are due to first, the decisions that require investments are made by men
despite main users of this type energy source are expected to be women and the girl
child. Secondly, the convenient energy sources and clean biomass energy sources
must be seen to have advantages that fur outweigh those obtained from use existing
energy choices ifthe energy transition is to take place.
can be
used
irrd oo-or
17%
Advantages of Current
Energy Sources
Renewable
20//u
efficient
1%
Source of
rncorne
10%
Figure 4-9Advantages ofthe current energy sources
46
Tables 4-14 show that limited access to energy services that promote income
generation or employment is not among the disadvantages associated with current use
of biomass and human energy. These results are consistent with an analysis of 72
Community Action Plans acro~s all agro ecological zones in Kilifi done by Kilifi
District development Program. In its report it emerged that communities in the district
rank energy relatively low compared to other basic infrastructure needs (KDDP
2001). This means communities across the agro ecological zones appear not to view
energy services as an important input in production related needs.
Table 4-14 Challenges from Current Energy Use by AEZ and percentage
Reducing Collection is Reduced Not clean with Inefficient
Quality time Supply in Adverse (takes long
(firewood consuming ramy season health impacts to cook with)
and
charcoal)
Coconut- 0 0 5.6 5.6 11.1
cassava
Cashewnut- 0 40 16 4 0
cassava
Livestock- ·18.8 12.5 2.1 14.6 12.5
millet
Table 4-15Continuation of table 12
Biomass Expensive Price land Risk of Total
expensive (electricity, fluctuation ownership Bites
kerosene, or injuries
gas) during
collection
Coconut- 0 0 0 5.6 72.2 100
cassava
Cashewnut- 4 16 20 0 0 100
cassava
Livestock- 0.0 0.0 4.2 8.3 27.1 100
millet
Energy has a derived demand therefore for the energy transitions to take place the
communities' attitude regarding traditional biomass energy choices on one hand and
towards convenient and clean biomass energy source as sources of energy services
that will improve their income need to change. In addition, if their impacts are to be
felt (for example of electrification schemes) the communities must have appropriate
47
end use gadgets and skills. Generally any policy or legal instrument, tradition, mores
dealing withland and its related resources will influence the current energy sources.
4.2.2 The Influence of Agro Ecological Factors on Rural Microenterprises
Current Human Energy Choices
Influence of Topography on Rural Microenterprise Human Energy Choices
The study also found that, most of biomass particularly firewood is transported using
human labour. This implies a relatively high cost of human labour if this energy
source is transported through steep slopes or deep valleys. Transportation by vehicles,
carts, and donkey is rare.
It was observed that across all the AEZs under review more often than not the terrain
is dissected by hills an exception to this is in coastal plain which cover of Kilifi
Township +Tezo CL4. Where for instances the there is steep slopes on farm activities
such as farm preparation and weeding use human energy because tractors are
inappropriate even where in an unlikely event that one can afford to pay for such
services.
Influence of Agro-climatic conditions on current human energy choices
The study on the basis of interviews and secondary data estimated maize self
sufficiency (Maize is the staple food) and labour demand for crop production MEs
and househo ld activities (see figure 4-10) In all AEZ under review climatic
seasonality influences the production cycle hence labour demand and supply for on
farm microenterprise activities e.g. crop production. Study found the in crop
production, the main activities are land preparation, planting, weeding and harvesting.
Weeding was found to be the most labour intensive task and may be twice per crop
season depending among other things the type of crop. Figure 4-10 illustrates that the
;;peak labour coincides with the lowest household food reserves. In AEZ CL5 at the
stattUf the production cycle food reserves are completely depleted unlike in the
wetter CL3. Furthermore in AEZ CL5 rainfall is low and often unreliable hence tasks
~ planting and weeding is repeated due to crop failure.
48
35
30
, 25
n 20f 15
~ 10
5
o
Jan Feb Mar Apr May June Jul Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec
Month
••••• Cl5 Estimated maize self sufficiency
___ Cl3 Estimated maize se If sufficiency
•••••• Crop production ME and Household labour demands
Figure 4-10 Household maize self sufficiency and labour demands in by AEZ
(Source: Geist 1981, Hoorweg et a11995, Waaijenberg 1994, GoK 2009, and field
interviews)
Rainfall also affects human energy by through its influence on disease prevalence
especially malaria. Kilifi district and most of the Coastal region of Kenya malaria is
endemic. The most prevalent diseases include Malaria, Pneumonia and diseases of
the digestive system (GoK, 2005). Disease such as malaria and some of the diseases
of digestive system of tend to increase during rainfall seasons. The highest prevalence
of some ofthese diseases occurs at the peak of the rain season (see figure 4-4) during
which food reserves are at their lowest.
Looking at the human labour demands for crop production across AEZ, maize (food)
sufficiency and the influence of climatic seasonality on disease prevalence one can
conclude that climatic seasonality has more adverse influence on human labour in the
dry CL5 AEZ compared to the wetter CL3 and CL4 AEZs.
The study found that in microenterprises involving livestock there are three major
tasks supervising (or pasturing), watering and milking. Of these, supervising and
milking do not need much labour Watering, on the other hand, is a gruelling, energy-
consuming task for which labour requirements is high in the dry seasons or during dry
spells. As surface water dries up, wells have to be dug in dry riverbeds and have to be
maintained. As the dry season progresses the wells have to be dug deeper and deeper.
Demand for water at the same time increases as more and more cattle return from
49
outlying areas where water pans and other sources of standing water are exhausted.
This means that long distances have to be covered during times of great heat. For
instance, Distances to grazing areas for "livestock lengthened recording more than
double that of last month from 3.5 km in December to 7.9 km in January 2009(GoK
2009). "
Influence of Social condition on rural microenterprise current human energy
choices
Influence of Nutrition and Health
The fmdings of this study show that, there a wide food gap in Kilifi districts, This
food gap impacts on the supply human energy. In 2005 and 2008 cereal production
was 18450 and 24180 Metric Tonnes respectively (CBS 2005, GoK 2009). The 2005,
cereal production in the district was only 20% of the total yearly demand of 92,245
Metric Tonnes (Ibid 2005). Based on the 2005 demand and projected 2009
population, the study estimated that despite the 2008 31%increase in cereal
production over 2005 this can only meet 23% of the Kilifi district residents' current
annual cereal demand. Human and animal energy (animate) are the most basic forms
of energy. This energy form like all animate energy source nutrition is necessary.
Nutrition provides the body with energy, growth and repair plus the capacity to
protection or recovers from disease. The high poverty prevalence in the district
aggravates the food gap and its impacts on human energy and health.
The rate of cases of stunted, wasted and underweight under-five children in the Kilifi
district is 34.9%, 5.7% and 25.4% respectively (CBS 2005). This indicates poor
nutritional condition in the district which has short and long term influence on the
human energy in the district. The short term influences include reduced supply and
productivity due to ill health, time spent seeking medical care for oneself and children
(women being the major contributors of human energy). The long term influence may
include future human energy supply.
As illustrated in figure 4-10 the food gap the drier AEZ CL5 has lower maize
sufficiency compared to the wetter AEZ CL3. Table 4-16 shows that, as one moves
50
from the wetter AEZ CL3 drops from to the drier AEZ CL5 the proportion of women
respondents in the age group 51-60 drops from 15.8% to 9.1%.
Table 4-16 Respondents by Agro ecological zone, gender and age group
Age group
10- 21- 31- 41- 51- Above
Agro ecological 20 30 40 50 60 60
CL3 Coconut cassava Female 10.5 21.1 31.6 21.1 15.8 0.0
Male 20.0 40.0 26.7 0.0 13.3 0.0
CL4 Cashew nut Female 11.8 29.4 29.4 23.5 5.9 0.0
Cassava Male 7.7 23.1 23.1 15.4 23.1 7.7
CL5 Lowland ranching Female 4.5 18.2 45.5 22.7 9.1 0.0
Male 0.0 0.0 38.5 38.5 23.1 0.0
While this may not be conclusive this reduced life expectancy is perhaps a
consequence of the long term adverse impacts of poor nutrition on women and girl
child health. This is plausible given that the adult woman and the child woman are the
greatest contributors of labour in AEZ CL5. This means that where women and the
girl child are an important source of human energy their nutrition become a major
influencing factor.
It has been observes earlier that, influenced by agro-climatic seasonality the district
has high prevalence of diseases such as malaria, pneumonia and gastroenteritis. These
diseases may hinder efficient utilization of food at individual or household level hence
impacting on the human energy choices. Under-five mortality rate is high (0.141) -
whereas life expectancy is 56 years25 as compared to 55 nationally. Similarly,
HIV/AIDS incidence rate, estimated at 10 percent, has resulted in high mortality of
youth in 15-35 age bracket (Ibid 2005), this HIV/AIDS situation further strains health
facilities in the district and the productive labour force.
Influence of Household characteristics
Given that human energy is an important source of energy in the study area it follows
that, household size, its structure in terms of gender and age of the members of the
household also influence energy choices for microenterprise activities. In the study
area adult and the child woman are greatest contributors of human energy for
51
microenterprise activities. Therefore, it is plausible to infer that, the more women
there are in the house hold the more 'energy' for microenterprise activities.
-Influence ofInstitutions on rural microenterprise on biomass energy choices
Influence of policy and legal environment
According this study existence and enforcement of any policy or legal instrument that
reduce poverty, promote women and the girl child education, prevent or discourages
child labour will ultimately have considerable bearing on rural microenterprise current
human energy choices. In addition policy or legal instruments that improve access to
quality and affordable medical services will also influence rural microenterprises
current human energy choices. The high prevalence of some diseases and relatively
insufficient or hindered access to health facilities and services negatively influences
human energy supply. There are 2 hospitals, 2 nursing homes, 5 health centres and 21
dispensaries, which are insufficient to effectively serve the entire population. Only
40% ofthe households have access to health facilities within 5 km (GoK 2005).
Influence of Traditions, Values and attitudes
In the focus group discussion it emerged traditionally, many of the tasks connected
with crop cultivation or livestock herding were more or less allocated by gender.
Some of these tasks include collection of firewood which is a task assigned to adult
woman and the child woman. This may explain the study findings that women and the
girl child are the leading contributors of human energy.
4.3 Environmental impacts ofthe existing rural microenterprise energy choice
in the agro-ecological zones of the district
Interviews, Observation and photography was the main approach use to determine and
record the Environmental impacts of current energy choices the three key elements of
environment i.e. the ecological impacts, economic impacts and socio-cultural impacts.
4.3.1 The Ecological impacts ofthe current energy choices
Across ail agro ecological zones under review, the study documented different
ecological These impacts varied across the AEZs under review. For example, in the
high potential AEZs CL3 and CL4 threat to water resources appear were less
52
severe(see figure) compared to that in agro ecological zone CL5 and CL6(see figure
4-13 and 4-14). Water is critical for both humans and livestock lives and it is obtained
mainly from seasonal rivers and water pans. Therefore, siltation and sedimentation of
water channels and pans reduce their water holding carrying and capacity
respectively.
Figure 4-11 Water resources in CL3 Coconut cassava zone
Figure 4-12 Water resource in CIS Livestock millet zone
53
Figure 4-13 Damage to infrastructure Kombeni river MazeralKalo leni Road 2006 the
same river in dry season
Impact on Biodiversity
The reduction of tree and vegetation cover as firewood collection and charcoal
making also contribute significantly to the loss of biodiversity. These impacts include
species loss, habitat loss, declines in the variety of genes within a species, and overall
declines in the number of species. For example, according to the local communities
the use ofthe acacia species in the production of charcoal negatively the some birds
as owl ''Nyuni'' and wood peeker that nest in cavities of old or damaged trees. These
birds are natural enemies of rodents and other harmful insects (Deudney et al, 1984).
The use of acacia species found in agro ecological zones CL5 and CL6 for charcoal
production impact on wildlife. For instance acacia are also the primary source of food
for mega herbivores such as giraffes and elephants. Hence use of these trees for
charcoal tends to force the mega herbivores to turn to secondary sources of food
including maize and other agricultural food crops contributing to degradation of
biodiversity and human/wildlife conflicts respectively.
54
Figure 4-14 Charcoal selling in the agro ecological zone CL5 and impact of Acacia
It is the conclusion of this study, that use of charcoal has the greatest and direct
impact on biodiversity in the agro ecological zones CL5 and CL6.Figures 4-16 and 4-
15 illustrate this impact.
Figure 4-15 Acacia trees in protected area CL5
4.3.2 The Economic Impacts ofthe current energy choices
Impacts on the sustainability of current agricultural production systems,
household income and employment
The current use of biomass and human energy sources render energy services required
for inter alia value addition microenterprises inaccessible and unaff'ordable. For
instance, energy services such as refrigeration in Bamba CL5 among other things do
55
not allow for development of some value addition microenterprises. Energy services
such as refrigeration may facilitate the production of the high value yogurt from the
milk produced in the area.
Lack of energy services such as refrigeration as a result of current use of biomass and
human energy leads to livestock micro enterprise incurringlosses. These losses' are in '
the form of livestock deaths and incomes. The latter is due to serious decline in the
prices of livestock during drought. In March 2009 Livestock market prices were
Kshl , 000 for goats and Ksh4, 500 for cattle (GoK 2009). These prices were 29.4%
and 38.9% below their respective long-term averages, indicative of increased stress
levels (Ibid 2009). During such droughts, refrigeration means animal husbandry MEs
may have the capacity to slaughter and store the carcases or transport the same to
market offering better prices hence obtain higher incomes.
Current use of biomass energy sources by MEs threatens employment by threatening
environmental services in the study area. These environmental services provide the
resource base for microenterprises which are a major source of employment and
income. The threat to environmental services is due to the combined effect of the
ecological impacts i.e. the impacts on soil, biodiversity, atmosphere, marine and water
resources. Water is important for sustenance not only of human life but also of the
productivity of animals hence soil erosion leading to siltation of seasonal rivers and
pans the main sources of water, negatively impacts on the development of livestock
microenterprises ..
Bee keeping or apiculture is an important ME particularly in AEZ CL5. Its
productivity depends on flowers from the surrounding vegetation (agricultural and
non-agricultural) and water. In addition, the apiculture in the study area employs
traditional hives that hang on trees in the surrounding forests. Therefore cutting of
trees for firewood and charcoal has impacts on beekeeping and related
microenterprises. The impact on biodiversity resulting from harvesting and current
use of biomass energy choices have economic impacts in that The plant biodiversity
provides plant based MEs with raw material and products .. For example use of hard
woods which include some Acacia spp the preferred trees for making charcoal
threatens artefacts making MEs. Other examples MEs threatened by use of some
56
acacia species for charcoal production and firewood include MEs dealing with the
harvesting, marketing and processing of gum Arabic which is obtained from Acacia
Senegal. This gum Arabic is used locally and exported for mainly to India and the
Arabic nations to make varnish and incense.
Table 4:"lTRaw and processed products of the cashew tree and their uses
Raw Products Description and Uses
Nuts Kernels Raw nuts are processed into kernels by boiling, cracking,
decorticating and roasting.
Cashew Cashew Similar to gum Arabic and may be used as liquid glue for
tree latex gum paper, in the pharmaceutical cosmetic industry, as an
agglutinant for capsules and pills, as a stabilizer of juices,
beer and ice cream, as well as for clarification of juices, and
in the making of cashew wine.
Apple Prunes Cashew prunes, produced by boiling the cashew apple in
molasses, is very similar to dehydrated prunes or dates.
Apple Juice Cashew fruit is pulped by grating or pounding and the juice is
pressed out and strained. Cashew juice has five times more
citric acid than orange juice and is thus a good source of
preservation acid medium when mixed with other fruit juices
or vegetables. .-
Apple Wine The juice from the cashew fruit can be processed into wine
using the conventional method of producing fruit wines. The
alcoholic content averages 18%.
Apple Pulp The fibrous pulp obtained after extracting juice from the
cashew apple can be used as animal feed or dried and
processed into diet fibre biscuits.
Shell CNSL Extracted from the cashew shell, Cashew Nut Shell Liquid
(CNSL) is used in the manufacturing of paints, varnishes,
resins and brake linings.
.Shell Fuel After extraction of the shell liquid, the spent shells are used
Wood as a processing fuel.
In CL3 Coconut-Cassava and Cl4 Cashew nut cassava zones harvesting of green
branches for firewood from tree crops poses threat to their productivity. The
reduction in productivity may be due to reduced leaf areas and disease. The latter
resulting from the harvesting of green branches which may expose the fruit trees to
infection by among others bacteria, fungal e.t.c.
57
Cutting down of cashew nut tree for frrewood denies the area other potential income
generating opportunities. The cashew nut provide the base for microenterprises
dealing in the production, processing and marketing of raw and roasted cashew nuts in
AEZs CL3 and CL4. This trend in addition to threatening present microenterprise
employment from the production and marketing of raw and roasted nuts but also
development of other future microenterprise and products from the chew tree (see
table 4-17).
4.3.3 Socio cultural impacts of the current energy choices
The study showed that dependence of biomass and human energy choices for the
microenterprises have socio cultural impacts in the study area by affecting the social
fabric of the community and well being of the individuals and families. These impacts
include impacts on nutrition, maternal and child health, impact on socio equity and
impact on the integrity of family and the community in general.
Impacts on Health
Results of this study previously have shown that women and the girl child are the
leading contributors of human energy in the study area. Therefore, lack of alternatives
to human energy has significant impact on the health and nutritional status of poor
women and girls. For example, in March 2009, Households in agro ecological zone
CL4 had to walk longer distances, an average of 9 km compared to the normal 1.5km
at this time of the year in search of water and to purchase food stuff (GoK 2009).
This leads to among other things reduction in water consumption, particularly for
personal hygiene. This in addition to the time and labour costs involved in collecting
water women's health is once again negatively affected. During the same period of
March 2009, distances to grazing areas for livestock reached 5.1 km. However, in
many parts of AEZs CL4, CL5 livestock had to cover up to 6km and 9km respectively
in search of both pasture and water (Ibid 2009).
Use of human Energy from women in the absence of labour-saving appropriate
technology, poses yet another risk to pregnant .women and their unborn babies. The
burden of this syndrome is carried mainly by many poor women and girls across the
different agro ecological zones, which are already the most socio-economically
58
disadvantaged segment in Kilifi district and in the region. Consequently, it has serious
implications for the health and development status of entire nations.
Impacts on to social equity
Current use of biomass and human energy sources results in limited or lack of
appropriate energy services that may promote employment opportunities and
increased incomes. Lack of appropriate energy services is also a serious obstacle to
raising the social status of women and other oppressed groups. These circumstances
not only burdens poor women in these ways, it also has high opportunity costs, as it
diminishes their capacity to undertake other productive activities. They consumes
enormous quantities of their time and labour meeting basic needs for fuel, food,
fodder, and water and not for more productive or life-enhancing activities. The
education particularly of the girl child is also interfered with because peak labour
demand often coincides with school calendar (see figure 4-10).
In Kilifi district, size of the poor households is relatively larger than that of the non-
poor household (KIHBS 2008). Perhaps the demand for labour may be one of the
factors perpetuating the need for large families. This may contribute to high birth rates
that further deplete the health of poor women by keeping them trapped in the cycle of
childbearing and rearing. This further limits their participation in change processes
and development programs.
Impacts on the integrity ofthe family and the community at large
Figure 4-12 compares sex ration across AEZs under review and the administrative
district of Mombasa. The figure illustrates that as one moves from the more rural 0
more urban areas the sex ratio increases. The figure also shows that in the two rural
areas of CL3 and CL5 the latter has a lower sex ratio than the former. These results
depict the rural to urban migration. The migration is influenced by the difference in
expected and not actual income (Todaro, 1986). These results means that, Apart
fromthe gender division of labour women have to fill in the labour gaps further
explaining why adult women are ranked the highest with regard to human energy
contribution for ME activities.
59
As pointed out previously the low levels of education and poor training across all agro
ecological also means that many of those migrating into Mombasa and other major
towns usually work as casual labourers or as unskilled labourers. In addition, given
the high urban unemployment many a times the migrant do not get employment. This
has significant implication on the household incomes where they come since wages
are proportionately lower compared to those received by skilled workers.
Consequently, households are increasingly female headed leading to dysfunctional
family units thus impacting negatively on the integrity of the family and the
community in general.
Sex ratio by Agro ecological zone or Administrative UnitQ)r.i
~ 1.40 -- - ---------~e 1.20
~ 1.00-t---
~ 0.80.2 0.60
~ 0.40 Ir.i 0.20 I
E O.OO..L
•.. ~~ .~q;. i.."(;- ~~ ~~ • Sex ratioQ) s7>.D ~7> ...,7> ~ x '6"~ ':S)~ ~e(:-E 7>" o~:l ~(J <.-~..., ~ ,~, ~z >:-~ ,s .••..•0 ~e",,0 ~(:- ~~,,0 1S:'e cY<Y <.-7>"cY' Agro ecological zone or Adminstative unit
Figure 4-16 Sex Ratio by Agro ecological zone or admin
Increase in Conflicts and Social tension
It immerged from the interviews and that threat or actual occurrences of conflicts do
occur as a consequence of current use of biomass energy sources. This is due to real
or perceived scarcity of the biomass energy choices. The conflicts have been both
inter and intra community. The intra community has been witnessed mainly in areas
where communal land has been changed into individual tenure. These conflicts are
more in a form of hostility and not violence especially in the CL3 and CL4 due to the
relative scarcity ofbiomass energy sources compared to CL5 and CL5.
Conflicts between the state and the people however, as has been witnessed in the
forest reserves have had a more violent nature. These conflicts are in a form of
60
harassment of women collecting firewood in the protected zones. Such protected
zones, most of which were originally The fact that forest and forest resources were- - .,
taken away from people, thereby taking away a vital natural capital, without providing
alternative plays exacerbates these conflicts and their accompanying negative social
impacts.
4.4 Potential sustainable energy alternatives for microenterprise development
in different agro ecological zones
4.4.1 Selected microenterprises for the different agro ecological zones, their
corresponding energy services and end-use energy required.
The results of the study have shown that show that existing micro enterprises are
largely a function of their respective agro ecological situation (see section 4.1). In line
with the agro ecological approach of the study the assessment of sustainable energy
alternative was achieved through first, answering the question; 'Does existing agro
ecological conditions offer opportunities for the development and growth of new MEs
and what are the required energy services? The results are summarised in tables 4-18
and 4-19. The overarching theme this study is poverty reduction and environmental
protection Therefore end use energy proposed in Tables 4-18 and 4-19 are based on
conviction that end use from renewable energy sources offer the best environmental
protection.
Apart from providing the listed energy services, the end use energy sources identifled :
in Tables 4-18 and 4-19 offer numerous advantages for micro enterprise activities over
current biomass and human use. These advantages include improving working
conditions, creating market place attraction, lighting allows entrepreneurs to extend
their working day and thus increase their income by serving customers in the evening
or operating workshops past sundown. Street lighting helps to extend selling hours for
street vendors. Electricity and biogas are more convenient, cleaner and relatively safer
than traditional means of heating/cooling, cooking, and lighting, which benefits both
workers and consumers.
Lights, fans, radios, televisions, and other electrical appliances can draw people to a
common location, creating new market place attraction. As pointed out not all energy
services can be met efficiently by electricity hence other end use energy is necessary.
61
Examples of energy services that cannot effectively be met by electricity include land
preparation, planting and weeding which call for human based or machine based
mechanical energy.
Table 4-18 Selected microenterprise for agro ecological zones CL3 and CL4
d d.enennr services an en use ener '2Y .. • ,: ~ ,< ~ r c..'..''.J'' 1.:.: ~". • ,'.",,;.:<'"
Type of micro Microenterprise Required Energy services End-use energy
enterprise
On-farm Horticulture • Land preparation • Electricity• Planting, Weeding and • Biogas
harvesting • Human labour• Water supply • Solar energy• Refrigeration• Drying (preservation)
Dairy • Water supply • Electricity• Milking • Biogas
• Refrigeration/cooling • Human labour
Tree and • Water supply • Electricity
vegetable • Human labournursery
Soap making • Soap bars and tablet • Electricity
• Packing • Biomasslbiogas• Solar energy
Hardware • Lighting • Electricity
Retail ,. • Refrigeration • Electricity
shop/kiosk
Cloth making • Sewing • Electricity
Value addition • Coconut milk canning • Electricityto Coconut palm • Packing of frozen fresh • Biomasslbiogasproducts shredded copra • Electricity• Cleaned coir • Biogas• Coir mats and twine• Coconut husk particle
board (cardboards from
coconut husks)
Transport and • telecommunication & • electricity
communication internet services
• movement of goods,
people and services
wood/metal • Metal welding • Electricityfabrication and • Metal turning/cutting • Biogaslbiomassrepair • Wood turning
Marketing of • Transport and • Electricity
farm produce communication
Animal feeds • Feed milling and Mixing • Electricity
manufacture • Process heat
62
Table 4-19 Selected microenterprise for CL5 and CL6, energy services and end
use energy -
Type of Existing and potential Energy services End use energy
microenterprise microenterprise
On farm Production of Cereal • Land preparation .- Electricity
and pulses • Planting, Weeding • Biogas
and harvesting
• Shelling
• Drying (preservation)
Beef production • Water supply • Electricity• Refrigeration • Biogas
Poultry (free range) • water supply • Electricity
Wildlife • Water supply • Electricity
conservancies
Tree and vegetable • Water supply • Electricity
nursery
Off-farm Food and/or tea kiosks • Cooked meals • Electricity• Biogas
Abattoir and meat • Water supply • Electricity
processing • Refrigeration • Biogaslbiomass• Process heating• Meat packing• Transport
Processing of grains .' GrainmiUing, ~ Electricity• Biogas
Animal feed • Process heating • Electricity
manufacture • Feed milling and • Biogas
mixing
Hardware • Lighting • electricity
Retail • Refrigeration • electricity
shop/ki osk(provisi ons )
Cloth making • Sewing • electricity
Coconut palm • coconut milk canning • electricity
products • coconut meal
packing
• cleaned coir
Communication and • telecommunication & • electricity
communication • internet services • biogas• movement of goods,
people and services
wood/metal • Metal welding • Electricity
fabrication and repair • Metal turning/cutting • Biogas
$ VIcod turning
63
4.4.2 Potential Bio energy Alternatives and end~UseTechnology for the
different Agro ecological zones ofKilifi district
As pointed in the previous section that renewable energy alternatives offer better
prospects' for microenterprise "development and" environmental 'protection. The
environmental protection must first, ensure a stable resource base and avoid'
overexploitation including maintenance of biodiversity, atmospheric stability and
ecosystems. Second, should promote income generation and employment on a
continuing basis. Thirdly, must mitigate or reverse the social impact of the current
energy choices and use such as promoting fairness in distribution and opportunities
among all persons by enhancing health, education and gender equity. In other words
these energy alternatives must be ecologically, economically and socially sustainable.
Looking at its agro ecological situation this study take the position that, bio energy
sources offer greater prospects for promoting microenterprise development and
environmental protection in Kilifi district compared to other renewable energy
sources.
. ,._:;-
Bio energy sources based on the agro ecological conditions has many advantages over
other renewable found in the district. These advantages include being carbon dioxide-
neutral and can even act as carbon sinks. Bioenergy can help to restore unproductive
or degraded lands, increasing biodiversity, soil fertility and water retention. The end
use technology for converting bioenergy sources into desired end use energy such as
electricity, producer gas and biogas is readily available and relatively cheap.
The energy level approach or energy supply chain analysis further strengthen the
assertion that some if not all bio energy sources offer better opportunities for the
promotion of microenterprise development and environmental protection. For
example, biomass as a primary energy source can deliver end-use energy all forms
that people may need. These energy forms include liquid or gaseous fuels, heat and
electricity, yet-environmentally more friendly.thus biomass can serve as an alternative
to crude oil. However, biomass has serious environmental implications in the
traditional stove because it provides the end use energy source for heating or cooking
(see 4.3). It against this background the study sought to assess first the existing and
64
potential bioenergy sources - agricultural residues, forests resources, biogas from
domestic ruminants, and biodiesel from coconut palms- and their theoretical energy
potential. Second, possible conversion technologies and potential end use energy in
form of electricity.
The energy equivalent of these bioenergy sources was taken based on what would be
obtained if they were subjected to the most energy efficient transformation processes.
However the reality is that not all may be available as fuel. For example, some agro
residues may be used to provide fodder among other things. In addition, the actual
availability of bioenergy sources would also depend on the efficiency of collection,
mode of transportation and storage. Considering these, in the computation of bio
energy sources only 50% is accounted for fuel.
Agricultural residues
The study results show based on the area and crops being cultivated across all the
AEZ in Kilifi district the district has good potential for producing energy from
agricultural residues. For example, Coconut is one ofthe main tree crops grown in the
all the agro ecological zones ofthe district. In AEZ CL5 and CL6 where agro climatic
conditions are less than ideal the people plant coconut palms by advantage of the
influence of topography on the movement of water, soil formation and soil fertility (
see figure 4-3). The residue from the coconut palm can be used as a source of
biomass energy include frond or leaves, husks and shell (see figure 4-18).
Figure 4-17 Coconut shell, husk and frond
Coconut shells have a very high energy density due to their extremely high specific
gravity of 1.1. A coconut shell can be burned directly as fuel or it can be easily
65
processed into charcoal and combustible gases. Whereas 10 kg of wood makes only 1
kg of charcoal, 10 kg of coconut shells, makes 3 kg of charcoal and 5.5 kg of
combustible gases. This makes the coconut shell a very valuable source thermal
energy for cooking and process heating.
Figure 4-18 Coconut husks a potential bioenergy outside a homestead in CU
Table 4-20 summarise the computation of energy amount from agricultural residues
of main crops found in Kilifi district, ratio of the main product to the by-product for
each crop grown, along with their energy equivalents.
Table 4-20 Energy from Agro-residues in Kilifi district (energy units in
106Mkcal)
Crop type- Land Current (CIR)b in Residue Total
under yields in Tonne (CDRt CIRin
crop in Tonne lHa per Tonne
Ha Tonne of
crop
Millet (pennisitum spp) 32.0 23.4 0.0 1.30
Cotton (gosypium spp) 70.0 49.0 3.8 2.20 266.0
Maize (Zea maize) 31351.0 31978.0 0.0 2.30
Paddy*(2007) 416.0 242.6 0.0 3.20
Sorghum (Sorghum vulgare) 312.0 227.8 0.0 2.63
Cassava* (Manihot esculenta) 4424.0 35867.0 0.0 0.75
Pigeon peas (Caianus caian) 65.6 2.0 0.0 2.50
Cashew nut 9980.0 1460.7 3.00
Coconut (Cocos nucifera) 14776.0
Coconut Husks and pith 22164.0 0.53
Coconut Shell 22164.0 0.22
coconut fronds 14776.0 4.0 59104.0
66
Table 4-21 Continuation of Table 20
Crop type a Total Total Energy Total Total energy
CDRin residue equivalen energy in kWh
Tonne" from t (Meal) (Mcal=1163
the (Mcal/Io kWh)
crop nnet
Tonne
Millet (pennisitum sop) 30.4 30.4 3.50 106.3 123612.9
Cotton (eosvotum soo) 107.8 373.8 3.00 1121.4 1304188.2
Maize (Zea maize) 73549.4 73549.4 3.00 220648.3 256614017.1
Paddy* (2007) 776.4 776.4 3.00 2329.3 2709027.1
Sorghum (Sorghum vulgare) 599.0 599.0 3.50 2096.5 2438265.3
Cassava* (Manihot esculenta) 26900.3 26900.3 4.40 118361.1 137653959.3
Pigeonpeas (Cajanus cajan) 5.1 5.1 3.00 15.2 17619.5
Cashewnut 4382.1 . 4382.1 5.35 23444.2 27265645.3
Coconut(Cocosnucifera)
CoconutHusks and pith 11746.9 11746.9 1.00 11746.9 13661668.0
CoconutShell 4876.1 4876.1 4.50 21942.4 25518964.7
coconut fronds 0.0 59104.0 1.50 88656.0 103106928.0
Total 490467.7 570413895.3..
a Ministry of Agriculture and LIvestock Coast Provmce 2008
bsource Biomass resource atlas ofIndia
C source Ramachandran et al2005
*2007 figures
Area under cultivation for the dominant crops in Kilifi district obtained from 2008
annual report of the Ministry of Agriculture and livestock Coast province. This gives
the theoretical energy potential in Kilifi district obtained from agricultural residues to
be 2640805 kWh per year.
Agriculture residue appear to offer good prospects towards addressing the challenge
of ensuring sustainable biomass supply or convenient energy sources to meet growing
energy demand at the same time avoiding the competition for land between food and
fuel. Furthermore, increasing the production of food and industrial crops increases not
only the supply of energy but also food and raw material which are critical for
microenterprise growth and development.
Forests bioenergy sources
Table 4-22 summarises the computation of energy from forests sources. Accordingly
the results of the study show by tapping 50% of bioenergy potential from forests the
67
bioenergy potential from this sources is between 182 Million kWh and 630 Million
kWh per year. The biomass potential of forests is dependent on the type of forest and
its distribution cover. Computation requires inputs such as forest types (i.e.
Deciduous, Evergreen, etc.); respective spatial extent, annual productivity
(tonne/hectare) and energy equivalent (kcal/tonne) (Ramachandra et al, 2001) and
outputs would be annual Bioenergy-by forest type wise, by district e.t.c. Total
Bioenergy from forests (Bioforest)is computed by
Bioforest= Bioenergy from forests (kcal) = Forest area * Productivity * (Energy
equivalent) (Ramachandra et al, 2005)
Table 4-22 Bioenergy potential from forest sources in Kilifi district
Vegetation Area Case Biomass Biomass Energy Total
type covered (tonneslhal (tonnes equivalent potential
in Ha year) Iyear) in energy in
Meal/tone kWh
IMeal=1l63
kWh
Dense 20,000 High 13.5 270000 4.0 1256040000
deciduous Low 3.9 78000 4.0 362856000
forest Low 0.9 0 3.4 0
Total High 1256040000- 20,000 Low 362856000.-
Biogas
Biogas is produced during the anaerobic digestion, or fermentation organic matter by
bacteria. The products of this process are methane gas and carbon dioxide. Feed
stocks for biogas production are water and Organic Matter, bacteria, anaerobic
conditions, heat and water. The organic matter is the food source for methane
producing bacteria. Cow and other livestock's dung and also human excreta are used
to produce gases. Biogas can be produced using manure as the only organic source,
but the gas production can be greatly increased by adding certain types of food wastes
with the manure. Energy crops such as com silage can also be added to increase gas
production.
Depending on the source of organic material biogas can be produced using the
following two methods. The slurry based dung digesters uses relatively small amounts
of dung feed stock. The second method is the high-rate digester for biomethanation of
fibrous and semi-solid organic wastes, the TEAM (TERI Enhanced Acidification and
68
Methanation) process (see figure 4-20). The latter has a capacity of about 50kg green
leafy vegetables per day. The TEAM process can generate good quality biogas and
manure from the organic wastes (MUller2007).
Acidification Phase 1\1erhnnatloJ\ Phase
t
Le h"t~
C<>Il""!UQn
T.ank
UAS8
Ovoerflo'W
To AClodu:k 'h
Re-"C'o~r
""'.r.,
Mn.loure:
Figure 4-19 Schema of TEAM digester with six acidification reactors and a UASB
unit Source: MUller 2007
Biogas can be used for various applications, such as for cooking, lighting, electricity
production and for drying fruits and vegetables. The required gas quality depends on
the corresponding application. Dewatering of biogas is recommended for all
applications, whereas desulfurization is mainly done before usage in an engine
(MUller 2007). Hydrogen sulphide is a very aggressive gas responsible for fast
corrosion. Biogas used for electricity production in a block heat and power plant has
therefore to be treated by desulfurization (Ibid 2007).
Biogas production in the study area will have a number of economic and social
advantages. The biogas can be used in fuel powered drier which gives increased
control over drying conditions and produces a higher quality product. It is operational
all year round, and produces a higher rate of drying than solar driers Therefore fuel
powered driers, using bio gas and producer gas can be of particular use
Microenterprise dealing with dehydrated mangoes, desiccated coconut and other
microenterprise activities in the study area value addition activities in all agro
ecological zones.
The production of biogas out of biodegradable solid waste can replace fossil fuel in
cooking and light applications (low-tech) or for the production of electricity and heat
(high-tech block power and heat plant). Thus, the use of locally available energy
resources is, at least on the long-run, more economically compared to imported fuel.
69
Degraded organic material can be applied as a fertilizer for agricultural purposes. The
anaerobic digestion even improves the fertilizer quality by killing germs and making
-the nutrients more plant accessible. The selling of this -kind of fertilizer can be a
source of income and employment. More Employment can be generated during the
construction, installation, .Operation and management of anaerobic digesters
This assessment of the biogas potential for Kilifi district was based on dung from
domestic livestock namely cattle, sheep and goats. The livestock population of cattle,
sheep and goat were collected from 2008 annual reports of the ministry of livestock
development Kilifi and Kaloleni districts. The dung yield, biogas yield and the
energy equivalents for each animal are given Table 4-23. Total bio energy from
livestock (Biolivestock)is computed by:
(Biolivestock)= (Biogas * Energy Equivalent) Where, Biogas (m') = Biogas yield *
Dung * 1000 and Dung (tonnes) = Dung yield * Population * 365 (for annual energy
computation).
Table 4-23 Dung Yield by livestock type, Biogas Yield and Energy Equivalents
for Kilifi district
'.
...
Livestock Number" Case Dung yield Dung Biogas yield-
type (kgIanimal yield(kglyea (m3/k'1
/day) r)
Cattle 246731 High 7.5 6.8E+()8 0.042
Low 3 2.7E+()8 0.036
Goat 121858 High 0.1 4447817 0.042
Low
"
0.1 4447817 0.036
Sheep 30666 High 0.1 1119309 0.042
Low 0.1 119309 0.036.. . .Sources "Ministry of Livestock development annual report 2008 (Kilifi and Kaloleni districts)
70
Table 4-24 Continuation of Table 23
Livestock Biogas yield Energy Potential Potential annual
- type per year(m3) Equivalent annual energy energy yield in
(kcaIlm3) yield in kcaI kWh
( kcaI = 0.001163
kWh)
Cattle 2.8E+D7 5340 1-_ - l.SIE+11 - 1761765532- ,.' .~
9726136 5340 51937566347 60403389.7
Goat 186808 5340 997556396.8 1160158.1
160121 5340 855048340.1 994421.2
Sheep 47011 5340 251038622.5 291957.9
4295 5340 22935962.16 26674.5
Total High 177628668
Low 61424485
Assuming 50% of the dung in the district is collected for energy production, existing
annual bio gas potential is between 30.7 Million and 88.81 Million kWh or between
1807 and 5224 BOE (barrel of oil equivalent). Biogas improves living conditions for
rural poor, mainly for women responsible for cooking and fire wood collection.
Biogas generates less air pollution by the combustion instead of wood or animal dung.
By the usage of biogas less fire wood needs to be collected, hence time is saved for
this chore and can be invested in other self improvement enterprises.
Biodiesel energy sources
Biodiesel a generic name for methyl or ethyl esters made from any tri-glyceride oil
molecule. Tri-glyceride oils include all plant oils such as canola, mustard, sunflower,
safflower, soybean, com oil, palm oil etc. Used cooking oils can also be turned into
biodiesel as well as can fats and tallow. A chemical process called
"transesterification" is used to "crack" the glycerol molecule and replace it with an
alcohol molecule. A catalyst is used such as sodium hydroxide (Caustic Soda) and an
alcohol such as methanol or ethanol.
Biodiesel has a number of distinct advantages over fossil fuel. Apart from being
renewable it basically cycles carbon instead of releasing stored carbon into the
atmosphere. Therefore, the amount of carbon that is stored by the plant during its
growing cycle is the same as what is released during combustion. This fact gives a
distinct production advantage in that photosynthesis occurs naturally hence the energy
71
requirements are provided free by the environment. This results in a net energy
benefit. Life cycle analysis has shown that for every 1 unit of energy required in the
production of biodiesel, there are at least 2.5 units of energy contained in the fuel
. --Another advantage is that the technology required extracting and process biodiesel
already exists and easily accessible.
Biodiesel from Coconut Oil
The results of the study show that production of biodiesel from coconuts offer good
prospects for micro enterprise development and environmental protection in Kilifi
district. First coconut production is widespread in all agro ecological zones in Kilifi
district and particularly in agro ecological zones CL3, CL4 and CL3-4. Hence, the
electrification of a village using coconut oil is sustainable in the long-term because
coconuts, can be readily available and renewable. Second, extracting the coconut oil
can be a basis for microenterprise and the additional costs of the processing are
primarily wages paid to people in the village rather than as a flow of capital from the
village to the outside world. This also produces employment in the village, allowing
more people to be able to afford the electricity generated. Third, the equipment to
make coconut bio-diesel is inexpensive to purchase and simple to operate.
The coconut oil is in the copra, or white "coconut meat", as seen in Figure 3. A
typical coconut will have 0.25 kg of copra, including water, meal and coconut oil.
Drying removes the 50% of the mass that is water, leaving 0.18 kg of dry copra, 67%
of which is coconut oil, or .12kg. The most efficient extraction that can be done in a
village using hand operated presses is 75% ofthis oil, or 0.09 kg/coconut. Coconut oil
has a density of 890 kg/ms, or .89kg/litre. Thus, 0.1 litre of coconut oil can be
produced from each coconut. The coconut oil chemically changed into bio-diesel
through the process of trans esterification and uses methanol as a reactant and lye as a
catalyst. This is a standard procedures used to convert other vegetable oils into bio-
diesel. The mixture is 1:5, methanol to coconut oil, with a yield of about 0.8 bio-
diesel and 0.2 glycerine, which can be used to make soap. The sale of the glycerine
should more than compensate for the additional cost of processing.
Table 4-25 summarises the results of the computation of the existing theoretical
potential of coconut biodiesel in Kilifi district.
72
Table 4-25 Biodiesel from Coconut (Cocos nucifera) in Kilifi district
Crop type a No oftrees Raw' Copra Dry copra ( Coconut in Oil yield in
of in kg at 50% of raw kg Oil ( litres (75%
0.36 kg/nut copra) in kg 67% of dry extraction) at
copra) .89 kg/litre
<
Coconut 2831978 122341450 61170725 40984386 46049872
Table 4-26 Continuation of Table 24
Crop type a Glycerine (20% Biodiesel (80 % Energy Total energy in
coconut oil) of coconut oil) equivalent in kWh (Mcal=1163
in litres Meal/litre kWh)
Coconut 9209974.3 36839897 37.38 1.60154E+ 12
The assessment was based on 2831978 coconut palm trees based on a census carried
by ABD-DANIDA and Coast development Authority (2007). Assuming 50% of the
annual production of coconuts in the district is utilised for biodiesel production,
existing annual biodiesel energy potential from this source is 800.8 Billion kWh or
471 Million BOE.
Despite enormous potential this source ofbiodiesel is being threatened by disease and
pests (see figure4-21) and competing uses or industry. The most detrimental ofthese
competing uses or industries is the logging of coconut trees for timber (see figure) the
timber is used for building construction and for making furniture.
Figure 4-20 Rhinoceros beetles (Oryctes rhinoceros) damage on coconut palms
73
The results show that if50% of the selected bioenergy source are utilised the existing
total bioenergy potential in Kilifi district is between 800, Billion to 801 Billion kWh
per year or 472 million BOE (see Table 4-27). Biodiesel from coconuts contributes
the bulk 99.9% ofthis potential. Ironically to date there is virtually zero production of
biodiesel coconuts in Kilifi district nor in Kenya as a whole.
Table 4-27 Bio energy potential ofKilifi district from selected sources Bio energy
source
Energy in Case Agricultural Forests Biogas Coconut Total existing
residues energy Biodiesel Bioenergy
potential
kWh/year High 2.SSE+OS 6.30E+OS S.90E+07 S.OOE+ll S.OlE+ll
Low 2.SSE+OS l.S2E+OS 3.07E+07 S.OOE+ll S.OOE+ll
BOE/year High 1.6SE+OS 3.69E+OS S.22E+04 4.71E+OS 4.72E+OS
Low 1.6SE+OS l.07E+OS l.SlE+04 4.7lE+OS 4.72E+OS..Energy potential assessed data obtamed from ABD-DANIDA, GoK mmistnes of Agnculture, livestock
and Natural Resources.
Mzungi ((Moringa oleifera)
The study found that some plants used for other purposes are also potential alternative
sources of biodiesel. The Moringa tree or local name 'rnzungi' is a source of
vegetable for the communities in the study area. The Moringa tree can produce 1,000
to 2,000 litres bio-thesel per ha year and starts producing within a year. It is highly
drought tolerant having Minimum water requirements under rain-fed at 25Omm.
Figure 4-21 Moringa tree and pods
74
Apart from the production of biodiesel from it seeds the leaves of the Moringa tree
have relatively high nutritional value (ref for Moringa health). Community in the
study area use the Moringa tree leaves as vegetable albeit of last resort. Some
communities use the green pods as vegetable.
Production n of biodiesel from the Moringa tree has the net effect of promoting
microenterprise development and environmental protection. The extraction of the oil
produces oil cake which together with the leaves is an excellent stock feed. Moringa
has enormous potential Improve human health Increase livestock's weight gain (oil
cake used during fattening of the beef animals) and milk production. In addition the
growth of related microenterprise such as the marketing of the oil cake increases
income and employment in the rural economy. The environmental protection on the
other hand is drought tolerance and its quick growth rate these give the combined
advantages of real landscape changes and the production of large, continuous and
reliable quantities ofbiodiesel
Figure 4-22 Green Moringa seed pods a vegetable at Mackinnon Market in Mombasa
Another important advantage of using Moringa tree for biodiesel production may
address the ethical questions of producing crops suitable for human consumption or
land traditionally producing grain for bio-fuel production.
75
According to the study Cultivation of chosen fuel wood species, which can be
harvested during a short period of time, could meet the energy demand of growing
population and the plantations raised to meet the energy demand of a region is called'
energy plantation. The species are so chosen that they provide plenty of biomass, are
fast growing, have good survival rate (high tolerance or adaptability, pest resistant and
drought resistant) and produce large volumes of wood. Multipurpose species are
mostly preferred. Leguminous species such as Leucaena leucocephala is preferred.
This plant has high MAl (Mean Annual Increment) and also coppices vigorously. The
energy value of the wood is 17.5-19.3 MJ /kg. The heating value of fuel wood is
related to lignin or carbohydrate composition and extractive content will also help
maintain the soil fertility in addition to meeting the fuel wood requirements.
In the CL3 and CL4 agro ecological zones Azadirachta indica can be grown. Apart
from trees, fast growing shrub and bushes are also used. Other fuel wood species for
the CL3 and CL4 are: Acacia auriculiformis, alliandra calothyrsus, Casuarina
equisetifolia, Derris indica, Gliricidia sepium, Gmelina arborea, Guazumaulmifolia,
Leucaena leucocephala, Mangroves, Mimosa scab rella, Muntingia alabura, Sesbania
bispinosa, Sesbania grandiflora, Syzygium cumini, Terminalia atappa, Trema species,
Ailanthus altissima, Albizia lebbek, Alnus acuminata, Cajanus cajan, Cassia siamea,
Grevillea robusta and Pithecellobium dulce.
Fuelwood species for agro ecological zones CL5 and CL6 are Acacia brachystachya,
Acacia cambagei, Acacia cyclops) Acacia nilotica, Acacia sa ligna, Acacia senegal,
Acacia tortilis, Adhatoda vasica, Albizzia lebbek, Anogeissus latifolia, Azadirachta
indica,Cajanus cajan, Cassia siamea, Eucalyptus citriodora, Pinus halepensis,
Prosopis chilensis, Eucalyptus occidentalis, Pinus halepensis, Pro sop is cineraria,
Prosopis tamarugo, Tamarix aphylla, Zizyphus mauritania, Eucalyptus grandis,
Acacia auriculiformis, Leucaena leucocephala, Terminalia catappa, Tectona grandis,
Anogeissus leiocarpus, Pithecellobium and Guazuma ulmifolia. Table 4-28 gives
name and calorific values of selected fuelwood species.
76
Table 4-28 Table 6: Calorific Values of some Fuel wood species
Species , Calorific value (callkg)
Acacia nilotica 4,793-4,945
Adina cordifolia 3,855 -
Albizia sp. 4,300-4,400
Lagerstroemia sp,. 4,577
Shorea robusta 4,400-5,050
Tectona grandis 3,700-5000
Term inalia paniculata 4,600-4,900
Terminalia tomentosa 4,923
Xylia xylocarpa 4,905
Source: Ramachandar et al2005
The utilisation and regeneration of existing resources in energy plantation can be
combined with agro forestry involving plantation of trees having nitrogen fixing
potential, waste land reclamation and social forestry. Planting of trees and shrubs can
provide firewood for use in bioenergy scarce regions in a couple of years. The
agricultural output can also be increased by releasing cow dung and by providing soil
conservation. Planting of fodder trees, combined with more scientific management of
cattle, can contribute directly to rural incomes.
Algae
Some strains of algae which consume C02 and produce oil. Tests on diatom algae
found that a 1000 square meters pond over a twelve month period 7,600 litres of algae
oil was produced. • Algae: 9,000 to 18,000 L/ha. In comparison, the same size area
when sown with high yielding cano la plants was only capable of producing 190 litres
of oil. The researchers concluded that 200,000 hectares of algae ponds would be
capable of producing 3.8 billion litres of oil. Oil producing algae can be grown in
partly saline which found in some parts ofKilifi i.e. along the shore.
Saline and brackish water is common - normally it poses a problem for fresh water
supplies. Several technologies, however, can take advantage of saline water for
energy production. These include solar ponds and algae production. Solar ponds use
the salt water in such a manner that heat from sunlight is effectively locked in the pool
and can be used for a number of process heat applications or electricity production.
77
The ability of the pond to store solar thermal energy is unique and overcomes the
resource variability that is a drawback of traditional solar development. Salt water
algae grow prolifically under cultivated conditions and can be pressed to extract
biodiesel feed stocks or dried and burned for power production. However neither
technology has been demonstrated beyond pilot levels.
Bio energy end use conversion technology
Results of the study show that overall Kilifi district has relatively good bioenergy
potential (see table 4-25). However, there is need to promote energy conservation of
the bio energy into clean and convenient end use energy such as biogas and
electricity. These end use energy sources can provide energy services that would
promote microenterprise development and environment protection in the different
agro ecological zones
Improved Cooking Stove
Given the agro ecological conditions in Kilifi district and particularly the socio
conditions of in terms of income, education there is need to first, improve the current
use of traditional biomass. This means promoting the use of cooking stoves that
produce little or no smoke and preserve more heat than ordinary traditional cooking
stove (see figure4-24). The installation is relatively low and can be produced locally.
Figure 4-23 Improved cooking stove
78
Bio energy conversion technologies
Gasification 'is one of the processes of converting biomass energy sources into
convenient energy sources. Biomass gasification involves partial combustion of
biomass under controlled air supply, leading to generation of producer gas
constituting the combustible .gases.Hz (20%), CO (20%) and CH4 (1-2%). The
energy value of producer gas is about 5.0 MJ/m3. The producer gas can be used as
fuel for internal combustion engine for mechanical and electrical applications. Wood,
fuel wood, dried cow dung and other organic elements are put in a big tank and
combusted in low air pressure. Smoke formed is cooled and small solid particles are
removed. Filtered cooled smoke is used to run engine. Another benefit of using
gasifier is household waste is disposed cleanly. Bio-diesel can be used to fuel a diesel
generator to make electricity. Alternatively, the biodiesel can be burned directly in a
modified diesel generator. coconut oil be burn directly in a diesel generator but this
option has difficulties. The coconut oil at room temperature is too viscous to be
processed by the fuel pump and fuel injection system of the diesel engine. Therefore,
the coconut oil is preheated to approximately 70°C reducing the viscosity to that of
conventional diesel fueL Biogas contains moisture and hydrogen sulphide, so before
it is used in an engine the moisture must be condensed out, and the hydrogen sulphide
removed to reduce maintenance problems. Biogas can be used produce thermal
energy, or it can be used to power a gas or diesel engine to run a generator to produce
electrical energy.
The district can have between 80.0 billion and 80.1 billion kWh per year of electricity
if 10% of the bioenergy potential of Kilifi district is converted to electricity (table
25). Table 4-27 show energy services for domestic and microenterprises and the
corresponding annual power demand for 60-household village based on a load of 108
kW for a 12 hour day. This result show that, electrical energy potential for Kilifi can
provide indicated energy services for approximately 169,000 such villages for 365
days.
79
Table 4-29 Energy services for selected micro enterprise for a 60 household
village
Energy Service Load per Total Load Total load Total load
Unit (kW) in kWfor a in kW/year
12hr/day
Lighting 9a 9 108 39420
Drinking water pumping ". 6.5 a "-'. 6.5 .- 78 "-- 28470- •• " -1-
Grain milling 9a 9 108 39420
Irrigation Pumping 7.5 (1) 7a 7 84 30660
Irrigation Pumping 7.5 (2) 7a 7 84 30660
Irrigation Pumping 10 (3) 9.5 a 9.5 114 41610
5 Sewing 0.20 10 120 43800
5 Weaving 0.20 10 120 43800
10 Poultry 0.2b 20 240 87600
Oil extraction 7.5b 7.5 90 32850
Pea nut butter making 0.50 0.5 6 2190
Artisan/metal works t) 2 24 8760
5 Shops" 0.20 10 120 43800
Total energv required 108 1296 473040
Sources: "Ravindranath et al2004
bWEDS Development Service
Human energy conversion technologies
As been pointed out human especially woman labour is one of the important sources
of energy domestic and for micro enterprise activities in the different agro ecological
zones of Kilifi district. Human labour provides over most of human based mechanical
energy especially in the on-farm micro enterprise activities. Therefore, where possible
it is necessary to replace human labour or improve its efficiency i.e. doing more using
less energy. This can be achieved by improving access to appropriate technology.
Technology allows man to perform tasks that would otherwise have been difficult or
impossible.
80
5 SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Summary of findings
The fmdings of the study are that whereas there are variety of energy choices for microenterprise
activities the most important are biomass and human energy. The biomass consists of firewood,
charcoal and agricultural residues are the most important energy choices for microenterprise.
Human energy is another important source of microenterprise activities in the different agro
ecological zones of Kilifi district. The choices of human energy are determined by gender and
age. The adult woman followed by the child woman provides most of this energy. The use of
modern and commercial energy sources such as electricity and kerosene fuels is very limited.
The main use of electricity and kerosene is lighting.
According to the study agro ecological factors influence the location, quality and quantity of
biomass energy sources for microenterprise activities in the AEZ reviewed. In addition, agro
ecological factors influence types of microenterprise, food availability (nutrition) disease
prevalence hence human energy demand and supply. The study fmdings show that institutions-
the rules, laws and organizations and social norms that coordinate human behaviour- an aspect of
social condition have the greatest influence on rural biomass and human energy sources.
Institutions for example determine division of labour between women and men. The study also
finds that based on the climax vegetation equation (Major 1951) inspired by Jenny's soil
equation (1941, 1958) a model showing the influence of institutions on biomass energy sources
can be illustrated.
Climax Vegetation (V) = f (cl, pm, r, 0, t) where CI= climate pm= parent material r=
relief 0= organism and t= time (Major 1951)
Let institutions (I) = f (tr, a, v, lw, pl, .....) Where tr =traditions a = attitudes v = values,
1 = laws, pl =policies. Therefore If type of biomass energy (D) is a function of
institution on climax vegetation this can be represented as 0 = f [(V,) (I) lor (0) =
f[(cl, pm, r, 0, t) (tr, a, v, lw, pI, i ....)]
81
This model needs further research but in its present state it can provide policy makers with a
framework for understanding how agro ecological factor influence rural biomass energy choices.
Since it appears that, in the-medium to long term, firewood "andcharcoal will' remain key energy
sources for most households in rural and urban areas due to economic, political and structural
reasons.
The findings of the study show that, current use of biomass and human energy has negative
ecological, economic and socio-cultural impacts. Furthermore, these impacts have causal
linkages and mutually reinforce each other with respect to their contribution to poverty, lack of
social equity, environmental degradation and inability to Millennium Development Goals in
Kilifi district.
The study fmding show that if 50% of the selected bioenergy source are utilised the existing total
mnual bioenergy potential in Kilifi district is between 800, Billion to 801 Billion kWh per year
or 472 million BOE (see Table 4-25). Biodiesel from coconuts contributes the bulk 99.9% ofthis
ootential, The district can have between 80.0 billion and 80.1 billion kWh per year of electricity
If 10% of its bioenergy potential is converted to electricity. This electrical energy can power
169,000 60-household villages based on a load of 108 kW for a 12 hour day per year. Thus
orovide energy services mix such as water pumping, grain milling, welding, lighting oil
extraction and tailoring. Apart from providing the stated energy services bioenergy sources have
1number of advantages over other renewable. These include improving soil fertility, soil water
nfiltration and water table, food production and nutrition in the district.
;.2 Conclusions
Ihe study concludes that given the current use of biomass and human energy sources energy
iervices required for rural microenterprises development will not be available or expensive thus
oerpetuating the poverty situation. This scenario continue to negatively impact on the
mvironment and community well being.
.ooking at the electrical energy potential Kilifi district has enormous potential for producing
.onvenient and clean energy sources that hardly utilised. Only 1.1% of this energy potential can
novide the 2015 projected 887324 Kilifi population with 1000kWh per capita electricity
82
'consumption t-o put the-district- into-the middle -income bracket thus achieving' on "oneof the key
Millennium Development Goals.
If this energy transition is to occur hence rnicroenterprise development and environmental
protection it is critical that the influence of agro ecological factors energy choices and type of
microenterprise must be given its due consideration. This means that the bioenergy production is
conceptualised, planned and implemented putting into consideration among other things the
socio economic and cultural conditions (population, institutions, education, incomes e.t.c.)
prevailing in the different agro ecological zones Kilifi district. this includes first high illiteracy
and poverty especially among the women who own most of the microenterprises and also
provide most of the labour for their activities. second, energy has a derived demand therefore to
obtain the required energy services the women must have access to appropriate end use gadgets
and operating skills.
5.3 Recommendations
This study makes the following recommendations:
1. Further study/studies need to be undertaken so as to gain an understanding as to why
there is apparently no utilisation of bioenergy sources for .generating electricity despite
the existence of enormous potential in Kilifi district
11. Research need to be that aim at using ecological concepts and principles to develop a
model that will assist in designing, developing, and managing sustainable rural renewable
energy systems.
lll. Decentralized renewable energy systems appear to be a viable energy alternative for
microenterprise development and environmental protection in the different agro
ecological are. Therefore, there is need for a study to that seeks to identify both the
opportunities and constraints related to the establishment of decentralised community
renewable energy system projects
IV. . The development of Predictive Ecosystem Mapping (PEM) for Kilifi district and rural
coast region as a whole. The PEM will provide the basis for the improvement of the
83
· ~,.-: •..• ~ r.·- ,," ,
natural capital such as increased soil water retention, improvements in water table (with
more drinking water in the dry season), reduced soil erosion combined with improved
- -organic matter in soils, leading to better carbon sequestration, and increased agro-
biodiversity.
v. The study recommends institutional reform that ann at promoting stronger social
organisations at local level, new rules and norms for managing collective natural
resources, and better connectedness to external policy institutions. This will among other
things utilization of legal and policy opportunities such as constituency development
fund, local authorities transfer fund among others to put up agro ecological-based
decentralized renewable energy systems.
VI. The study recommends research on the potentials of small scale biodiesel production and
also on biodiesel management technologies to reduce negative environmental risks for
instance groundwater and soil contamination. The aim of which is the promotion of small
scale rural based biodiesel production enterprises and the introduction of biodiesel
blended with conventional diesel i.e. B20 (20% biodiesel) or B2 with a gradually shift to
B100 (or 100% biodiesel) when production is stable. However -
Vl1. The study recommends the development Bio energy atlas for Kilifi district, the coast
region and indeed for all Agro ecological zones of the republic of Kenya. This bio energy
atlas will provide data of all agricultural crops their crop dependent and crop independent
residues and their corresponding energy equivalents.
84
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89
APPENDICES
Appendix i Household questionnaire
Questionnaire No .Interviewer Date .
Location .
Agro-ecological zone .
Q1. Interviewee information
Gender ------------------------------------
lY1aritalstatus -------------------------------------
Age Below 18 18-55
Education Not beyond primary secondary
55 and above
tertiary
I. To determine the relative importance of current energy choices in the different agro
ecological zones of the district.
Househo ld characteristics
HHmember Age Professional trainingSex Education
Q1. What are the sources of your cash income?
If others please specifY--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Q2. With respect to Q2 Name/list the micro enterprises
Q3. With respect to Q2 please specify type of wage employment
Q4. Is the micro enterprise located within the household? Yes No
Ifno, are any activities ofthe micro enterprise carried out in the household? Yes No
Q5. Do you have access to electricity? Yes No
90
Q6. With respect Q8 . diill cate t e source 0 .your e ec ncity
Grid Generator Photo-voltaic generator and
- photovoltaic-
h f 1 tri .
Q7. What are the main sources of energy for your micro enterprise activities?
Q8. With respect to Q7, if biomass (fuel wood, charcoal, agricultural residues, cow dung
e.t.c.) is included indicate among the sources of energy for your micro enterprise, this source
of energy obtained?
Purchased
Collected free of charge
Purchase and collected free of charge
Other
Please specify others-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Q9. What is your total monthly energy bill for the microente ·K hilli ?rpnse ill enyas mgs.
Not more than 500
1000-2000
More than 2000
Other
If other please specify-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
QI0. If collected free of charge, how many hours do you spend to collect your
daily/weekly/monthly energy requirement?
Q11. ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ..--------
Q12. Besides collection of biomass energy sources, does your micro enterprise use human
energy? Yes No
Q13. In relation to human energy stated in Q 11 rank in order of contribution. (Indicate by
numberingfrom 1-3 in order where one is the greatest contributor)
Woman (child)
Woman (adult)
Man (adult)
Man (child)
other
91
Please specify others---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Q14. With regards to the purchasing/collection of the energy choices listed in Q7 do you
- separate/distinguish between-that destined for in micro enterprise and that for
domestic/household activities? Yes No
-"D. To assess of-the agro ecological factors that influences current energy choices in the
different agro ecological zones of the district.
Q15. (a)Are there any challenges you face with respect to your using the energy choices stated
inQ7?Yes No
(b) If yes kindly elaborate
Q16. Are there any advantageslbenefit obtaining with respect the energy sources listed in Q7
and/or their use the -
Q17. Are there any traditions related to energy choices and use? Yes No
Q18. with respect to Q16 if yes kindly elaborate
m. To determine the environmental impacts of rural microenterprise current energy
choices in the different agro ecological zones of the district
Q19. What are the impacts on human health associated with current energy choices and use?
Q20. What are the impacts on the environment the current energy choice and use?
Q21. What are the impacts on the plant resources the current energy choice and use?
92
Q22.
-----------------------------------------------------------------~--------------------------------------~------------
What are impacts on wildlife the current energy choice and use?
Q23.
IV.
Q24.
Q25.
Q26.
What other impacts associated with the current energy choice and use?
To determine potential sustainable alternative energy choices and use for rural
microenterprise activities in the different agro ecological zones of the district
Do you know of any existing potential alternative energy sources in the area?
In relation to Q20, what factors constrain access or use of these energy sources?
In relation to Q21, How can these constraints be overcome?
Q27~ In your opinion, suggest alternative strategies, measures and investment options for
improving access to energy in general.
93
Appendix ii Tool for, Focus Group Discussion
I Exploring the relative importance of current energy choices in the different agro
ecological zones of the district
Y'" Ql.;, What are the main sources of your cash income? .
Q2. Name/list the microenterprises
Q3. Name /list types of wage employment
Q4. Where are most ofthe micro enterprise located and why?
Q5. What are the main sources of energy for your micro enterprise activities?
Q6. Where do people obtain biomass (fuel wood, charcoal, agro residues, cow dung e.t.c?)
Q7. Who contributes the most energy in micro enterprise activities?
Q8. What the challenges faced in using biomass energy sources?
II Exploring the agro ecological factors that influences the current choice in the
different agro ecological zones of the district.
Q9. Are there any advantages/benefit of using biomass and human energy sources?
QI0.Are there any traditions related to energy choices and use?
ID. Exploring the environmental impacts of the rural microenterprise current energy
choices in the different agro ecological zones of the district
QU. What are the impacts on human health associated with current energy choices and use?
Q12. What are the impacts on the environment the current energy choice and use?
Q13. What are the impacts on the plant resources the current energy choice and use?
Q14. What are impacts on wildlife the current energy choice and use?
Q15. What other impacts associated with the current energy choice and use?
IV. Exploring potential sustainable alternative energy choices and use for rural
microenterprise activities in the different agro ecological zones of the district
Q1. Do you know of any existing potential alternative energy sources in the area?
Q2. What factors-constrain.access.or use of these energy sources?
Q3. How can these constraints be overcome?
Q4. In your opinion, suggest alternative strategies, measures and investment options for
improving access to energy in general.
94
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