r -v I ., I -
DEFAMILIARIZATION IN THE NOVELS OF
EUPHRASE KEZILAHABI AND SAID AHMED MOHAMED
THESIS
BY
MIRIAM KENY ANI pS-.?RE
C82/7622/99
SUBMITTED TO THE SCHOOL OF HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL
SCIENCES OF KENYATTA UNIVERSITY IN FULFILl\1ENT OF
THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF
PHILOSOPHY IN LITERATURE
NOVEMBER 2008
Osore, Kenyani Miriam
Dejamiliarization in
. the novels oj ,
I I2'J!tl III
ITY u RAR)
DE CLARA TION
This thesis is my" riginal work and has not been presented for a degree in any University .
........... ~ .
MIRIAM KENYANI OSORE
....\~~ ~~
DATE
This thesis has been submitted with our approval as University supervisors
1/ . .
.......•. ~~.J.~ .
PROF. KIMANI NJOGU
DEPARTMENT OF KISWAHILI AND AFRICAN LANGUAGES
KENY ATTA UNIVERSITY
............~.~ .
DR. CHARLOTTE W. RYANGA
DEPARTMENT OF KISWAHILI AND AFRICAN LANGUAGES
KENY ATTA UNIVERSITY
11
DATE
DATE
DEDICATION
This work is dedicated to Musa Kilavuka, my late grandfather,
who taught me the value of education.
III
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This work is a collaborative effort. I have benefited from many people's informed
opinions, thought-provoking observations, as well as informal academic discussions. To
all those who contributed to the success of this work, I am very grateful.
I wish to express my gratitude to Kenyatta University for offering me a scholarship to
pursue my studies. My sincere gratitude goes to my supervisors: Prof. Kimani Njogu and
Dr. Sheila Ryanga, for their steady and unwavering guidance, which made this work
interesting and bearable. Besides their valuable suggestions, they made available the
books and moral support which I needed to complete this work. To them, I am sincerely
indebted. I would also like to thank Prof. Francis Imbuga who found time to go through
this work and gave advice and comments, which helped in strengthening the arguments,
herein.
I also wish to acknowledge the support of my colleagues in the Department of Kiswahili
& Other African Languages for encouragement. I specifically thank Dr. Richard Wafula
for his invaluable support in terms of academic advice as well as providing reference
materials which were essential in writing this work. I should not forget Dr. Edwin
Masinde and Mr. D.V. Karanja for accepting to go through the final draft, in order to
make the final corrections on the thesis.
I cannot forget my mother, Jane Kisia, for encouraging me to work hard in school. In a
special way, I thank my family, especially my husband, Prof; Egara Kabaji, who gave me
IV
moral support and intellectual advice in the course of my studies. And to my youngest
children Bahati and Kagai, God bless you for missing me even on weekends when I
needed to be with you.
I thank Sheila Ozengo for having the patience and dedication to type this work. Finally, I
thank the Almighty God for granting me good health and success.
v
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title page .
Declaration... 11
Dedication.................. 111
Acknowledgement IV
Table of Contents..................................................................... VI
Definition of Terms. Xl
Abstract .
CHAPTER ONE : .
Introduction to the Study .
1.0 Background of the Study .
1.1 Statement of the Problem .
1.2 Research Assumptions .
1.3 Objectives of the Study .
1.4 The Scope .
1.5 Rationale of the Study .
1.6 Theoretical Framework .
1.7 Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) .
1.8 Methodology .
1.9 Literature Review .
1.10 Conclusion .
CHAPTER TWO .
Defamiliarizing Marriage in a Patriarchal Socio-Cultural Context. .
2.0 Introduction .
2.1 Language in a Social Context .
2.2 Mythical Roots of Patriarchal Ideology .
2.3 Defamiliarization Techniques and Marital Confinement .
2.3.1 The Rock and the Caterpillar .
2.3.2 The Permanent Handcuffs .
VI
Xlll
1
1
1
4
6
6
7
8
11
13
17
19
30
31
31
31
32
34
36
37
40
2.3.3 The Valley of Tears 41
2.4 Symbolic Presentation of Marital Arrangements..................... 42
2.4.1 Gender Roles in Marriage .44
2.4.2 The Eight Stomachs.......................................... 46
2.4.3 Women and Submission to Male Authority 47
2.4.4 Subordination through Intertextuality 51
2.4.5 Images of Women and Motherhood 53
2.4.6 Ironic Presentation of Marriage in Islam 55
2.5 Parenting and Parenthood............................................... 59
2.5.1 Punishment.................................................. 60
2.5.2 A Palace for the Nuns 62
2.5.3 Parents as Role Models 69
2.6 Conclusion '" 73
CHAPTER THREE 74
Defamiliarizing the Problematic Concepts of Good and Evil 74
3.0 Introduction 74
3.1 Juxtapositioning Images of Girls and Boys........................... 74
3.1.1 The Home as a Zoo 77
3.1.2 The Jail 77
3.1.3 The Hyena and the Angel 78
3.1.4 Images of Women as Satanic Beings 82
3.2 Images of Sexuality ~ 85
3.2.1 Images and Symbols of Virginity 86
3.2.2 The Image of Eating 88
3.2.3 Licking of Honey 90
3.2.4 Sexuality and Violence 91
3.2.4.1 Rape........................................................................ 93
3.2.4.2 Lust......................................................................... 94
3.2.4.3 Incest... 96
3.3 Images of Prostitution 98
VB
3.3.1 The Hunter and the Hunted............................................. 100
3.3.2 The Chaff and the Bouncing ofa Ball 101
3.3.3 The Bait, Hook and the Shark........................................... 103
3.3.4 The Fishing Game 105
3.3.5 The Sheep and the Man-Eater 108
3.3.6 The Dog 109
3.3.7 The Litter bin, Human Waste and Old Fruit Basket 111
3.3.8 The Public Basin.......... 115
3.3.9 The Irony of Prostitution as Nation Building 116
3.4 Conclusion.............................................................. ... 117
CHAPTER FOUR 119
D f: ·1· . . p . - . 110 -e amI iarization overty and uesperanon ~L/
4.0 Introduction 119
4.1 The Chronic Nature of Poverty 120
4.1.1 Education and Poverty 122
4.1.2 The Indignity of Poverty.............................................. 123
4.1.3 Poverty and Prostitution 126
4.2 Juxtapositioning the Rich and the Poor...... 129
4.3 Conclusion.................................................................. 136
CHAPTER FIVE 138
Defamiliarization and Religious Ideology 138
5.0 Introduction 138
5.0.1 Religious Texts and Literature 141
5.1 The Koran and the Bible 143
5.2 The Holy Eucharist 147
5.3 The Jihad Metaphor 151
5.4 The Rod of Moses 154
5.5. Sheepskin 155
5.6 Nun Hood 156
Vlll
5.7 Satan 157
5.8 Traders in the Temple 160
5.9 Joseph and Mary 161
5.10 The Furnace 162
5.11 The Transitional Nature of Death 163
5.12 Death as an Equalizer.. . ... ... .. . .. . .. . . .. .. . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. .. .. . .. . . . . . ... 166
5.13 The Hereafter 166
5.14 Emotional Death 167
5.15 Conclusion ' 170
CHAPTERSIX..................................................... 172
Dream and Magical Transformations as Defamiliarization Techniques... 172
6.0 Introduction............................................................... 172
6.1 The Dream Motif. .. . .. . . .. .. . .. . .. . . .. . . .. . .. .. . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . .. .. 172
6.1.1 Mzee Shaaban's Dream about Mr. Bopa 176
6.1.2 Dude's Dream about a Constellation of Stars 178
6.1.3 Dude's Dream about Frog-like Creatures 180
6.1.4. Kudura's Dream about Her Sons 181
6.1.5 Kitwana's Dream about Mvita's Struggles 184
6.1.6 Maimuna's Dream in Bobea about Animal-Like Creatures 186
6.1.7 Maimuna's Dream about a Python 189
6.1.8 Rosa Mistika's Dreams 193
6.1.9 Emmanuel's Dream about Heaven and the Hereafter 195
6.1.10 Kalia's Dream of Heaven 197
6.2 Magical Transformations 200
6.2.1 Magical Transformations in Babu Alipofufuka 202
6.3 Conclusion 211
IX
CHAPTER SEVEN........................... 212
Summary, Conclusion & Recommendations............... 212
7.0 Introduction...................................... 212
7.1 Summary of Study Findings 213
7.2 Conclusions of the Study 219
7.3 Recommendations for further Research , . .. .. . .. . . . . . . .. 220
REFERENCES 222
,
\.
x
DEFINITION OF TERMS
Allusion: This refers to indirect reference to another text.
Defamiliarization Techniques: These are all devices used in literature to create a special
perception of something. They are used to make one see phenomena from a different
unusual point of view.
Dream Motif. Recurrence of visions, series of pictures or events presented to a sleeping
person.
Intertextuality: A term used to refer to cases where the older texts find their way into the
current text
Irony: A device by which a writer expresses a meaning contradictory to the stated or
ostensible one.
Juxtaposition: A device that places two things side by side inviting comparison.
Magical transformations: This refers to supernatural changes of events and characters
from one state of existence to another.
Metaphor: A figure of speech in which one thing is described in terms of another in a
way that makes it appear semantically inappropriate.
Metonymy: A figure of speech in which the name of some object or idea is substituted
for another to which it has some relation.
Simile: A device through which two concepts are imaginatively and descriptively
compared.
Symbolism: Is the use of signs which are both visual and verbal to represent something
else. These signs include characters, objects and words that stand for something else.
Xl
Synecdoche: This is a device in which the name of the object being referred to IS
replaced strictly by the name of an actual part of the object in contention.
Xll
ABSTRACT
The purpose of this study was to investigate the utility of defamiliarization techniques in
selected novels of Euphrase Kezilahabi and Said Ahmed Mohamed. The novels analysed
were purposefully sampled. Kezilahabi' s Rosa Mistika (1971), Kichwamaji (1974),
Gamba fa Nyoka (1978), and Mohamed's Utengano (1980), Dunia Mti Mkavu (1980),
Asali Chungu (1978), Kiza katika Nuru (1988) and Babu Alipofufuka (2001) were
analysed. The study examined the following defamiliarization techniques: metaphor,
irony, simile, synecdoche, metonymy, analogy, symbolism, juxtaposition, allusion, dream
and magical transformations. The study adopted Critical Discourse Analysis Theory
(CDA). This post-modernist conceptual framework is an interdisciplinary approach in the
study of discourse, which views any use of language as a form of social practice. It
postulates that discourses are shaped and constrained by social structures and culture.
This study therefore, contextualized the texts as discourses and interrogated them to
reveal social problems that are mediated by mainstream ideology and power relations.
These techniques were analyzed within (CDA) variables such as the notions of ideology,
religion, gender, power and culture. The results were presented in form of an informed
discourse. The study found out that both Euphrase Kezilahabi and Said Ahme Mohamed
make deliberate and strategic use of defamiliarization techniques for foreground
meaning. The authors utilize the techniques either to depict the reality of African life or
to contest and protest against the dominant ideologies. The study found out that
defamiliarization techniques utilized are ideologically motivated and reveal social,
cultural, political, religious and historical constructs of the African society. The study
concludes that CDA can be utilized effectively to analyse texts as a way of reading
society. The study calls for further research in which CDA could be used to analyse other
genres of literature as well as other Kiswahili fiction writers. Other defamiliarization
techniques such as neologism, oxymoron, parody, parallelism and antithesis could also be
analysed.
Xlll
CHAPTERO E
Introduction to the Study
1.0 Background of the Study
The term 'defamiliarization' means to make something strange, less known and conspicuous.
It broadly refers to any situation in which the familiar is rendered in an unusual way.
According to Stacy (1977: 178), defamiliarization is a wide term and in order to recognize its
applicability, it is necessary to take cognisance of the fact that human beings seem to long for
a new and different vision of things and the world. She argues that, the theories of great
thinkers such as Galileo, Harvey, Darwin, Freud and Eistein defamiliarized and ultimately
replaced traditional views. Stacy contends that defamiliarization may be used for many
purposes such as to amuse, sadden, anger, astonish, ridicule, enchant and puzzle. In some
cases, defamiliarization may herald discoveries that change our lives, perception and later
history. Defarniliarization, therefore, is always deliberate and purposeful when it is applied,
be it in literature or in any other field.
The term defamiliarization, as used in literary circles, has a long history. Its devices have
always been used in literature even as early as the Greek and the Hellenistic eras. However,
the 17th Century saw the climax of defamiliarization in literature, during which period its
devices manifested themselves in various forms (Stacy, 1977: 168). It is for example notable
that the language of poetry, depended not at all upon logic, but rather upon defamiliarization
of ordinary language.
From its inception, defamiliarization was seen and meant to have broad implication on
aestheti~ and meaning in literature. Through the ages, various critics have stipulated that
2language itself involves defamiliarization. George Steiner, for example writes, 'Language is
the main instrument of man's refusal to accept the world as it is' (Steiner, 1982:217-218). In a
sense, language is used to deconstruct •..meaning and create new possibilities of seeing the
world.
Specifical!y, defamiliarization as a literary term can be traced back to Russian formalism. The
Russian formalist, Viktor Shklovsky (1965) coined the term 'Ostranenie' which was rendered
in English as 'making strange'. It was later translated as defamiliarization. Shklovsky·
believed that it was the function of art, to render the familiar in a new way. He asserted that
the function of art was to evoke emotional reaction. Art was meant to impart the sensation of
things as they are perceived and not as they are known. To Shklovsky, 'Ostranenie' includes
all techniques through which a writer portrays or describes something familiar in a fresh way.
Shklovsky, in clarifying the concept, stressed that defamiliarization devices do more than
convey meaning. Their function is not to make us perceive meaning, but to create a special
perception of the object in contention. It creates a vision of the object, instead of serving as a
means of knowing it (Shklovsky, 1965). This does not mean that defamiliarization is only
used in literature; it can be used in other works such as scientific or political texts for the sake
of emphasis. For example, when some proverbs are used in speech, they are used to clarify
what is being talked about. But, when they are used in literature, they make us see phenomena
from a different and unusual point of view. This is when they become defamiliarization
techniques. In this view, they are employed in literature for the specific purpose of creating a
special perception.
3Defamiliarization can be related linguistically to 'semantic shift'. This notion refers to the
technique of taking concepts out of their usual semantic setting and transfering them to
another setting. The strangeness of the object is consequently felt in its new setting.
Defamiliarization, therefore, evokes feelings and these feelings guide the process of
'refamiliarizing'. This constitutes the interpretive effort on the part of the reader.
Defamiliarization techniques strike readers and capture their attention. They oblige the reader
to slow down, allowing time for the feelings created to emerge. The feelings then guide
formulation of an enriched perspective.
Defamiliarization techniques are many and diverse. They include: metaphor, simile,
metonymy, synecdoche, neologism, parallelism, juxtaposition, analogy and allusion. An
author may decide to defamiliarize through minute observations, excessive detail and
description, dream or metamorphosis. The formalists' analysis involved systemic naming and
classification of these techniques. Their way of analyzing literary texts was criticised by
various theoreticians. Michael Bakhtin, for instance, differed with the formalists' inability to
consider the ideological meaning of literature in their analysis. His point of departure was
that, in viewing the principle of defamiliarization as just a device per se, one misses the
fundamental point that the device is ideologically motivated. It advances a definite moral
value. Bakhtin's perspective, which I agree with, is that external social factors can become an
intrinsic factor of literature (Bakhtin, 1973).
It is therefore within this context that the current study perceives the analysis of
defamiliarization techniques as the study of literary phenomena in relation to socio- cultural
contexts. This study contends that critical analysis has to take into consideration ideological
perceptions of the society if literary meaning has to be discerned. The study envisions that
4defamiliarization devices draw attention to the strangeness of a text and develop, in the
reader, the desire to understand its meaning.
In the analysis of defamiliarization devices, the study takes cognisance of the fact that a text is
a mode of discourse. This treatment of a text as discourse stretches the capability of the
analysis by viewing the selected texts as systems that use language and need to be analyzed
for meaning. The current study endeavours to examine the various defamiliarization
techniques utilized by Said Ahmed Mohamed and Euphrase Kezilahabi with a view to
presenting a re-reading of the texts under study.
1.1 Statement of the Problem
This study sought to investigate the utility of defamiliarization techniques in the novels of
Euphrase Kezilahabi and Said Ahmed Mohamed. Defamiliarization techniques encompus all
literary devices, that are utilized by an author, to express ideas in an unfamiliar way. These
literary devices evoke a deeper understanding of the text. It was, therefore, the contention of
this study that a fruitful evaluation of an author's message can be attained through analysis of
defamiliarization techniques.
A survey of recent studies of literary interpretation shows that little attention has been paid to
defamiliarization techniques in reading meaning of literary works. It is, however, true that a
long tradition in literary theory from Aristotle, Horace, and Quintilian, through the British
Romantic writers, to the Russian Formalists and Prague Linguistic Circle, has emphasized
that defamiliarization techniques are an essential component of literary texts. Other literary
critics have focused on cognitive aspects of narrative content independent of,defamiliarization
techniques used in revealing meaning (Miall and Kuiken, 1994).
/
5The thrust of this study was not to examine all the defamiliarization techniques, but only those
which are commonly utilized by the two authors under study. These are: metaphor, allusion,
simile, irony, synecdoche, metonymy, intertextuality, analogy, symbolism, juxtaposition,
repetition, the dream and magical transformations. Their aesthetic and thematic implications
were at the core of this study. Ideological, social, political, historical and cultural contexts
were examined with a view of finding out their relationship to the ideas and messages
embedded in the works. Defamiliarization techniques were examined to show how this
intersection is aesthetically negotiated.
The study upholds the notion that, although defamiliarization can be applied in normal usage
of language, when utilized in literature, it enables presentation of meanings with an intricacy
and complexity that ordinary language does not normally allow. Thus, this study interrogates
the texts to unearth their ideological implications and the impact of the defamiliarization
techniques used.
It was my contention that the authors studied display a significant desire to defamiliarize.
They have a penchant for artistically breaking out of prevalent Kiswahili mode of realistic
"-depiction, through the use of various defamiliarization techniques. Each of them seem to have
been influenced by their ideological stance on various issues, such as drawing from their
cultural, social, historical and political contexts.
Specifically the study attempted to answer the following questions:
(i) Which defam iliarization techniques are employed by the authors under study?
(ii) How do the authors under study utilize defamiliarization techniques?
6(iii) To what extent do socio-cultural structures affect the author's choice of
defamiliarization techniques?
(iv) Are the defamiliarization techniques employed, ideologically motivated?
(v) How do the authors under study utilize esoteric devices as defamiliarization
techniques?
1.2 Research Assumptions
This study was guided by five research assumptions:
(i) The authors under study use specific and identifiable defamiliarization techniques.
(ii) Defamiliarization techniques are used by the authors under study to foreground
important messages.
(iii) These defamiliarization techniques are shaped and constrained by socio-cultural
structures within which they are generated.
(iv) The defamiliarization techniques are ideologically motivated.
(v) Euphrase Kezilahabi and Said Ahmed Mohamed utilize esoteric devices as
defamiliarization techniques.
1.3 Objectives of the Study
In view of the above assumptions, the study was further guided by the following objectives:
(i) To identify the defamiliarization techniques employed by the authors under study.
(ii) To demonstrate how defamiliarization techniques are utilized in the works of Said
Ahmed Mohamed and Euphrase Kezilahabi to foreground meaning.
(iii) To explore how defamiliarization techniques are exploited to reveal the reality of
the social, political, religious and cultural context.
7(iv) To uncover the ideological assumptions behind the defamiliarization techniques
utilized by the authors under study.
(v) To examine how esoteric devices, as defamiliarization techniques, are utilized by
Kezilahabi and Mohamed.
1.4 The Scope
This study examined eight novels in total. These works are, Euphrase Kezilahabi's Rosa
Mistika (1971), Kichwamaji (1974), Gamba fa Nyoka (1978); and Said Ahmed Mohamed's,
Utengano (1980), Dunia Mti l.•.1kavu (1.980), Asali Chungu (I ?78), Kiza Katika Nuru (1988)
and Babu Alipofufuka (2001). These authors were selected because a pi lot study reveaIgedJ.-J.1J~_
est utilized in their works compared to other Kiswahili
writers. The texts are also representative of the Kiswahili novel, as a genre, and are well
placed to reveal the utility of defamiliarization techniques.
As noted earlier, defamiliarization is a wide term referring to a range of stylistic effects that
occur in literature; whether at the phonic level, grammatical level or semantic level, to plot
features. These are for instance: imagery, metaphor, wordplay, euphony, parallelism,
comparison, repetition, balance, structure, hyperbole, tautology, oxymoron, digression and
juxtaposition. This study did not examine all the defamiliarization techniques, but rather was
interested in only those which were frequently utilized by the authors under study, and which
seemed prevalent in their works. Those devices analyzed include: metaphor, allusion, irony,
symbolism, intertextuality, analogy, synecdoche, metonymy and simile. Other techniques in
relation to plot development including: juxtaposition, the dream and magical transformations;
were deemed critical in understanding Kezilahabi and Mohamed's works.
8The dream and magical transformations were discussed as defamiliarization techniques,
insofar, as they enhanced digression and distortion. The defam iIiarization techniques were
examined in their ideological, cultural, social and historical contexts. It was not within the
purview of this study, to analyse other works of poetry and drama written by the authors
under study. The selected works provide enough data to demonstrate the utility of
defamiliarization devices used by the authors under study.
1.5 Rationale of the Study
Defamiliarization techniques are an important aspect of literary writing. Atkins and Morrow
(1989) argue that the primary aim of literature in foregrounding its medium is to estrange or
defamiliarize by disrupting the ordinary form of linguistic discourse. Fowler (1986:40) also
argues rightly that literature has in modern periods, been given a privileged role in combating
the dulling familiarity of conventional codes through defamiliarization. Defamiliarization
passages of literary texts are striking and affectively evocative. They are important since,
when readers encounter them, they begin to doubt their initial conventional interpretation; this
provides the main focus for the reader's constructive activities. This study is important in
unravelling the important meanings and effects of defamiliarization techniques. The study,
therefore, contributes towards a better understanding of the works of the authors under study.
There is no doubt that the authors under study display a definite penchant for utilization of
defamiliarization techniques in their works. These techniques communicate meaning more
deeply. Mohamed's deliberate attempt to display this is depicted through some of the titles of
his works. For instance, his novels Kiza katika Nuru (Darkness within Light), Asali Chungu
(Bitter Honey) and Babu Alipofufuka (When Grandpa Resurrected), are highly defamiliarized
and striking to the reader. These titles are strange and beg for interpretation; suffice is to say
9that they are significant in understanding the author's perception of the contemporary social
and political realities in Tanzania. This study endeavours to subject these defamiliarization
techniques to rigorous interrogation in order to bring to the fore the meaning and aesthetics of
the texts more deeply.
It is my contention that the authors under study have used language imaginatively. This claim
has been made by many scholars. Wafula (1989: I) mentions Kezilahabi and Mohamed,
among other novelists,as having made good use of interesting and rich communicative
language. Senkoro (1995), in his analysis of Kezilahabi's use of humour in his play, Kaptufa
fa Marx concludes that: 'This is E. Kezilahabi, a committed writer of his society, the author of
suspense who displays mastery of language ... especially in his novels and short stories'
(Senkoro, 1995:68).
It is worthy noting that the authors under study make good use of language, yet this language
has not been given enough critical attention. The authors are prolific modern Swahili
novelists. Their works have been analyzed widely in the area of themes. Mazrui (1984) in his
analysis of Dunia Mti Mkavu says:
S.A. Mohamed's Dunia Mti Mkavu (1980) so far represents the highest in the
development of the Swahili novel in terms of its socio-political analysis of the
dynamics and dialectics of the African society under imperialist dominion. It departs
radically from Mohamed's other novels (Asali Chungu and Utengano) which, though,
progressive in the social criticism, are replete with feudalist metaphysical twists ... (
Massamba and Mulokozi, 1984: 198)
Mazrui goes on to say that, Dunia Mti Mkavu is the most important work in the Swahili
literary tradition in terms of its thematic concerns. It is my view that, analysis of
defamiliarization techniques helps the readers to understand the rich messages therein.
Further still, Nocera (2005) considers Mohamed's Kiza katika Nuru as 'an engaging model of
modern Swahili Fiction' (Nocera, 2005:80). The fact that Kiza Katika Nuru has been
[0
translated into Italian is an indication that it is regarded highly within the literary circles world
over. This is enough reason why this author's works deserve critical attention.
On the import of Mohamed's works, Njogu (2001) notes: 'Most of his (Mohamed's) writings
are quite engaging, critical and dialectic in the analysis of the human condition'. (Sunday
Standard of September, 16, 2001 :21). In the same article, Njogu quotes Mohamed himself
confess:
[ am always fascinated by opposition, for example, the past and the contemporary
situation ... [ have shifted to philosophical and psychological issues emanating from
causes and effects which in turn emanate from world histories and our own
histories ... Hence the fascination with our idiocy, apathy, indifference, hypocrisy,
absurdity and the dream of harmony and
sensibility.
This study tries to find out whether Mohamed expounds on some of these issues through his
choices of defamiliarization techniques. Whether his techniques differ in his latest works is of
interest to this study. Further still, apart from Mohamed being recognized as giving Kiswahili
readers a 'recipe for critical appraisal', both Mohamed and Kezilahabi have also been cited as
the foremost prolific Kiswahili writers (Njogu, 200 I).
The researcher found it important to analyse works of the two authors because they come
from different religious backgrounds. Said Ahmed Mohamed professes Islamic faith while
Euphrase Kezilahabi has a Christian background. This is important because the study
interrogates Muslim and Christian presentation of defamiliarization techniques. Further still,
Mohamed is a Swahili first language speaker from Zanzibar while Kezilahabi comes from
mainland Tanzania. This aspect was important in determining the type of defamiliarization
techniques favoured by the two authors.
II
Musau and Ngugi (1997:220) agree with the fact that there is an imbalance in tho fe analysis
of Kiswahili literature since most research carried out in 1975 to 1996 was on themes, the
theoretical approaches were similar and leaning towards the utilitarian aspect of literature.
They observe that, there is need to correct the imbalance by broadening the base of analysis
by use of other approaches. By utilizing Critical Discourse Analysis Theory, the current study
went a long way in contributing to the broadening of the theoretical base of analysis of the
Kiswahili novel while, contributing to understanding the novels under study through analysis
of defamiliarization techniques.
1.6 Theoretical Framework
As earlier stated, the concept of defamiliarization has its roots in the Formalist Theory of
literature. The formalists were interested in enquiring into the distinguished features of
literary material. Shklovsky wrote that; 'the literary work is pure form, it is neither thing nor
material but a relationship of materials' (Mose, 1989:3). In view of this, literature was seen as
a linguistic phenomenon, a verbal material. Consequently, the poet's job, therefore, was
defined as manipulation of language rather than as representation of reality. On this, Jakobson
(1960) claimed that if the science of literature wants to become a real science, it will have to
recognise the device as its sole hero. This demonstrates the centrality of defamiliarization
techniques, or devices to the study of literature within the formalist tradition.
This formalistic perspective had weaknesses. In the analysis of defamiliarization techniques,
the ideological meaning behind the techniques was not considered important. The formalists'
stress on novelty as the motivation for devices that are aesthetically appealing, led to the
negligence of biographical, social, ideological, emotional and psychological factors. In
addition, the socio-cultural contexts of the texts were ignored. This study perceives any
12
literary work as being part and parcel of socio-cultural context. Boris Tomashevsky, in his
study of 'thematics', considered factors that evoke and maintain interest in a theme. Among
other factors, he mentioned its relevance to reality of the contemporary social conditions.
These include the historical conditions under which the work is published and the emotions
that its theme elicit (Mose, 1989). This study goes beyond formalist criticism by recognising
extra-literary and social factors contributory to the understanding of the works of Kezilahabi
and Mohamed.
The study also goes beyond looking at defamiliarization as an aesthetic technique; to viewing
it as a complex interrelated whole. Thus, it acknowledges that the ideological, social, cultural
and historical contexts of the literary work constitute a valid area for critical enquiry. I
contend that a work of literature has to be the centre of analysis, but interpretation should
involve the extra-aesthetic aspects of literature which should be integrated in the criticism.
Such aspects include the author's philosophy which plays a role in characterization and plot.
This study encompasses all extra-linguistic aspects in analysis of defamiliarization
techniques. It therefore, embraces a broader concept of criticism.
I regard works of literature, as only entering into real contact, through being viewed as an
inseparable element of social intercourse. People come into contact through the medium of
literary works. Contrary to the formalists' view that the value of a work resided in the work
itself, the view of this study is that social, cultural, ideological and historical factors
contribute to the understanding of a particular literary work. This study recognises a writer as
a social being operating within a social-cultural context. The writer, therefore, expresses both
a personal and a societal philosophy.
13
Literature is viewed as a bridge of meaning between the writer and audience, which facilitates
the consumption of ideological and aesthetic constructions. Meaning of the defamiliarization
techniques in this study goes beyond the work of art. Therefore, while formalist theory of
defamiliarization seems extremely useful in isolating the defamiliarization techniques, there
are serious shortcomings in their expression of the concept. For this study, literary language
has to be seen as a social event and, therefore, this investigation should be seen as a social
event on language in a social and communicative context. For this reason this study adopts the
Critical Discourse Analysis Theory.
1. 7 Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA)
CDA is viewed as a shared perspective encompassing a range of approaches having different
emphasis. Some of the proponents of CDA are: Kress (1989); Fowler (1979) (1991) (1996); ~
Fairclough (1995) (1989); Van Dijk (1981) and Wodak (1989). All of them, though stressing
different aspects, treat language as a social discourse. Kress (1989), for instance, concentrates
on the political economy of representational media and attempts to understand how various
societies value and use different modes of representation.
Fowler (1979, 1991, and 1996) shows how tools provided by standard linguistic theories can
be used to uncover linguistic structures of power in a text. Fairclough (1989) outlines the
social theories underpinning CDA. Later, Fairclough (1992, 1995) and Chouliaraki and
Fairclough (1999) show how CDA is useful in disclosing the discursive nature of
contemporary social and cultural change. Although they mostly looked at language of mass
media, this work is very relevant to the current study due to its interest in how ideology can
be deciphered from the defamiliarization techniques under study.
14
Van Dijk's works (1977, 1981) in text linguistics and discourse analysis, shows his interest in
texts and discourses, as basic units and social practices. He traces the origin of linguistic
interest in units of language larger than sentences and the relationship between text and
context in interpretation of meanings. He is more interested in linguistic forms. Wodak (1989)
explains and illustrates the characteristics of critical linguistic research; she reiterates the
importance of studying language use in institutional settings. However, she adds a new focus
on the necessity ofa historical perspective in the interpretation ofCDA. Wodak (1996) shows
how scholars who have engaged in linguistic semiotic and discourse analysis from different
scholarly backgrounds share a particular perspective in which power, ideology, and history
feature centrally.
1
From the foregoing discussion, it is possible to see that the relationship between language and
society is complex and multifaceted. This is what calls for interdisciplinary research as the
above proponents of CDA contend. This study draws from this general understanding since it
is concerned with literature as a kind of discourse which is an instrument of power, control,
ideology as well as a social construction of reality.
Specifically, this study sees Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) as an interdisciplinary
approach in the study of discourse. CDA regards language as a form of social practice
(Fairclough, 1989). It focuses on the ways social and political domination is reproduced in
both written and spoken texts. CDA studies the structures of texts and considers both their
linguistic and socio-cultural dimensions in order to determine how meaning is constructed.
The theory proposes that relations of power in our society affect and shape the way we both
communicate with each other and create knowledge.
IS
CDA is a post-modern theory and like other post-modern theories, it does not provide a
particular view of the world. Whereas other periods are generally characterised by a belief
system or meaningful interpretation of the world, the post-modern period is distinguished by
the belief that there is no one meaning; thus the world is inherently fragmented and
heterogeneous. To post modernists, any sense making system or belief is merely an objective
interpretation. Such an interpretation is conditioned by its social surrounding and dominant
discourses of its time. As a result of this, postmodern theories, such as CDA, offer numerous
readings aiming at 'deconstructing' concepts, belief systems or generally held social values
and assumptions.
CDA, being a deconstructive reading and interpretation of discourse, offers this study enough
freedom in analysing the defamiliarization techniques. As Stacy (1977: 178) rightly states,
defamiliarization is a broad term and its extensiveness is one of its virtues, because it allows
us to generalise and see common elements in phenomena. This study interprets the
defamiliarization techniques with the knowledge that their meanings are highly volatile.
CDA, therefore, enables us to understand the conditions behind the authors' specific choices.
It is meant to provide a higher awareness of the hidden motivation of a work of art and makes
us interrogate the texts in terms of ontological and epistemology values. In a fundamental
way, the contribution of post-modern Critical Discourse Analysis is the application of critical
thought to social situations. It unveils both hidden and visible politics in a discourse. CDA
enables the interpretation of the world and belief systems. The purpose of CDA is not to
provide definite answers, but to expand our personal horizons and make us realize our own
shortcomings and motivations. A broad term, such as defamiliarization, can be discussed
adequately and fruitfully under CDA. This is because CDA gives enough room for the
16
analyst to investigate the motivations behind the use of various defamiliarization techniques.
Within CDA, the researcher was able to locate the defamiliarization techniques within
historical and social contexts.
The interdisciplinary techniques of CDA enable the analyst to look into how texts construct
representations of the world, social identities and social relationships. CDA treats language
as a type of social practice, which is used for representation and signification (Fairclough and
Wodak, 1997). Texts are produced by socially situated speakers and writers. This study
situates defamiliarization devices within their social contexts, since the authors are seen to be
speaking to the readers within certain socio-cultural contexts.
Generally, CDA helps the analyst understand social problems that are mediated by
mainstream ideology and power relationships in written or verbal texts (Habermas, 1973).
The researcher will utilize CDA in this line to analyse social problems mediated by
mainstream ideology as they are depicted through the techniques.
This study is therefore guided by central tenets of the CDA. It holds that discourse is shaped
and constrained by social structure and culture. This means that integration of the use of
language should involve choices made and their relationship with the socio-cultural context.
The analysis examines discourses to show the operation of constrained identities. In the study
of defamiliarization devices, attempts are made to draw a connection between the authors'
choices, socio-cultural context and systems of beliefs and knowledge.
Overall, the analysis operates on three levels; the actual text, the discursive practices and the
larger social context. This means that the text is viewed as a record of events where
17
something was communicated and involves the presentation of facts and beliefs which are
often ideological. Discursive practices refer to rules, norms and mental models of socially
acceptable behaviour in specific relationships. This means that the text is more than just
words on a page. It discloses how those words are used in a particular social context. Finally,
the texts under study are analyzed within their socio-cultural contexts. In a sense, CDA
focuses on the way social relations, identity, knowledge and power are constructed through
written and spoken texts. Thus, discourse is seen as involving power and ideologies and is
connected to the past and the current context. The defamiliarization techniques are analyzed
in relation to the rules, norms, and mental models of the relevant socially acceptable
behaviour.
Critical to this investigation is the basic post-modern assumption that the 'right' interpretation
does not exist while a more or less plausible or adequate interpretation is likely (Fairclough,
2002, Wodak and Ludwig, 1999). My interpretation of the defamiliarization techniques
should be viewed as one of the possible interpretations of cultural discourses.
1.8 Methodology
The primary method used in this study was textual anal sis of the selected works. The
selection of the texts was done through purposive sampling. Only those texts that make use of
defamiliarization techniques extensively were selected. The general strategy entailed reading
the texts under study with a critical mind and isolating the defamiliarization techniques. The
researcher identified unfamiliar forms by looking at the linguistic and extra-linguistic
contexts. The forms which were strikingly unfamiliar were purposefully sampled in terms of
their frequency and interpreted within the Critical Discourse Analysis Theory.
18
As already pointed out, CDA does not aim to provide a definite perspective in the analysis,
but rather it aims at revealing the motivations behind the choices of the various
defamiliarization techniques. CDA is neither quantitative nor qualitative, but it is a way of
questioning the basic assumptions of both qualitative and quantitative methods. It focuses on
the existence of the text and its message and locates them within a historical and social
context. In this view, the isolated defamiliarization techniques were analyzed through CDA
variables such as the notions of ideology, power, religion, culture and gender. These variables
are viewed as relevant in the interpretation of defamil iarization techniques.
The principal unit of analysis for CDA is the text. Texts were taken to be social actions,
meaningful an~ coherent usage of spoken and written language. Thus, the analysis entailed
descriptions, explanations, as well as the rooting out of particular kinds of delusions and
demystifying the texts by deciphering the ideologies and motivations behind the various
choices by the authors under study.
The interdisciplinary technique of CDA enabled the analyst to look into how the
defamiliarization techniques construct representations of the world, social identities and social
relationships. In this case, the texts were considered as the centre of analysis from which the
analyst constructed meaning. CDA regards language as not being powerful on its own, but
rather gains power by the use of powerful people (Wodak and Meyer, 200 I: 11). It is within
this view that the analysis examines defamilliarization techniques in so far as they reveal the
power relations, involving men-women, parents-children, leaders-citizens. Power is about
relations of differences in social structures. It does not derive from language, but language can
be used to challenge power, to subvert it, to alter distributions of power in the short term as
well as long term (Wodak and Meyer, 200 I : I I).
19
The analysis of the techniques, therefore, entailed identifying the authors' points of view or
perspectives and positions on the power relations portrayed through the defamiliarization
techniques. The authors' insinuations, suggestions, connotational interpretations through the
various techniques were of great interest in understanding the motivations and ideologies
behind their choices. The study did not analyse all defamiliarization techniques, but
concentrated on those which appear with unique frequency in the selected works. They
included metaphor, irony, symbolism, allusion, synecdoche, juxtaposition, analogy,
metonymy, intertextuality, simile, the dream and magical transformation. The results are
presented in the form of an informed debate.
1.9 Literature Review
No study has been done on defamiliarization techniques on a Kiswahili novel. It is also
apparent from my review of literature that so far, there is no study that has examined
defamiliarization techniques within post-modern CDA on the Kiswahili novel. Most of the
scholars who have attempted to study aspects of language in literary works have concentrated
on style without showing the contribution of extra-linguistic features in the understanding of
literature. Some of the works discuss aspects of style by citing examples from Literature in
English.
Fowler's (1986) study is a linguistic analysis of literary texts. He studies the concepts of
habitualization and defamiliarization and links them to linguistic categories, cohesion and
point of view. Fowler uses Halliday's Functional Linguistics Theory in which he finds out
that the purpose of art is to impart the sensation of things as they are perceived and not as they
are known. Defamiliarization is perceived as a strategy used by an author to make the reader
to be critical. Fowler illustrates this with examples from Western literature such as Gulliver's
20
Travels, as well as some stanzas from William Carlos, 'The Right of the Way'. His work is
relevant to this study, in so far as it shades some light on defamiliarization techniques.
Leech (1969) shows the student of English that examination of literary language leads to a
better understanding of a text. He examines the language of literature at different levels by
making close reference to English poets, such as Yeats, Cummings, Spencer and Keats.
Generally, he illustrates how language is utilized by a poet, through quoting sections of
poems, but does not examine the effect of this to the texts in totality, or themes and aims of
the authors. This study focuses on novels written by selected Kiswahili writers.
Traugott and Pratt (1980) seek to demonstrate the relationship between linguistics and
literature. They illustrate this relationship by drawing examples from English literature at all
levels of language. The work presents a superficial analysis of various texts without in-depth
reading of any single text.
Most of the works that have analyzed Kiswahili novels, have concentrated on the themes.
Musau and Ngugi (1997:220) claim that 70% of the studies done between 1975 - 1996 focus
on themes while 18% focus on the use of language. Such works which have analyzed themes
include Gwachi (1991), Habwe (1987), Kamunde (1983), Lugano (1989), Muindi (1990),
Musau (1995) and Njogu (1997). Generally, the language and the defamiliarization
techniques, which have been used to communicate the various themes, have not been
analyzed in depth. This study examines the selected texts in terms of their observable
characteristics. The works intrinsic values are appreciated as well as the various themes
explored more vividly. However, the studies are important in providing some general
knowledge about the various themes, which these authors set to discuss.
21
Works that have discussed some features of language in Kiswahili novels are indeed few.
Such works include Wafula (1989). The purpose of Wafula's study was to describe Shaaban
Robert's use of allegory as a mode of literary expression and to explain possible factors
leading to this use. His theoretical model is drawn from authorities, critics and writers who
have written about allegory as a mode of literary expression. The work concludes that an
allegory is a technique of creating, translating or interpreting literary works so that they
convey more than one level of meaning simultaneously. The study also envisions the use of
extended metaphors as an aspect of allegory and that the use of allegory in Kiswahili
literature, is similar to that in the western view of the concept. This is an important study for it
unveils the themes discussed by Shaaban Robert more clearly. However, it deals with only
one kind of defamiliarization technique in relation to Shaaban Robert.
Senkoro (1995) examines use of humour in Kezilahabi's works. He also examines some
poems and his play Kaptula fa Marx. Senkoro concludes that Kezilahabi's use of language
can only be compared to Shaaban Robert's. Humour is just one of the aspects which
Kezilahabi uses in exposition of his message and thus Kezilahabi's use of literary devices
should be analyzed in depth in order to appreciate the intrinsic value of his works.
Kitsao (1975) is interested in the application of stylistics to written Swahili prose texts. His
theoretical framework is adapted from Crystal and Davy (1969), a model which is designed
for analysis of spoken English. He analyses selected texts at the levels of semantics, grammar
and lexicon. Specifically, he looks at themes and patterns of thematic development, types of
sentences, types of clauses, use of colloquialism, slang, formality, journalistic and
commentary realizations. Kitsao looks at these aspects from groups of extracts from different
texts: plays, poems, newspaper articles, and novels. He also compares Kezilahabi's Rosa
22
Mistika and Shaaban Robert's Wasifu wa Siti Binti Saad regarding thematic development,
devices such as similes, humour and role of fate. He compares Kinjeketile and Wakati Ukuta
with a view to showing how the two texts, written by the same author, differ in style.
In the final analysis, Kitsao's thesis is not as focused as anticipated because it examines so
many works. In conclusion, he says that the study is a description of Swahili texts as a whole.
This is an overstatement because the data he collects from the different texts is not exhaustive
in order for that work to support such claim. At the lexical level, he observes that
conservatives like Shaaban Robert have enriched Swahili language with variant vocabulary
through innovations, which are closer to the language, than loan words. Kiswahili literature
needs to be studied exhaustively in the area of literary techniques utilized in order to
document its richness and contribution to the world of literature.
Kitsao's (1982) study is an attempt to study stylistic features with the help of statistics. The
selected texts are subjected to analysis of sentence length, sentence complexity, number of
clauses per sentence, speech types, authors' instructions in texts, number of words per line,
number of syllables per word, word categories, vocabulary employed and punctuation
devices. The investigation devotes the first three chapters to a survey of the major themes in
Kiswahili literature. The strength of the study lies in the fact that the method can be used to
trace unknown authors of certain works. At the same time, his objective criterion is highly
commendable.
Although Kitsao's study is a fruitful survey of Kiswahili literature in general, especially the
themes treated by different authors, its main aim was to test the applicability of the theory.
The works analyzed are dealt with to a very limited extent, thus, the first five hundred
23
sentences of each text. As a result, the selected texts (novels and plays) cannot be considered
representative of the authors' works. The study has not dealt with some important artistic
aspects of the text such as symbolism, parallelism, personification and many other aspects of
imaginative literature.
Kazungu (1982) studies Deviation and Foregrounding generally and how they are manifested
in Wakati Ukuta (play), Swifa ya Nguvumali (poem), and Asali Chungu (novel). The objective
\
of the study was to show how deviation and foregrounding are manifested in the texts.
Linguistic aspects from the chosen texts were analyzed at the levels of graphology,
phonology, morphology, syntax and semantics. The following deviation and foregrounding
features were analyzed at the various levels: rhyme, metre, neologism, archaic and foreign
words, code mixing, sentence length, clause structures, statements, questions, imperatives,
metaphor, personification and antithesis. The above features were studied primarily in terms
of how effective they were in communicating literary messages. The analysis entailed looking
into deviation and foregrounding in relation to conventional features in the texts. Since his
aim was to provide a linguistic description of deviation and foregrounding in Kiswahili, he
utilized a theoretical framework for establishing norms derived from Leech (1969) and
Transformation Generative Grammar (TGG) as developed by Chomsky (1957), to explain
grammatical structures. He found out that deviation and foregrounding are related to other
stylistic concepts such as register and personal idiosyncrasies.
Kazungu's study is closely related to the current study, which aims at studying
defamiliarization in Kiswahili novels. However, it differs in the sense that whereas his
theoretical framework was based on the Leech (1966) model, and Chomsky's (1957)
Transformational Generative Grammar, the current study adopts Post-modern Critical
24
Discourse Analysis Theory. Unlike Kazungu's study, this study analyses defamiliarization
techniques as a means of unravelling the ideology, motivation and power relations. Kazungu's
study was not interested in the socio-cultural context of the works under study. The current
study interprets the defamiliarization techniques by drawing from both linguistic and extra-
linguistic context. Although his findings are quite illuminating, there is need for a
comprehensive analysis of the works of the major Kiswahili novelists, with a view of finding
out the relationship between the themes and their aesthetic richness.
Osore (1994) analyses the novels of Suleiman Mohamed within a linguistic model. The study
aims at analyzing the themes through studying the language at the levels of syntax, semantics
and pragmatics. Specifically, the study looks into sentence types, role structures,_ metaphors
and proverbs and how the author utilized these aspects to effectively communicate to the
reader. This study does not examine extra-linguistic aspects in the analysis of language usage.
Other aspects of literary language are not analyzed because of its limited scope.
It is now appropriate to examine literature on defamiliarization. Although the term
'defamiliarization' has been associated with Shklovsky; contemporary literary scholars and
critics have referred to Shklovsky's 'ostranenie' theory rendering the Russian term in various
ways. Another term, which has been used by Shklovsky and other Russian Formalists for
defamiliarization is 'deautomatization', which is found in various modern studies in poetics.
Ludwig, in his study of Hopkins's sonnets, uses the word 'deformation' (Erlich, 1981). This
concept also gained considerable popularity especially, amongst the literary scholars of the
Prague Linguistic Circle and the Warsaw Literary circle. While discussing the Prague
Linguistic circle and Jan Mukarovsky, Rene Wellek writes:
25
In agreement with the Russian Formalists, Mukarovsky considers artistic form as
having two main traits: deformation and organization. The term 'deformation' has no
derogatory implications. It simply means the changes imposed on the original
materials, the novelty, for example of poetic language in contrast to spoken language.
(Wellek, 1970:281)
Likewise, Geoffrey Hartman while discussing dehumanization in the modern novel, speaks of
writers who foster 'techniques of perception which are dissociative, rather than associative in
nature. He says these techniques 'do not make the strange, familiar but rather estrange the
familiar (Hartman, 1970:39). He also mentions the formalists and their view that 'in literature
as distinguished from normative discourse, language is 'deformed', 'estranged'
're barbarized' .
This idea of deforming, rupturing and breaking is also present in modern literary theory.
Roland Barthes, has used the term 'semioclassics' while other French novelists and critics
occasionally use the words 'briser' and 'brisure' to refer to 'breaking' linguistic and literary
inertia (Stacy, 1977:44). Generally, numerous introductions to structuralism and semiotics
refer to Shklovsky's writings.
Defamiliarization has also been discussed by Mukarovsky who argued that with everyday
language, communication is the primary purpose and foregrounded structures are not
normally involved. To him, the purpose of foregrounding is to disrupt such everyday
communications. He writes:
Foregrounding is the opposite of automatization, that is, the deautomatization of an
act: the more an act is automatized, the more it is consciously executed ... Objectively
speaking, automatization schematizes an event; foregrounding means the violation of
the scheme (Mukarovksy, 1964: 19)
Here, Mukarovsky and Shklovsky seem to agree on the fact that foregrounding
(defamiliarization) enhances a deeper interpretation of whatever is being defamiliarized.
26
Thus, defamiliarization enables literature to present meanings with an intricacy and
complexity that ordinary language does not normally allow.
The foregoing discussion shows that Mukarovsky and Shklovsky, although seemingly
unaware of it, show continuity with earlier works of Coleridge and Shelley (Erlich,
1981: 179). Coleridge, for example, in praising Wordsworth's poetry, refers to the poet's
ability to combine the child's sense of wonder and novelty with the appearances which
everyday, for perhaps forty years, had rendered fam iliar (Coleridge, 1983 :81). Shelley
describes the power of poetry in similar terms. To him, 'poetry purges from our inward sight,
the film of familiarity, which obscures from us the wonder of our being' (Shelley, 1988:295).
What Shelley meant here is that poetry overcomes the barriers of familiar perception thereby
enabling us to see some aspects of the world in a new way.
It is also clear, from Coleridge's writings that he sees the defamiliarizing process as being
accompanied by feeling. His well-known definition of the poetic imagination in Biographia
Literaria reveals this fact. He says: 'It dissolves, diffuses, disputes, in order to recreate'
(Coleridge, 1983:304). In describing the aim of poetry that he and Wordsworth wrote, he
claims that imagination evokes feelings of sympathy and interest. Shklovsky also sees
defamiliarization as accompanied by feeling. He notes that stylistic devices, in literary texts
'emphasize the emotional effect of an expression' (Shklovsky, 1965:9). This position is also
taken by Mukarovsky when he says: 'when used poetically, words, and groups of words
evoke a greater richness of images and feelings than if they were to occur in a communicative
utterance' (Mukarovsky, 1977:73).
27
Apart from the fact that defamiliarization is mentioned and has been discussed in modern
theory, we have a few studies that have been done specifically on defamiliarization. For
example, Hunt and Vipond (1985) investigated the effects of textual features that they,
following Labov (1972), refer to as discourse evaluations. These are described as words,
phrases or events that are unpredictable and are against the norm of the text. They convey the
narrator's evaluations of story characters or events. In a study of readers of a short story, they
found that readers were more likely to report that story phrases 'struck them' or 'caught their
eyes'. This was especially true when presented with the original discourse evaluations than
when those phrases had been adapted so that the same story events were described in
relatively neutral terms.
Van Peer (1986) carried out research to find out whether foregrounding captures readers'
interests. Using six short poems, van Peer asked readers to note which lines of the poem
seemed more striking. Regardless of their prior level of literary training, the readers showed
remarkable agreement on this task and more significantly their ranking of how striking they
found the lines of poetry. All these correlated, significantly, with van Peer's prior rankings of
the extent to which those lines included foregrounding.
Both Hunt and Vipond (1985) and van Peer (1986) agree that readers' experience
foregrounded texts as striking. Neither of them attempted to either examine whether readers
also experienced foregrounded texts as evocative of feeling, nor examined the messages
through the defamiliarization techniques. Apart from identifying the foregrounded texts as
striking, the current study goes beyond, to dig out the foregrounded messages.
28
There is evidence that defamiliarization evokes feeling in the study carried out by Mial\
(1992). He compared the affect ratings of experiences associated with noun phrases before
and after those main phrases were encountered in the lines of a poem. Readers reported that
affect was accentuated in associations to noun phrases after those phrases were encountered,
in lines containing numerous foregrounded elements. Miall's study suggests that
foregrounding does not only prompt defamiliarization, but does also accentuate feeling.
In his paper, 'Towards de familiarization and experimentation: Kezilahabi's novel-Nagana
and the Future of Swahili Literature', Mohamed, attempts to show how the Kiswahili novel
has changed over a period of time in its form and content. In a very general way, he shows
that Nagana is an example of this change, in terms of its aspects of internal laws of structure,
of the narrative, as well as organizing and controlling elements. After looking at the various
earlier trends such as the anti-colonial rhetoric trend, realist and socialist trends, he concludes
that in Nagana, Kezilahabi is bent at giving the Kiswahili novel a new shape, vision and
perspective, both in terms of form and substance. He concludes that Nagana breaks away
from the traditional story telling methods and forms of the realist novel by utilizing repetition,
mythical and epic figures, among other aspects. This study considers Mohamed's findings
useful in the sense that they extend my perception of the centrality of Kezilahabi's
innovations to the Kiswahili novel.
Mose (1989) analyses defamiliarization in the works of Gabriel Garcia Marquez from 1947-
1967. His study of defamiliarization looks into the texts by analysing the various meanings
and motivations as examples of the defamiliarization techniques. Some of the techniques he
examines are: defamiliarization of syntax, metaphor, repetition, doubling or tripling of
descriptive words, and rhetorical questions. He concluded that the earliest tales of Garcia
29
Marquez show a significant aim of defamiliarization. They also show an artistic will to break
out of the prevalent Spanish American mould of realistic depiction of an apparently regional
reality. This work was relevant to the current study which looked into the defamiliarization
techniques in the works of Said Ahmed Mohamed and Euphrase Kezilahabi. Some of the
techniques such as metaphor which the current study addressed have also been analyzed. The
study aided in the analysis of this device and generally in methodology.
One of the most relevant works to the current one is Stacy's (1977). This book is both an
introduction to Shklovsky's theory of 'ostranenie' and an attempt to show by examples, how
this concept is applicable to a wide range of human activity in general and to language and
literature in particular. Defamiliarization, in her perspective, includes not only a large area of
traditional metaphor and periphrasis, but also such devices as parody and hyperbole. She says
that Shklovksy's term may also be applied to such matters as the creative manipulation,
radical upsetting and distortion of familiar traditions or the foregrounding of certain artefacts.
She elaborates on the various types of defamiliarization techniques at all levels and gives
examples from Western literary writers. She quotes great writers such as Milton, Gogol,
Propp, Tolstoy, Buechner, Golding, Durrell, Wells and Horace. She, however, does not
• discuss any African writer.
Since this study is interested in isolating the various defamiliarization techniques from the
selected texts and interpreting their meanings and effects, Stacy's (1977) study is very
relevant. This book has deepened my knowledge of defamiliarization as well as giving me the
criteria for isolating the various techniques.
30
From the above review, it is clear that defamiliarization is a broad term that covers many
aspects of language and literature. What is important to note here is that an artist familiarizes
by defamiliarizing in the sense that, if successful, he brings to our recognition a new, different
or a more striking vision. The writer renews our familiarity or even defamiliarizes through
some more or less ordinary facets of reality, image, literary tradition or resource of the
language. Thus, something familiar is in one way to appear unfamiliar, new, fresh or
especially illuminating.
1.10 Conclusion
This chapter has laid the background of the study showing what the study intends to achieve.
The objectives, research assumptions and methodology have also been discussed. The theory,
which has been used to analyse the data, has been discussed. The literature review has
revealed that, no study has been done using the theory and methodology used in this work. It
is also clear that CDA is a multidisciplinary approach, which draws from linguistics and
socio-linguistics giving this study, the best tools to analyse defamiliarization techniques in the
works under study. In the next chapter, I will look into how the authors under study have used
defamiliarization techniques in depicting the theme of marriage in a patriarchal socio-cultural
context.
31
CHAPTER TWO
Defamiliarizing Marriage in a Patriarchal Socio-Cultural Context
2.0 Introduction
The previous chapter laid the foundation of this study. It examined the objectives,
assumptions and methodology of the study. Works that have theoretical and conceptual
relevance to the topic of the study were discussed. The concept of defamiliarization was also
problematized. From the investigation, it became clear that defamiliarization techniques are
utilized with a purpose. The literature reviewed showed that no significant study has
examined defamiliarization techniques within the post-modern Critical Discourse Analysis
Theory.
A major objective of this study is to uncover ideological assumptions that are embedded in
the defamiliarization techniques that are utilized by the authors under study. The techniques
are utilized for the enhancement of aesthetics and meaning. It is for this reason, that the
present chapter discusses the aspects that defamiliarize marriage in a patriarchal socio-cultural
context. Its aim is to explore the relationship between the defamiliarization techniques and the
socio-cultural structures. The chapter further attempts to explore the meanings, aesthetics and
effects of defamiliarization devices on the readers.
In this chapter, I argue that one of the fundamental motivations of use of defamiliarization is
to ideologically put forward a definite moral value. The analysis of the defamiliarization
techniques makes inferences from the texts under study, constructing indicators of worldview,
values and attitudes, which construct and deconstruct the popular ideological, cultural beliefs
and practices. Birch (1991: 10 I) argues that defamiliarization brings to light the relationships
of power, status and solidarity, which have been ignored in most linguistic models of
32
communication. This chapter attempts to explore these relationships because, they are viewed
as fundamental to the understanding of literary texts. Normal usage of language has the
important role of establishing normative concepts that define social reality, which in turn has
a controlling power over individual identity. It is within this understanding that this chapter
discusses how defamiliarization techniques in the texts under study are instrumental in
exposing and questioning some of the popular ideologies, at the levels of cultural beliefs and
practices. Thus, [ discuss defamiliarization techniques that depict marital confinement, gender
roles in marriage and parenthood in my attempt to establish their cultural and ideological
underpinnings. But, first let us examine the place of language in a social context.
2.1 Language in a Social Context
Analysis of the defamiliarization techniques In this study goes beyond interpreting the
abstract structures of language by arguing that a fruitful analysis of linguistic forms has to
seriously consider the social context within which these forms are used. Consequently, within
this understanding, a text is a mode of discourse. This then means that the works under study
are analyzed as discourses taking place within definite socio-cultural contexts. Although a
writer writes from his thoughts, convictions, struggles, ambitions and dreams, all these are
informed by the social, historical, cultural and political background. To a large extent,
therefore, literary works are the writers' reaction to the social milieu within which they live.
This study situates the writers within their social cultural contexts. Consequently, the African
and especially Swahili socio-cultural contexts are deemed relevant in the interpretation of the
defamiliarization techniques. The writers under study, writing in Kiswahili language, are seen
to have been influenced by Swahili culture as well as the wider African cultural practices and
beliefs.
33
Language is one of the most important areas of knowledge that human beings possess. It is a
powerful influence in the way people perceive and adj ust to the world around them. Apart
from language being knowledge, it is also a skill or a practice. Thus, people speak to one
another by perform ing real actions through speech. The process of passing meaning from one
person to another involves determining and agreeing upon meanings. Interpretation of
defamiliarization techniques in the novels under study is an example of such a process
whereby in deciphering meanings, the reader has to understand the social context of the
writer, which in turn brings forth the meaning. Analysis of defamiliarization techniques is
.' therefore important in understanding how these meanings are constructed and negotiated.I
Ji,
il Though language is acquired unconsciously, one begins to use it consciously through
interaction with cultural imperatives. Thus, we begin to choose to speak in a certain manner
due to our feelings, beliefs, circumstances and objectives. In literature, this is what forms a
writer's style. In her discussion of irony, Hutcheon (1995:89) underscores the importance of
social context in the analysis of irony. To her, irony is socially conditioned. She argues that
social context is important in understanding how we communicate. Fish (1980:318), also
concurs with Hutcheon when he notes that: 'Language is always perceived from the very first,
within a structure of norms; that structure is not abstract and independent but social'. The
structure of norms being referred to here may include patriarchy, which has structured society
in a way that man is seen as superior to woman. Most African communities such as the
Swahili are patriarchal (Ndungo, 1998:24). It is therefore important now to discuss patriarchy
since the writers under study are dealing with a patriarchal society.
34
2.2 Mythical Roots of Patriarchal Ideology
Patriarchy refers to society's organization of its affairs to cater for and sustain male
supremacy over the female (Masinj ila, 1994: 1). Patriarchy gives men legitimate control over
women's reproduction, labour and even conscience. The foundation of patriarchy is in the
different social institutions which define from a male perspective, the norms, practices and
behaviour that are acceptable. For example, among the Swahili, the social hierarchy is
structured in such a way that the father is the head of the family. In his absence, his sons have
the authority of making policy decisions regarding education, marriage and legal matters.
Patriarchy has its roots in long established traditions of male dominance, which have made
the male perspective to be the societal perspective (Masinj ila, 1994).
Through patriarchy in all its manifestations, the dominant social-cultural ideologies point
towards elevating the male above the female. Patriarchal ideology operates on the premise
that men are biologically superior to women and that women are weak and have to depend on
men for their survival. This ideology is depicted through most of the texts under study such as
Utengano, Asali Chungu and Dunia Mti Mkavu. Under these premises, a normative system
backed by ideas, beliefs, practices and material culture that legitimize and enforce male
control have been put in place. Literature being one of the avenues through which values,
beliefs and practices are passed on from generation to generation, has been utilized to this
end. However, in some instances, the works under study seem to question some of these
practices.
Apart from patriarchy being realized through societal practices, some languages show an
inbuilt patriarchal bias while in most languages the bias appears at the usage level. dungo
(1998:244), for instance, argues that women have been marginalized and relegated to
35
subordinate positions in society due to patriarchy. Socialization, through language and
especially proverbs, attitudes, cultural and religious values, perpetuates a negative image of
women. This is evident in some of the texts under study in which male characters such as
Maksuudi in Utengano, espouse a negative attitude towards the female gender.
Patriarchy is also enhanced and established through world religions such as Islam and
Christianity. According to Kahumbi (2002), for instance, before the advent of Islam in Arabia
female infanticide was the order of the day. During this period, baby girls were buried alive
and those who escaped lived in servitude and misery. Women could be inherited on the death
of their husbands (Ali, 1974:228). Although Islam is said to have ended the practice of female
infanticide by preaching that, in principle, a woman is equal to a man (Quran 4: I, 49: 13), in
practice, some verses have been interpreted to mean that a woman is subordinate to a man.
The Quran 2:228, states that: 'And women shall have rights similar to the rights against them,
according to what is equitable, but men have a degree (of advantage) over them'.
Muslim Jurists argue that this 'degree of advantage' should not be interpreted as a sign of
supremacy and superiority. However, Islam stipulates that women are not supposed to
provide for the economic upkeep of the family, but rather are supposed to depend entirely on
theirhusbands (Quran 4:34). This state of affairs could easily lead to women being relegated
to an inferior position due to lack of economic power. Although this may have not been the
intention, the fact that a woman has no financial power in marriage, denies her equal standing
in that relationship. This ideological understanding has been depicted through Kiza Katika
Nuru and Utengano through Kudura and Tamima. Although Islamic Jurists do not view
Islam as being supportive of patriarchy, its teachings have relegated the female to a position
36
which is similar to being that of women In traditional societies, which are basically
patriarchal.
Christianity has its roots in Judaist culture, which is patriarchal in nature. As a consequence to
this, certain Biblical references have been interpreted to support patriarchy. For instance,
women have been blamed and despised for corruption based on Eve's supposed submission to
enticement by the devil and her subsequent encouragement of Adam to eat the forbidden fruit
(Genesis 2). Some of the disparaging statements about women have arisen from this instance
(Phillips and Jones, 1985:2). The Bible states that man has authority over woman and woman
has to submit to him (Ephesians 5:22-23). Although the Bible stresses that all this should be
done in love, some Christians have interpreted such verses to mean that men are superior to
women. Generally, some of the Islamic and Christian teachings have been seen to augment
patriarchy. Kamaara (2003:80) argues that 'the church seems to have been a perpetrator of
unequal gender relations, in conformity with socio-cultural attitudes". She argues that, in their
interpretation of the Bible, church leaders have often presented to the world, a
surbodinationist view of women.
The writers address the issue of patriarchy and the place of gender through careful selection of
defamiliarization techniques. In the next section we now discuss some of the defamiliarization
techniques in relation to marital confinement.
2.3 Defamiliarization Techniques and Marital Confinement
Kezilahabi and Mohamed have depicted the institution of marriage through various
defamiliarization techniques. But, before the discussion of these techniques, issues about
origin of marriage and societal expectations over the institution are explored. Some of these
37
issues are seen to have influenced the authors' depiction. Engels in 'The Origin of the Family,
Private Property and the State' shows how changes in the material conditions of people
affected the organization of family relations. He argues that before the family was structured,
there existed a primitive state of promiscuous intercourse, a total free for all. In this state, both
men and women were essentially married to all; but as fewer and fewer women in the tribal
group became available, men began to put forcible claims on individual women, as their
personal property or possession. This resulted in the pairing family in which one man is
married to one woman. This could have been tenable in European society.
In African traditional societies, marriage was constituted as a permanent union between a man
and a woman or several women (Kenyatta, 1978: 163). Through a marriage ceremony, a man
acquired the sole right of sexual intercourse with his wife although the contract between the
two was also seen to be a contract between their kinsfolk. Among the Swahili, unmarried
people were referred to as 'watoto' (children). Husband and wife had a duty to procreate and
provide for the children. In most African communities a woman left her home and joined the
family of the man in marriage. In the works under study, the family institution is depicted
within Swahili and the African context through a number of defamiliarization techniques.
2.3.1 The Rock and the Caterpillar
Mohammed seeks to depict marriage as a consummation of love through the metaphor of the
rock. In Asali Chungu, Zuberi is demanding to be given Mboga, Omari's daughter, for a wife
in exchange ofOmari's inability to pay crop to his landlord. He writes:
Akawa anasema na moyo wake juu ya wazo la kumpeleka Mboga kwa Bwana
mkubwa ili kufidia analonuiya. Angalistahabu kufa kwa njaa kuliko kujivua nguo kwa
kumpeleka binti yake kwa jabari yule (Mohamed, 1977:20). (He was thinking about
the idea of taking Mboga (his daughter) to the landlord in exchange for the crop
(which he was expected to give). He would prefer to die of hunger than to undress in
public by giving out her daughter to that rock).
38
In this case Mboga's father, Omari, is toying around with a traditional practice whereby a girl
child is regarded as source of wealth and property. Her father has the authority to marry her
off to the highest bidder. But, it is intriguing that, although this is acceptable in his society and
would relieve him off the headache of having to give crop to the landlord, he refuses and
infact compares such an action to undressing in public. Undressing in public is tantamount to
humiliating oneself. His argument is that he does not want to give out his daughter to a 'rock'.
The metaphor of the rock signifies coercive power, immovable, lack of feelings, cruel and
inhuman. This is suggestive that Mboga's father would like his daughter to get married to a
loving, human and caring person. According to him, Zuberi lacks these qualities. Although
the metaphor overtly refers to Zuberi's financial power, Omari is not willing to release his
daughter to him in marriage.
The strangeness of the old man's utterances lie in the fact that they insinuate that marriage has
to be a relationship in which there is love, warmth and care. These utterances, to some extent,
contradict marriage in the traditional sense. Arranged marriages were practiced widely in
most African communities and a girl was married to a man she had never loved or met before.
Notice that the author reveals the power relations between the prospective husband and
Mboga's father through the words' Bwana Mkubwa' (Landlord). This suggests that he had
money to pay for the dowry as expected traditionally but Mboga's father is not willing to
release his daughter to him in marriage. Against this background, the metaphor seems to
challenge the patriarchal practice of arranged marriages in which there is no love even in the
initial stages.
The patriarchal position of an arranged marriage is also contested in the metaphor of the
caterpillar. Mohamed writes:
39
Mzee Omari alipokwisha kuondoka, Zuberi jicho lake likapiga kwa Mboga, utashi
wake mpya. Hivyo akajidhihirishiaJunza anayerukia viale vya majani machanga na
kuviangamiza (Mohamed, 1977:21). (When Omari had left, Zuberi's eye fell on
Mboga his newfound passion. That way, he appeared as a caterpillar that was about to
destroy the delicate leaves ofa plant).
The author's vision on the issue of arranged marriages comes out clearly in this metaphor.
Mohamed symbolically compares this practice to destruction caused by caterpillars while
devouring the young leaves of a budding plant. This paints the elderly men, exemplified by
Zuberi, who lavish in taking young girls in marriage as destroyers of the young, tender and
innocent lives. The metaphor seems to suggest that the young girls should be protected
against such men. The metaphor presents a contestation over arranged marriages as practiced
in most African societies such as the Swahili and the Luhya. The image of the caterpillar's
destruction of the delicate leaves reinforces the author's disapproval of the practice.
The poor socio-economic status of women is seen as being the root cause of unfair treatment
in marriage. A woman is viewed as man's property through the semantic shift of the world
'sold'. In Dunia Mti Mkavu, Kazija tells Fumu:
Amesema dada umsamehe, ameshaolewa kwa nguvu; ameuzwa na
baba (Mohamed, 1980:26). (My sister has said she is sorry. She has been
married off by force. She has been 'sold' by our father).
In this statement a daughter is seen as property of the father who decides who becomes her
spouse. The verb 'sold' signifies that Kazija's father has given her out for marriage in
exchange of financial gains. In this case, the seller has authority to sell his wares to whoever
he wishes. This shows the immense power and authority that traditional Swahili society
bestows upon a father regarding his daughter's choice of spouse. This has its roots in
patriarchy.
40
In African traditional societies, women do not own land and when they get married, they
move into their husbands' homes. The bride price, which is paid, is given to her father
(Kenyatta, 1978, Mbiti, 1969). She is not an equal partner in her new home and her stay there,.,
is exclusively dependent on the whims of the husband. The female child, therefore, is socially
regarded as an economic investment. Unfortunately, this patriarchal ideology that depicts a
woman as either the property of the father or husband is an aspect of African way of life. An
unmarried girl is known by her father's name and when she gets married, she takes on the
husband's name.
Stemming from this ideology, a father has the duty of handing over his daughter to a husband.
Tegemea echoes this when she asks her daughter's husband 'Huyu msichana ulipewa na
nani?' (Kezilahabi, 1974: 190). (Who gave you this girl?)'. In modern Christian weddings, the
father is the one who hands over his daughter (bride) to the bridegroom in the presence of the
priest or religious leader. Most men interpret this to mean that they have been given the
woman to be their property. In my view, this is what may lead men into mistreating their
wives as evidenced in wife battering prevalent in many African communities.
2.3.2 The Permanent Handcuffs
Marriage is metaphorically depicted as a permanent union through the metaphor of handcuffs.
In reference to exchange of vows during Kazimoto and Sabina's wedding in Kichwamaji,
Kezilahabi writes:
Kanisani mambo yalikwenda sawasawa. Yale maswali ya maana tuliyajibu bila kusita
tukapata pingu za maisha. (Kezilahabi, 1974: 166). (Things went on smoothly in
church. We answered those important questions without reflecting on them, then we
were handcuffed for life).
41
In this description, the joining of Sabina and Kazimoto in marriage is compared to being put
into 'permanent handcuffs'. Handcuffs are normally put on the hands of criminals to inhibit
their freedom. In the case of criminals, the handcuffs may not be permanent. This metaphor
depicts marriage as a permanent relationship and yet it is very undesirable. It is undesirable
because the handcuffs do not allow for freedom of association anymore. With all its
discomfort and misery, one has to remain in it for life!
The metaphor of handcuffs echoes the Christian teaching whereby marriage is meant to be
permanent until death, (I Corinthians 7: 10). A Christian marriage has no room for divorce. In
African traditional societies, such as the Luhya, divorce was only allowed in very rare
situations such as in the case where one of the partners practiced witchcraft. Otherwise,
marriage was meant to be permanent. It is important to take note of the sarcasm in
Kazimoto's words when he talks about marriage vows. He says that he responded to the
marriage vows without reflecting on their import. The vows had serious implications, and
needed his reflection. He is sarcastic and skeptical about marriage and life. It becomes clear
that vows taken in marriage may never be reflected upon which makes the whole ceremony a
joke. The author could be questioning the whole idea of taking marriage vows, which are
never fulfilled. The sarcasm, coupled with the symbolic reference to marriage as permanent
bondage paints a gloomy picture of marriage. The author is, in essence, laughing at the whole
ceremony since in the end it does not carry the weight, which it should.
2.3.3 The Valley of Tears
Marriage is depicted as an institution characterised by suffering and mourning. In replying to
Charles' offer for marriage, Rosa says:
42
Mpenzi, uchukue mkono huu na uniongoze katika bonde hili la
machozi (Kezilahabi, 1971 :76). (Dear, take my hand and lead me
through this valley of tears).
It is strange that one would want to be led into a valley of tears and not a valley of happiness.
A valley symbolizes trouble, which is so deep and difficult to come out. Coming out of such a
valley is stannous and would involve sacri fice, energy and perseverance. Marriage is therefore
symbolically depicted as an institution in which one has to be ready to exercise endurance and
sacrifice. In comparing marriage to a valley of tears, Rosa could be inferring this, from her
own mother's marriage, which was full of misery and suffering. The metaphor is an over
exaggeration although it succeeds in unveiling Kezilahabi's existentialist view of marriage
and life in general.
Kezilahabi depicts a similar image in Kichwamaji where Tegemea and Kabenga's marriage is
full of challenges. Kabenga is seen battering his wife for not going to cultivate land, and even
after this, she is seen apologizing and kneeling before her husband. In the same novel, the
marriage between Manase and Sabina is horrifying. The couple gets a strange looking child
who is a result of an infectious desease, which Manase contracted during his earlier sexual
relationship. The child's health condition cannot be treated or rfversed and so the family is
depicted as leading a miserable life. The foregrounded message is that marriage is not a bed of
roses, but a life full of challenges and one needs to face it with this fact clear in their mind.
2.4 Symbolic Presentation of Marital Arrangements
In Rosa Mistika Kezilahabi refers to marriage symbolically. After Rosa has found a man who
wants to marry her, Kezilahabi observes:
Rosa alikata shauri kupiga mshale wake wa mwisho. Mshale huu ukienda
pembeni, basi j itu - maisha - litaniuma (Kezilahabi, 1971 :76). (Rosa decided to
release the last arrow. If this arrow failed to hit the target (ogre) she
would be devoured).
43
In the above exposition, Rosa compares her decision to get married to shooting her last arrow.
To Rosa, marriage is her last resort after trying all other possibilities in life, such as
prostitution. In war, if one throws the last arrow, and misses to hit the enemy, his or her life is
in danger. This is because he has no other remaining weapon. This symbol helps to reveal
clearly, Rosa's vulnerability and desperation as she aims at beginning marriage life.
Rosa, as a character, presents a case of wasted life. She does not see any possibility of
marriage since nobody is interested in marrying her. She believes that such a chance will not
come by again. She refers to life as an ogre. Ogres are imaginary characters in folk stories
with extra ordinary powers. They use these powers to harm (Nandwa and Bukenya, 1983:55).
Owing to their mysterious power, they are fearsome. Rosa is scared that if she does not aim
her arrow properly, the ogre will destroy her. Life is here depicted as mysterious and ought to
be lived with caution. This is especially true when it comes to making such important
decisions in life as marriage. Rosa seems to have learnt this lesson rather late in life. It is no
wonder that we read some regret in her voice. Through this metaphor, Kezilahabi succeeds in
giving the reader Rosa's perspective of life.
Although Rosa seems to know what awaits her in marriage, she is determined to try it. In a
letter to her fiance, Charles, she writes: 'Ninakupa moyo wangu, pumzi yangu ya maisha'.
(Kezilahabi, 1971:76). (/ am giving you my heart, my breath of life).
As she accepts marriage to Charles, she is giving it her best. Marriage is here depicted as a
union in which one gives a partner their very life. One ceases to live their own life and
surrenders to the other. This is expressed in the Christian faith (Genesis 2:24). In this Biblical
reference, it is stated clearly that in marriage the two people cease to live as individuals and
44
become one. Kezilahabi's metaphor seems to carry the same meaning. As stated earlier,
drawing from the patriarchal ideology, women are considered as part of the chattel a man
owns and are not seen to have ability to make independent decisions. The metaphor has been
used effectively to communicate this patriarchal ideology, which has to a certain degree led to
the subordination of women.
2.4.1 Gender Roles in Marriage
Mohamed discusses the issue of gender roles in marriage. Gender is a term, which has
received various definitions. For instance, gender is identified with sex, therefore, it is seen in
terms of feminine and masculine characteristics. It has also been perceived as being a result of
the process of socialization, which defines roles and characteristics.
Within the Swahili community, as it is with many African traditional communities, gender
roles were and still are clearly defined (Kenyatta, 1978). From early childhood, learning was
geared towards informal training that was gender ori~ ed. Men were considered as heads--of families. They were charged with the responsibility of meeting the material needs of their
wives and children. To fulfil these gender roles, they did farming and fishing. They were also
policy makers.
The women's gender roles were tied to their reproductive roles. Their place was usually in the,-----....,
home. In a typical Swahili home, women spend most of their time around the home and do a
lot of house keeping (Salim, 1978: II). Their roles include sweeping their compounds,
cooking, washing dishes, clothes, pondering grain, grinding, hair plaiting and weaving mats.
Swahili children are taught their gender roles from the age of ten. Mothers begin to train their
45
daughters to housework while fathers introduce the boys to practices such as fishing,
carpentry, cultivating and harvesting.
According to Brittan (1997) gender does not exist outside history and culture. Thus, both
masculinity and femininity are continuously subjected to a process of re-interpretation.
Versions of masculinity may vary over a limited time scale. Gender is never simply an
arrangement in which the roles of men and women are decided in a contingent and haphazard
way.
The fluidity of gender, as expressed by Brittan, is depicted by Mohamed in Asali Chungu.
Shaaban and Dude are not married and when Shaaban asks Dude to marry, he says:
Ama kweli ulikuwa ukiota! Mimi nikatake mke? Mimi mwenyewe ningalipaswa
kuolewa ikiwa ni kuowa, wa kuowa ni wewe Mzee Shaabani (Mohamed, 1977:33).
(You are surely dreaming! I to marry (a woman)? It is me who should be married (by
a woman) if I have to be married. The one to marry is you, Shaaban).
Dude is not ready to marry because, he has no resources to take care of a family, but he feels
Shaaban should do it because at least, he has a business of selling soup. In Swahili culture, the
man is the one who 'marries' (oa) a woman and the woman 'gets married' (olewa) to a man.
This gives the man authority over the woman. The author defamiliarizes the familiar when
Dude says he should be the one 'to be married to a woman' (kuolewa) instead of a 'woman
getting married to him' (kuoa). Through this strange perception of the idea of marriage,
Mohamed is depicting the dynamic aspect of gender and gender roles in his society.
The above ironic presentation of marriage seems to contest the patriarchal position of a man
being seen as the one to provide for his family. It is also alluding to the fact that poverty can
hinder a man from marrying because of the expectations of society. The patriarchal practice,
which sees a woman as the weaker sex and hence not able to provide for a family, is here
46
depicted as not meaningful in the current socio-cultural context. Society is supposed to
address the realities of today's life and re-define gender roles, due to the present socio-cultural
realities.
2.4.2 The Eight Stomachs
The issue of gender roles in marriage is further addressed in the metaphor of eight stomachs.
In Asali Chungu, Zuberi, the landlord wants to kick Omari out of his farm. This is because
Omari has not honoured the agreement in which he is to surrender part of the proceeds from
the farm to Zuberi. While pleading for understanding from Zuberi, Omari says:
Tafadhali bwana angu! Usinione mimi, ila waone walio mgongoni pangu. Nikitoa
mazao yangu yote niliyopanda matumbo manane nitayalisha nini Mimi? (Mohamed,
1977: 18-19). (Please, my Lord, do not look at me, but those on my back. If I give you
the produce, what will I feed the 'eight stomachs')
In the above pronouncements, Omari pleads to the landlord by referring to him as 'bwanangu'
(My Lord). This reference captures the feudal set up and reveals power relations in this
society. Those who owned land were the 'Lords' and this relation had to come out clearly in
their conversation.
By withholding the names of the people he is talking about, Omari presents his predicament
in a strange defamiliarized way. In most African traditional societies, children are referred to
discreetly. It is a taboo to count or mention the number of children that one has. It is bel ieved
that this would portent a misfortune. Although the metaphor reveals the insensitivity and
inhuman nature of the landlord, it alludes to the general belief that a married man should
provide for his family. As earlier pointed out, among the Swahili, a husband is the provider.
His wife and children should eat from his sweat. Christianity and Islam support this
patriarchal perspective of marriage. In Islam, for instance, marriage is seen to have been
RA ,
47
ordained by Allah as the correct and legal way to procreate and replenish the earth. To show
the importance of marriage, Prophet Mohamed is quoted as saying that when a servant of
Allah marries, he has completed half of his religious obligations. (Phillips and Jones, 1985).
Husbands are consequently commanded to support or shoulder the responsibility of
supporting their wives and children. But, as we have argued elsewhere in this study, this
seems to be the root cause of the misery of women in marriage.
However, through the metaphor, Mohamed is alluding to both Islamic teaching and Swahili
cultural practice, thereby exposing the patriarchal ideology more forcefully. The plight of
Omari is highlighted and the reader's sympathy is drawn towards him.
2.4.3 Women and Submission to Male Authority
The aspect of submission has also been addressed. The idea of whether or not women have to
submit to men has a lot to do with gender relations. According to Brittan (1997), the way men
and women confront each other ideologically and politically depends upon the existing social
relations of gender. Social relations of gender draw from the social ideology that exists in
various communities. At everyone given moment, gender will reflect the material interests of
those who have power and those who do not. In most African societies such as the Swahili,
women have the duty to show respect to their husbands by submitting to them. This aspect is
addressed in Dunia Mti Mkavu. In commenting about the men who are on strike to force their
employers to improve their working conditions, one of the women says:
Mimi nimelia we, hata macho yamenivimba.kwa mume wangu, ati kukataa kupeleka
mazao mjini na kuwajibu askari ufidhuli, lakini halafu nimeona haina rnaana kulia.
Bora tufunge vibwebwe na sisi tuwasaidie kucheza ngorna (Mohamed, 1980: I07). (I
have cried until my eyes are sore over my husband's refusal to take the produce to
town and his rude response to the police. But I have realized it is not useful. It is better
we tighten our belts andjoin them in the 'dance').
48
The defamiliarizing statement in the above episode is: 'Bora tufunge vibwebwe na sisi
tuwasaidie kucheza ngoma'. 'Kibwebwe' is a type of clothing for women, which is usually
tied at the hips. One of the reasons as to why women wear this type of cloth is in preparation
for physical hard work. It is therefore a symbol of hard work. But, in this instance, the women
decide to join the men in the 'dance'. They, however, do not believe in the cause but they are
forced to submit to their husbands.
The woman is portrayed as having no alternatives but to weep in her effort to convince her
husband against his decision. But when she fails to convince him, she advises her fellow
women to support the men by joining in their struggle for liberation. Women being
consideredb the weaker sex are therefore, expected to submit to the whims of their husbands.
This serves to confirm Brittan's (1997) argument that masculinity does not exist in isolation
from femininity. It is an expression of the cUlTent image that men have of themselves in
relation to women. In this example, women have accepted the position that they can only cry
in order to try and appeal to the men's emotions. But if they are unsuccessful, they then have
to submit to the men by way of accepting their standpoint. Men are here depicted as leaders
while women as faithful followers. Again, this solidifies the argument that patriarchy, in all
its manifestations, elevates the man over the woman.
A similar presentation is depicted in Utengano. Maksuudi becomes violent when he arrives
home, only to find his daughter missing. Besides, he suspects that his wife, Tamima, has been
helped in delivering a baby. While battering his wife, one of his workers, Biti Kocho, tries to
intervene by reminding him that Tamima hasjust delivered a baby. Maksuudi retorts:
Mwanamke huyu anataka nini? Mbona anakuja kwa meno ya juu? Sasa ameshaingia
bahari nyengine na mazungumzo yake kuyaelekeza pabaya. Wanawake kama hawa
wameenea siku hizi ... Wanajuaje siasa hawa wajinga, watu. Eee katafute kifuu na
mchanga uchezee (Mohamed, 1980:51). (What does this woman want? Why is she so
loud? Now, she has moved into unfamiliar domain and her talk is headed in the wrong
49
direction. Women such as this one are allover nowadays. How can these idiots have
knowledge of politics? Eh! go and find a coconut shell so that you can play with
sand).
In the above instance, Maksuudi cannot stand a woman arguing with him. It is ironic that he
does not understand why Biti Kocho is stopping him from battering his wife. He believes that
he is right to discipline his wife for her mistakes. Infact to him, Kocho is attempting to enter
an unfamiliar and restricted domain (ameshaingia bahari nyengine). He seems to be
uncomfortable with women who have such mannerisms as Kocho's. He says such women are
becoming commonplace these days. Notice the sarcasm invoked through the rhetorical
question; 'wanajuaje siasa hawa wajinga' (how can these idiots have knowledge of politics?).
Maksuudi's line of thinking is motivated by patriarchy and male chauvinism. Women are to
remain quiet, submissive and respectful before men. They should not argue, even when their
rights are being violated. Such action could be interpreted as disrespect and may invite
punishment. The awareness of human rights by women is hereby alluded to but again with a
lot of sarcasm. Therefore, Maksuudi has to remind Kocho about her position in society, which
is not different from that of a child. Among the Swahili, politeness and good manners are
taken seriously. Children are taught to relate with older members of society with utter respect
(Harris, 1965, Salim, 1978). At best, like a child, Kocho should display this kind of respect
towards Maksuudi or play with a coconut shell on sand. Zanzibar, from where Mohamed is
writing, is known for growing coconuts. Children are the ones who play with coconut shells
on sand. But, in this case, Biti Kocho, a mature woman is being asked to indulge in a child's
game. This sarcasm is meant to send a strong warning to Biti Kocho that Maksuudi is not
ready to listen to her talk, since he considers her as a child. Thus, before Maksuudi, Biti
Kocho is just like a child and should not argue with him. Children are not allowed to argue
with adults in this culture.
50
Women are only supposed to take orders from men without questions even when they are
being beaten up. Maksuudi's actions and attitude is a manifestation of aggression. Themen
exemplified through Maksuudi, are seen to be having excessive power over the womanand
the only option left for the woman is to obey. In most African communities, men are supposed
to express their masculinity by exhibiting aggression. Aggression is learnt through
socialization, in which men are made to believe that it is rewarding and is a sign of
assertiveness. By Maksuudi belittling Biti Kocho to the point of seeing her as a child, he is
voicing a popular ideology that calls for aggression on the part of men and submission on the
part of women.
The inferior position that women are relegated to is also depicted in Gamba fa Nyoka;
Chilongo is admitted In hospital after being shot by policemen while resisting forceful
relocation to Ujamaa Villages. He demands that a nurse attends to him and as the nurse
explains to him that she is still attending to another patient he quips:
Funga domo lako! Ninao wanne nyumbani! Hawasemi neno nikikohoa! (Kezilahabi,
1979:53). (Shut up your mouth! [ have four (wives) at home. They do not say a word
when I cough).
In the above pronouncement, Chilongo withholds mentioning the word 'wives' by just saying
that he has four of them. He says when he 'coughs' they do not say a word. This can be
interpreted to mean that Chilongo's wives are so scared of him that they do not answer back
when he 'coughs'. Coughing is here used as euphemism for talking or scolding. Language in
this case is used to defamiliarize the idea of communication. The women are not allowed to
say anything before him. He cannot therefore understand why the nurse at the hospital has the
/
audacity to argue with him. But it is ironical that although he seems to disrespect women, he
is seeking a woman's services. This could be seen to be revealing the futility of his attitude
51
towards women. This is another manifestation of patriarchal ideology whereby women are not
supposed to speak, answer or argue with their husbands or men. This is interpreted as
disrespectful. They are supposed to be submissive and docile, stupidly respectful towards
their husbands, even when they are being mistreated. Some irresponsible, disrespectful
utterances from men towards women are partly as a product of this ideology.
2.4.4 Subordination through Intertextuality
Woman's subordination to man is depicted through intertextuality. Intertextuality is a term
that has been used widely by literary critics. A key proponent, Julia Kristeva coined the
terminology and gives several illuminating definitions. For example, she explains: 'Any. text
is constructed as a mosaic of quotations; any text is the absorption and transformation of
another' (Clayton and Rothstein, 1991 :20). She also goes on to say that in the space of a given
text, several utterances, taken from other texts, intersect and neutralize one another. It is then
clear that the contention of Kristeva is that intertextuality is an instance where a text depicts a
reading of another text.
According to Leitch (1983: 123), intertextuality is when a text finds its way into a current text,
a chip or piece of an older monument appears as a source, influence, allusion, imitation,
archetype or parody. While depicting subordination, Mohamed alludes to Mwana Kupona's
poem, which is an old poem expressing Swahili culture.
Mohamed explains that whenever Kudura was miserable and feeling low, she would sing the
poem and would be encouraged. He says:
Bi Mosi mamake alikuwa akipenda kuimba na wimbo wake maarufu ambao
umemuachia taathira kubwa Kudura hadi lea ni wimbo wa Mwana Kupona.
Bi Mosi aliuimba kwa sauti yake:
52
Keti naye kwa adabu
Usimutie ghadhabu
Akinena simjibu
Itahidi kunyamaa
Kilala siikukuse
Mwegeme umpapase
a upepo asikose
Mtu wa kumpepea
Baada ya kumpitikia au kuimba wimbo huo, Kudura huchangamka, huona raha.
Huhisi ameinuliwa juu kabisa kupuliziwa nguvu mpya ili aendelee kumtumikia
bwana. Na kwa ajili hiyo hachoki ingawa hukerwa. Haoni kinyongo ingawa
huonyeshwa (Mohamed, 1988:47-48).
(Mosi (Kudura's mother) liked singing and her favourite song which has left an.
indelible mark on Kudura's life up to this day was the 'Mwana Kupona' song. Mosi
sang it herself:
Stay with him (husband) in respect
Do not annoy him
When he speaks do not respond
Make sure you are silent.
When he sleeps do not wake him up
Move close to him and caress him
And he should not lack fresh air
Nor somebody to breeze him
After singing this song, Kudura is happy. She is uplifted and strengthened in a new
way so that she can continue to serve the master (husband). And because of that she
does not get weary although she is irritated. She does not keep a grudge although she
is hated).
In the above exposition, the author refers to the poem 'Mwana Kupona' and reproduces two
stanzas. The two stanzas reinforce the importance of subordination in marriage. Kudura's
misery is depicted and she admits that, it is only after singing the poem that she gets
energized. She says that despite all that, she has to serve her 'master' (husband). The poem
being alluded to here is about a mother advising her daughter on how to succeed in marriage
through submission and honouring her husband. The poem reveals the subversive nature of
women. They are seen to use tactics to make the man to behave the way they want. In this
case, then the woman is depicted as using language and subm ission as a power instrument to
53
control man. Ironically, even as she struggles to submit to her husband, Kudura continues to
suffer while her husband, Juba, does not seem to care. He has deserted his family.
Although Mohamed is depicting marriage in a patriarchal setting, it is clear that patriarchy
could easily lead to enslavement. By depicting the ironic fact of a rich husband who does not
provide for his family, Mohamed is questioning the whole idea of women's submission to
their husbands. He seems to wonder whether men should remain masters, even when they are
not providing for their families. This is contrary to Islamic teaching, which Juba professes
(Doi, 1996, Quran 4:34). Mohamed seems to be questioning the type of faith practiced by the
likes of Juba.
2.4.5 Images of Women and Motherhood
In African traditional society, marriage was not an option and all members of the society,
were to marry and bring forth children (Mbiti, 1969: 133). To show the importance of
procreation, marriage was not deemed complete without children. In cases where women did
not get children, arrangements were secretly made to ensure that all members of the
community raised families (Mbiti, 1969: 145). Among the Swahili, on attaining puberty, girls
were taken to confidants who were called 'kungwi'. These were women who instructed them
on matters pertaining to sexuality and skills which were perceived essential in their future
roles as wives and mothers. Ndungo (1998: (07) states that among the Agikuyu, as in other
African societies, the woman's primary role is that of motherhood. In regard to status of
women in many African traditional societies, Steady (1981), observes:
The most important factor with regard to the woman in traditional society is her role
as a mother and the centrality of this role as a whole. Even in strictly patriarchal
societies, women are important as wives and mothers since their reproductive capacity
is crucial to the maintenance of her husband's lineage and it is because of women that
men can have lineage at all.
(Steady, 1989:29).
54
Like Steady, Davies further reiterates the centrality of motherhood in African societies. In his
treatise, Davies (1986:243) notes that in many African societies, motherhood defines
womanhood. Motherhood is crucial to a woman's status in African society. To marry and
mother a child (a son preferably) entitles a woman to more respect.
From Steady and Davies' assertions, it is clear that the worthiness of a woman is measured by
her ability to become a mother. Mohamed captures this popular patriarchal ideology in
Utengano where Kazija is complaining about the place of a woman. She says:
Nani kasema utumwa umeondoka?
Viumbe vya kupika na kupakua,
kufua na kupiga pasi, kushika
mimba na kuzaa, kuzaa, kuzaa,
kuzaa kama panya
(Mohamed, 1980:7)
(Who says that slavery is over? Women are beings that are in charge of
cooking and serving, washing, ironing and becoming pregnant and giving
birth, giving birth, giving birth, giving birth like rats)
The defamiliarization effect realized through the poetic arrangement of words, repetition and
the simile 'kuzaa kama panya' (giving birth like rats), reveals the position of women with
regard to procreation. The repetition of the word 'kuzaa' (giving birth) serves to highlight the
fact that women are expected to give birth to many children. The simile which compares
giving birth in humans to that of rats enhances the image further, and reveals the indignation
which Kazija herself has toward society's insistence on women to bring forth many children.
Besides, the woman being overburdened with housework, she is to attend to responsibilities
of rearing many children.
We notice the heavy presence of authorial voice through this depiction of women as child
bearers and caretakers.' According to Njogu (1997), the presence of authorial voice is part of
the compositional stylistic unity of the novel. Authorial voice emerges in moral,
55
philosophical, scientific, oratorical and ethnographic statements. jogu goes on to argue that
an author writes from a given historical, social, economic and political contexts, which he or
she deconstructs and then reconstructs in a work of art. In the above defamiliarized instance,
Mohamed registers his dislike for this kind of role, which dehumanizes a woman by
appropriating the role of giving birth and rearing children to her. To him, this ideology
enhances gender discrimination. The author's ideology is informed by changing social,
cultural and economic conditions that makes a large family untenable.
2.4.6 Ironic Presentation of Marriage in Islam
Mohamed depicts Islamic faith and practice in marriage ironically in Kiza katika Nuru.
Generally, in almost all of Mohamed's works, his Islamic characters are not seen to represent
Islamic faith as it is preached. Unlike Mohamed, Kezilahabi does not present any Christian
marriage in his works.
Islamic Jurists argue that Islam recognizes equality between men and women in principle.
However, a man is expected to provide for the economic upkeep of a woman in marriage.
This financial obligation is stressed in the Quran (Quran 4:34). It is this responsibility, which
makes a man to be designated as a guardian of a woman. This economic maintenance of the
woman by a man is not meant to enhance the husband's dictatorship over the woman. Kudura,
in Kiza katika Nuru, is an example of a woman suffering and struggling to bring up her
children on her own, yet her husband, Juba, is an Islamic leader.
Kudura has problems from all corners. This situation is graphically captured:
Hivi umwonavyo kakaa kama kitoweo anameguliwa kila pahali pasi na uwezo wa
kujihami ... na hivi alivyo maskini hana mzee wala msaidizi (Mohamed, 1988:50).
(As you can see her, she is like a bowl of stew being consumed from all sides without
mercy ... and as you can see, she·is a pauper without a husband or helper).
56
The simile comparing Kudura to a bowl of stew highlights Kudura's suffering. She has the
difficult job of bringing up children. The underlying message is that a woman is to be
provided for by her husband. A woman without a husband is viewed as being vulnerable to
attacks from all quarters. Mohamed seems to be advocating for men to be responsible in
providing for their families and protecting their wives. This is captured ironically when Juba
accuses Kudura of being dirty and careless. Mohamed writes:
Nguvu zilimwisha na mara paaaaa' sinia ilimwanguka katikati ya mkeka wa cheole,
mabakuli na sahani yakaruka huko kuwakogesha mchuzi wale waungwana
waliousubu upishi (Mohamed, 1988:134) (She became strength less and suddenly
'paaaaa' the tray fell on the mat, bowls and plates scattered all over as the soup
splashed and bathed the gentlemen, who despised her cooking).
The word 'gentlemen' in reference to Juba is used sarcastically. This is because what Juba has
done to his wife is dishonourable. He does not deserve to be called a gentleman. This sarcasm
is meant to satirize Juba and by extension serve as a pointer to Mohamed's disapproval of his
actions. Thus, a man who does not offer financial support and protection to his wife is not a
gentleman and deserves no respect. The whole scenario reveals that the poor socio-economic
status of women contributes to their misery in marriage.
Kudura honours her husband and makes sure he is comfortable, as her religion and her mother
taught her. Mohamed describes Kudura's anticipation of her husbands visit metaphorically:
Asaa huenda huyo mungu wake wa pili akaja zamu kwake leo
(Mohamed, 1988:46). (It seems as if her second god is coming (to visit),
today being her turn).
In the above utterance, Juba is ironically referred to as Kudura's second god by the author.
Again this reference reveals power relations between husband and wife. A husband is like a
demi god to his wife. This irony highlights the position which Juba occupies in Kudura's life
yet he does not support her. He is only second to God in Kudura's life. But Kudura has to
borrow money to entertain her husband and yet he is rich. Notice the reference to 'turn'. This
57
alludes to Islamic practice whereby polygamy is acceptable. Those who practice polygamy
are to show justice to their wives, by attending to them equally (Doi, 1996:53). It is ironicthat
Juba remembers to visit Kudura when it is her turn yet he does not support her in any other
way. Juba is an Islamic leader but he does not act in accodance with religious teachings. This
irony is meant to highlight the author's disapproval of this exploitation. Kudura's reaction to
her husband's oppression is captured graphically:
Na hapo Kudura alikuwa shetani kwa mara ya kwanza .... Kwa hakika Kudura
alikuwa simba-jike leo ... Kudura mpole, mjinga ... bali shetani anayetaka kumwingia
mtu maungoni (Mohamed, 1988: 134). (At that juncture Kudura became a devil for the
first time. For sure Kudura was a lioness at that time. Kudura the humble, foolish ...
but today she is like a demon, which is about to enter into a person.
Kudura's reaction is described as Satanic and devilish. She is compared to a 'lioness'. A
lioness is more vicious than a lion due to the mother's instinct to provide security for her cabs.
Obviously, Kudura has changed her personality. After many years of perseverance, she
cannot take it any more. As earlier mentioned, Juba does not fulfil this obligation as
understood even within Swahili culture and, therefore, loses his position as the head of the
family. It therefore seems clear here that the belief of man as head of family is tied to being a
provider. The transformation of Kudura highlights the fact that a person's character could
change due to mistreatment, suffering and loss of patience. Kudura's respect for her 'master'
is eroded when he refuses to recognize her and provide for her. Looked at from Marxist
feminism, Kudura's reaction could be seen as a good example of how the exploited woman is
alienated from her work and as a result, despises her service to her husband (master) who
seems not to appreciate her labour (Tong, 1989).
Through Juba and Kudura's marriage, Mohamed portrays a hypocritical Islamic faithful. In
Islam, relationship in marriage should be one of interdependence between husband and wife
in love and mercy (Quran 2: 187). In Hadith, it says: 'The most perfect believer is the best in
58
conduct and best of you are those who are best to their wives' (Badawi, 1983: 18; Siddiq,
1983:29). This description of a believer in Islamic faith is in opposition to what Juba does.
According to Lemu and Heeren (1978), a woman should not struggle for the family upkeep;
she ought to be spared this by her husband. They write: 'A woman should be spared from
these struggles and worries so that she can give her full attention to the making of a home'
(Lemu and Heeren, 1978: 19). Islam therefore, regards the noble role of a woman in society as
that of a mother and wife, the queen of the house. But Mohamed's depiction of Kudura seems
to echo Islamic patriarchal elements. Islam regards the husband as responsible for running
the affairs of the family and has to be obeyed, even if his decision is unacceptable to his wife
in some particular matters (Lemu and Hereene, 1983: 18). This could be seen as the reason
behind Kudura's position in this abusive marriage. Despite being oppressed, she continues to
recognize Juba as her master until finally she is pushed to the wall.
So why has Mohamed decided to present Islam in this light? This could have been motivated
by Mohamed's own assessment of how Islam has entrenched patriarchy in the marriage
institution and how this has impacted on women. The Prophet Mohammed clearly describes
the ideal role of a Muslim woman in marriage. He says: 'The best woman is she, who when
you see her you feel pleased, and when you direct her she obeys, she protects your rights and
keeps her chastity when you are absent' (Lemu and Heeren, 1978: 18, Siddiq, 1984: 118).
Kudura is seen to be adhering to her faith, as prescribed to her by her religion, but her life
remains a misery. Through this depiction, Mohamed could be insinuating that Islam has been
instrumental in perpetrating patriarchy and to a certain degree oppression of women. On the
other hand, he could be exposing the hypocrisy practiced by fellow Muslims. The
59
presentation of Islam in the area of marriage has generally highlighted the plight of women in
marriage. It has exposed the hypocrisy that exists among Islamic faithfuls as well as how
patriarchy is realized and accommodated within the Islamic religion. It is also clear that poor
socio-economic status of a woman in marriage is one of the causes of marital disharmony.
2.5 Parenting and Parenthood
Both Kezilahabi and Mohamed have depicted various aspects of parenthood. For example,
they have discussed the place of the mother and father in bringing up children as role models.
Punishment is also espoused as a way of correcting children. Koman and Myers (2000),
underscore the paradox of parenting by saying that although parents feel delighted in their
children, the task of parenthood is so intricate and unrelenting that one feels frustrated,
exhausted and resentful. Parenting requires enormous work, time and energy. They argue that
for one to be a good parent, one must develop ability to love their child unconditionally and
do what is necessary, without expecting to be repaid.
Looking at parenting in this light, then implies that what makes parenthood delightful is the
joy of loving and nurturing a helpless dependent creature into a capable human being. This
calls for parents to have positive attitudes, as they raise their children. Parents should foster
good relationship with their children through effective communication.
It is with this in mind that the study shifts attention to various defamiliarization techniques
used by Kezilahabi and Mohamed, in the depiction of parenthood.
60
2.5.1 Punishment
The question of punishment has been addressed by Kezilahabi in Rosa Mistika. Zakaria
punishes his daughter, Rosa, for receiving a letter and money from a boy seeking to have a
relationship with her. He goes to the boy's home in the night, wakes up his guardians and
begins to interrogate them. In describing the scenario, Kezilahabi writes:
Loo! Mwezi uliwang'aria na nyota ziliwamulika wakiwa katika shuka zao nyeupe.
Walionekana kama malaika waliotumwa, kuja kushuhudia ukatili uliokuwa
ukitendeka, sio tu kati ya mwanadamu na mwanadamu lakini pia kati ya baba na
bintiye (Kezilahabi, 1971 :8). (Lo! The moon and the stars poured its light upon
them, as they stood, covered in their white bed sheets. They appeared like angels who
. had been sent to come and witness the brutality on display, not just between two
human beings, but between a father and his own daughter).
In Christianity, angels are believed to be holy messengers, submissive and obedient to God. In
the Bible, they are depicted as harbingers of good news from God. For example, the Angel
Gabriel was sent to Mary, the mother of Jesus and to Zacharia, to reveal to them the birth of
Jesus and John the Baptist respectively (Luke I: 11-26). In the above description in which
Ndalo and his wife are compared to angels, they do not bring good news, but they are
witnesses to the cruelty which Zakaria is subjecting his daughter to. It is notable that
Kezilahabi makes it clear that it appears as if God had sent the angels as witnesses. This
reveals the author's position on Zacharia's treatment of his daughter. The angels are expected
to report or be witnesses before God, on the actions of Zakaria.
In the past, parents have tended to view discipline as a way of making children to obey
instructions. But developmental psychology perceives the situation differently. Discipline
ought to be a way of helping children to develop social skills, a conscience, impulse control,
values, self esteem, and a capacity for moral judgement and responsibility (Koman and
Myers, 2000:92). Viewed in this perspective, the goal of punishment should ultimately be to
61
enhance self discipline. It should enable the child to evaluate alternatives and choose to
behave in ways that serve the common good.
Going by the view of developmental psychologists, one wonders whether Zakaria's intention
in disciplining his daughter achieves these objectives. Rosa's humiliation could lead to a very
low self-esteem. Thus, this symbolic presentation of discipline is highlighting the traditional
belief, which is still the popular ideology about raising children. But as noted, the author
seems to be questioning this kind of upbringing, which humiliates the child. Psychologists
advise that parents should avoid ridiculing their children and avoid anger while dealing with
children's mistakes. In this case, Rosa is exposed to ridicule that is witnessed by 'angels'.
Later in the novel, Rosa becomes a prostitute. This may be due to the kind of experiences she
was exposed to in her childhood.
Punishment is also depicted in Kichwamaji where Kalia's father believes in the traditional
practice that the cane can be used for corrective purposes. He believes caning will stop Kalia
from bad habits such as stealing. Kezilahabi describes this vividly:
Nilipotoka nje niliona Saba akifukuzana na Kalia. 'Kazimoto, nisaidie kushika kidudu
hiki' Saba aliniomba, 'Ninaserna vua nguo' mara nilisikia timbo inamramba. Nilisikia
timbo tano zinamramba matakoni mfululizo (Kezilahabi, 1974:103). (When I came
out (of the house), I saw my father running after Kalia. 'Kazimoto help me to catch
this 'insect', my father requested me ... I say, remove your clothes (shorts) 'then I
heard the cane 'licking' him ... I heard the cane 'licking' him five times on his
buttocks non-stop).
Kalia's father, metaphorically refers to him as an 'insect'. This reference indicates traditional
power relations between children and their parents. Insects are crushed effortlessly. This
signifies a father's attitude towards his son whom he believes is too young to challenge his
authority. Sadly, the boy is undressed before the cane begins to 'lick' his buttocks. The act of
being undressed dehumanises the child. The punishment is like that administered to those
62
convicted of criminal offences. It is a crude punishment, unacceptable in a civilised society.
Ironically, Kalia's father does not know that Kalia is capable of unimaginable behaviour. He
steals money to 'buy sex' from Tegemea, a woman almost his father's age. The metaphoric
reference to Kalia as an 'insect' reveals a parent's traditional belief that a child is powerless
and unable to outwit him. The insect metaphor also reveals power relations between parents
and children. He feels he can easily discipline Kalia. Studies reveal that parents should not
spank their children because it humiliates and degrades the child (Koman and Myers,
2000:94). This helps us understand why Kalia's father does not help his son change from bad
habits. Rather he becomes a hardcore criminal in the long run.
The dramatic irony, in which Kalia is involved in immoral activities, without his father's
knowledge, shows that caning children is an exercise in futility, especially where the root
cause of bad behaviour is not addressed. It is therefore apparent, from Kezilahabi's depiction
that a parent should look for the root cause of undesirable behaviour. The author seems to be
advocating for a sober approach to punishment. Parents should not misuse the advantage of
their position of authority, to threaten children. This type of punishment is short-lived.
2.5.2 A Palace for the Nuns
Just like Kezilahabi, Mohamed uses irony in depicting parenting. In Utengano Maksuudi's
residence is ironically referred to as 'kasri la watawa' (a palace for the nuns). The author says:
Jumba la Bwana Maksuudi tuliite 'Kasri la Watawa'. Ni kasri kwa kimo chake na
uzuri uliolistahili (Mohamed, 1980: \9). (We can call Maksuudi's house 'a palace for
the nuns'. It is a palace due to its size and beauty).
Maksuudi's family members are not allowed to move out of the compound. They are secluded
from the rest of the society. Members of this family are therefore, lonely and sad, due to the
restrictions within which they operate. The reference to Maksuudi's house as a 'palace for the
63
nuns' is itself defamiliarizing because nuns live in a convent while kings and queens live in
palaces. The meaning of the metaphor, 'a palace for the nuns' therefore, is that Maksuudi's
residence is beautiful and elegant like a kings palace, but the people who live there, ironically,
do not enjoy the glamour as is expected. Just like the nuns in a convent, they have been
denied freedom of association. Such is the life ofTamima and her daughter, Maimuna.
As a result of this restriction, Maimuna yearns for freedom. She imagines that whatever is
outside, is better than what is in the 'palace'. Mohamed describes her dilemma
metaphorically:
Moyoni mwake mlikuwa na simango lililomdadisi. Kwa nini mpaka leo hajakata
pingu za utumwa? (Mohamed, 1980:24). (In her heart, there was something she could
not understand. Why is it that up to now she had not freed herself from the handcuffs
of slavery?)
The occupants of the palace, can only compare themselves to slaves in handcuffs. They
present us with the image of anguish, suffering and misery. Thus, Maimuna meditates and
toys with the idea of 'cutting the slavery handcuffs'. The image of the 'handcuffs' reveals the
reality of Maimuna's unjust incarceration. She has been denied freedom to choose how to live
her life. Although nuns choose a life of nunhood, Maimuna and her mother have no choice
but to live in restriction.
As a handcuffed being, Maimuna compares well with a slave. It is bad enough to be a slave
but Maimuna is also handcuffed. A slave has no freedom, voice, rights and his/her life is
characterized by forced labour. The metaphor highlights the misery and agony that children
suffer under parents such as Maksuudi. They are enslaved and treated as if they were lesser
human beings. According to Koman and Myers (2000:92), children should be disciplined
through modelling and love, but not cruelty and slavery. The parents should make rules to be
followed by the children, but the rules should be reasonable and not punitive.
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The relationship between a daughter and a father will shape her sense of self in relation to
men. A warm, trusting, nurturing father - daughter bond will set the stage for positive
relationships with male friends, colleagues and potential mates. Both Kezilahabi and
Mohamed depict this scenario through their portrayal of Rosa and Maimuna respectively.
Drawing from this assessment, it is possible to argue that Maksuudi's attitude and relationship
with his daughter, as well as Zakaria's relationship with Rosa, are not positive and this must
have had an impact on Maimuna's and Rosa's sexual identities thereby leading them astray.
They thought they could get recognition and identity from elsewhere, since their fathers were
unapproachable. Parents have a duty to bring up children, respecting them as human beings
with feelings, interests and intellect. Maksuudi's contribution to the downfall of his daughter,
is underscored through the following authorial voice:
Maimuna ingawa alipewa mengi na babake, alinyimwa uhuru na kwa hivyo
hakutosheka. Alikata pingu kwa nguvu akajichoma kule ambako alidhania kulikuwa
kuna uhuru kamili (Mohamed, 1980:137). (Although Maimuna was given a lot by his
father, she was denied freedom and therefore, she was not satisfied. She cut the
'handcuffs' (freed herself) and headed for what she thought was true freedom).
Maimuna's rejection of all that her father stood for, and her ultimate search for individual
freedom and identity, is a strong indictment of the kind of philosophy that the father stood for.
Maimuna's actions serve as a warning to parents who turn their homes into prisons. The
'prison', together with its oppression, makes the oppressed (child) to fight for liberation
through all possible means. Most of the forces that lead Maimuna into prostitution are
psychological, militated by a flawed father-daughter relationship.
Ironically, Maksuudi, the proud and all knowing father, goes to look for Maimuna in order to
bring her back home. He pleads:
Mimi babako nakuomba, mimi babako nakushika miguu. Nimekosa, nimetubu,
sifanyi tena. Adabu iliyonipata si ndogo (Mohamed, 1980:144). (I, your father, I am
begging for forgiveness. I bow before you. I have erred, I have repented, I will not
repeat. My punishment is severe indeed).
65
Maksuudi is pleading to be forgiven by his daughter, for failing as a parent and consequently
leading Maimuna into prostitution. The expression 'nakushika miguu' (I bow before you), is
usually used by the young in addressing the elderly people, but in this case Maksuudi who is
advanced in age uses it while addressing his daughter. The unfamiliar usage of the statement
is intended to show Maksuudi's transformation. He has realized his mistake in bringing up
Maimuna. This ironic presentation, reveals the anguish of a father who has failed in his duty
of parenting. The case of Maimuna and her father serves as a warning to parents, who still
insist on dictatorial ways of bringing up children.
As earlier pointed out, communication between parents and their children is the heart of a
good, healthy and intimate relationship. This communication should not be judgemental, on
the part of the parent. But old men in Gamba fa Nyoka, see this differently. Kezilahabi writes:
Sisi wazee tunashangaa kuona unampa mtoto nafasi ya kubwatabwata mbele yetu.
Babu zetu walisema, mtoto hulia miguuni mwa babake '" vile vile waliposema
aliyetangulia usirnwambie akupishe .... Sikio haliwi refu kuliko bega ... huyu kijana
anajua nini juu ya ulimwengu licha ya nyimbo zake za chura za aaa-baa ... ukiona
kongoni mwenye pembe, amejitunza. Usituone sisi tumefika umri huu ukafikiri
tulikuwa tunacheza dansi. (Kezilahabi, 1979: 17). (We, the elders are shocked that
you are giving this child an opportunity to speak nonsense before us. Our forefathers
said, a child eats while sitting (on the floor) at the father's feet. ... They also said; do
not ask the one who came to the world before you to let you pass. The ear does not
overbear the shoulder. What does this boy know about the world besides those
(childish) aaa-baa songs about frogs? ... Do not see us in this age and be cheated that
we have been playing).
The whole description is defamiliarized through the heavy presence of metaphors and
sayings. This type of language is usually associated with elderly people, who speak in
proverbs, metaphors, idioms and parables. Most of the proverbs used here reveal a
generational crisis, due to the attitudes parents have towards children. Kezilahabi chooses to
use this language in this context, to invoke the African traditional beliefs on the issue of
parenting, attitudes and the images of the youth in the eyes of the elderly. Among the Swahili
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there is age distinction. Old people are more respected than the young ones. For instance, old
people are served before the young and are given priority of seats in a gathering (Harris, 1965,
Salim, 1978, Mbaabu, 1985).
The expression, 'Mtoto hulia miguuni mwa babake' (A child eats while sitting on the floor at
the feet of his father) focuses on table manners. In African culture, children were never found
sharing the same table with their fathers. If it happened, it was treated as a sign of disrespect.
The fathers could only share a table or a meal with fellow elders, but not children or wives.
The implication of the expression above, in context, is that the young cannot discuss anything
with their elders, because they know nothing yet. Clearly, this draws from the patriarchal
ideology in which the elders' masculinity is superior.
The saying, 'Aliyekutangulia usimwambie akupishe' (Do not ask the one who was born
before you to let you pass); reveals the great divide between the young and the old. The old
man believes in the old Kiswahili proverb 'Kuishi kwingi kuonga mengi'. This means that
age brings wisdom. Therefore, since the elderly have been alive for a longer period, they have
acquired a lot of wisdom, which the youth will have to be patient to acquire. In other words,
they should only listen to the elders talk because they have nothing to contribute yet. It is
believed that they will only be in a position to contribute as they mature. The same meaning is
expressed in 'sikio haliwi refu kuliko bega' (the ear never overbears the shoulder). In this
saying, the 'ear' symbolises the youth and the 'shoulder' symbolises the elderly. The ear
cannot exist without the shoulder which holds the head on which the ears are found. The
youth, therefore, cannot claim to know more than the elders, who in essence are the ones to
impart the wisdom and knowledge to them.
\
67
The other expression is, 'Huyu kijana anajua nini juu ya ulimwengu licha ya nyimbo zake za
chura za aaa-baa' (What does this boy know about the world besides those (childish) aaa-baa,
songs about frogs?). The implication of the rhetorical question is that it is not possible for a
child to comprehend serious issues. This is a preserve for the elderly. The child only knows
childish things, which are alluded to through the reference of songs about frogs. The words
reveal the negative attitude of the elderly towards the younger people
Another saying with a similar message is in reference to Mambosasa and his colleagues at the
University. These university graduates are involved in settling people into Ujamaa Villages.
The author describes their work graphically:
Ukituma watoto wadogo shambani, mavuno yatakuwa ya kitoto (Kezilahabi,
1979: 130). (If you send small children to harvest, the job will be done childishly).
This analogy reveals the negative attitude that these parents have towards their children. But,
parents need to cultivate a positive attitude towards their children and refrain from being
judgemental. Although these proverbs are drawn from traditional beliefs, Kezilahabi uses
them to highlight the folly of looking at children in this light, because this brings disharmony
in society.
The expression 'Usituone sisi tumefika umri huu ukafikiria tulikuwa tunacheza dansi' (Do not
see us in this age and be cheated that we have been dancing) is equally loaded. Again, this
alludes to age being equated to wisdom. One grows old acquiring knowledge and wisdom
about the world. All the above sayings point to the popular ideology that the young have
nothing to teach the elderly. They do not have enough experience to understand phenomena
yet. Wisdom is depicted as coming with age and experience. The youth are therefore advised
68
to patiently listen and acquire this wisdom and knowledge from the old. It is this knowledge
which will in the end, turn them into wise adults.
The old man who storms out of the villagers' meeting is unhappy with the young man who
finds it important for people to move into Ujamaa villages. He says:
Sitaki kusikia maneno ya ulimi ambao haujakaa kinywani miaka hamsini (Kezilahabi,
1979:38). (I do not want to hear anything from a 'tongue that has not been around for
fi fty years).
Thus, the young have nothing to contribute in a serious discussion where elders are in
attendance. Only the elderly have the mandate of contributing in a serious discussion. All the
idiomatic expressions, metaphors and proverbs, are drawn from African traditional perception
of reality. They demonstrate lack of communication, between parents and their children.
Through their use, the futility of such ideological position is highlighted. They show the false
infallibility, that generates generational crisises.
With formal education, the young people are privileged to acquire knowledge. The same
ideology is voiced by Mambosasa's father. He is not pleased by the fact that, the youth
believe that, because of their education, they are more knowledgeable than the old. He says:
'Konokono hadharau gamba la mgomba!' (A snail does not look down upon banana fibres).
The snail finds the banana fibre important because it shelters under. In other words, the youth
should not look down upon the old who have nurtured them and brought them to whichever
position they hold. The importance of mutual respect between parents and their children is
depicted through this saying.
The superiority appropriated to the elders has roots in African beliefs and practices. It looks
down upon young people who are not seen as active agents of change. This perception stems
69
from the traditional setting in which knowledge was acquired informally and not through
formal structures. By alluding to this, Kezilahabi is underscoring the fact that the philosophy
is outdated. The young are able to acquire knowledge through formal structures and as such,
may be knowledgeable due to exposure and their level of education.
Kezilahabi's position on the issue of acquisition of knowledge and wisdom is explicit in his
novel, Gamba fa Nyoka. He deconstructs these popular beliefs, by alluding that some
knowledge is acquired through reading and by extension, through education. This is the
position taken by the youth, as Mamboleo clearly explains:
Hawa ni ndugu zetu. Hawa ni baba na babu zetu si adui kutoka nje.
Hawakusoma Marx na Lenin kama wewe na mimi (Kezilahabi, 1979:25).
(These are our brothers. These are our fathers and grandfathers.
They are not enemies from outside. They have not read Marx and Lenin like us).
Marx and Lenin, in this metonymy, represent communism; the originators ofUjamaa politics.
Limited formal education on the part of the elderly makes them unable to comprehend the
ideology behind Ujamaa Villages. Through this metonymy, the importance of communication
of knowledge is reiterated. It clearly shows the importance of formal education in
understanding phenomena, which the youth are advantaged to know, compared to the elderly
who have not gone through' formal education. Through this metonymy, Kezilahabi is
reiterating the importance of exchange of knowledge between the youth and the elders.
,
2.5.3 Parents as Role Models
Mohamed (1988:33) underscores the importance of bringing up children in a loving and
caring atmosphere in which children are allowed freedom and parents discarding model
expectations about their children. He describes Haji:
Wakati huu alitokea Haji, kijana mvuta bangi aliyechongwa vibaya na mazingira yake
na kupuuzwa na walezi wake. (This time, there came Haji, a young man who was a
70
bhang smoker and who has been moulded badly by his environment and neglected by
his parents).
Haji is a bhang smoker and has devious behaviour. All this is blamed on the fact that 'he has
been moulded by the environment'. To mould is to shape something in a certain manner in
order for it to assume a certain shape for a specific duty. In reference to Haji's character, it
means he was not brought up well. Koman and Myers (2000: 148) underscore the importance
of role modelling. Parents are to be role models to their children. This can only happen when
they are present, providing a safe environment, preparing food, reassurance, monitoring
countless changes and teaching what needs to be taught. Fathers have special responsibility to
their sons of building a relationship with them and being good gender role models. They are
to offer fatherly guidance, advice and insight. This then helps us to understand when
Mohamed describes Haji as moulded in the wrong way. He had an absentee father with no
model for emulation. The symbolic reference to upbringing as moulding underscores the
importance of parents in moulding their children to become responsible adults.
Parenting is also explored in Asali Chungu. Shemsa finds a young man she wants to get
married to, but the young man at one time was lured into a sexual relationship by her mother,
Amina. Shemsa is not ready to give lip the relationship despite frantic refusal by her own
mother. Amina is desperate and she admits that she has failed to convince Shemsa to end the
relationship. She says:
Ulimwengu huu ni ulimwengu wa bata kwenda na watoto wako mbele (Mohamed,
1977: 151). (This world is a world where the ducklings move ahead of their mother).
Under normal circumstances, the mother duck moves ahead of its young ones to guide them
to where there is food and safety. But, in the analogy, the ducklings are moving ahead of the
mother. Amina uses this analogy to signify her situation whereby her daughter is overruling
her and is not ready to take her advice. The strangeness of this image helps to highlight
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reversed roles between mother and child. Children need to get guidance from their parents
and this is the message being underscored. When the reverse happens, then there is bound to
be a problem. In the case of Amina, she has failed to provide guidance to her children.
Amina's moral uprightness is questionable and this is what has put her in this helpless
position. This presentation reinforces the moral duty of parents, such as Amina, to their
children as role models. It is clear here that immoral parents lack the moral authority over
their children. As a result, they are not effective parents.
According to Urie Bronfenbrenner, a prominent psychologist, it is crucial for a child to feel
loved and cherished by parents (Koman and Myers, 2000:317). This will cultivate a high self-
esteem, which is essential to the child's growth. A child with a low self-esteem is likely to
indulge in antisocial behaviour, or succumb to peer pressure. Parents' duty of nurturing
character is underscored in Asali Chungu. The fact that Latifa decides to engage in a sexual
relationship with her sister's husband may indicate that she had a negative self-esteem. Owing
to this scenario, Mwanakweli, a worker in Zuberi's palace had to say:
Aaa pana ajabu gani? Bi mwanakweli aliendelea. Simba hazai nyani, huzaa simba
(Mohamed, 1977:178-179). (What is so strange about this? Mwanakweli continued. A
lion does not beget a monkey. It brings forth another lion).
The meaning in this analogy is better expressed in the popular Kiswahili saying; 'Mtoto wa
nyoka ni nyoka' (the offspring of a snake is a snake). Zuberi's children share certain
characteristics with their parents. Zuberi and Amina have been portrayed as prostitutes. Latifa
takes after their behaviour. The possibility of children behaving like their parents is
highlighted through this image. Again, the moral duty of parents in providing role models to
their children is underpinned through this analogy. Mohamed illustrates the same message in
Kiza Katika Nuru:
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WANASEMA (sic) tabia zimo kwenye tete za uzazi na mwanadamu huja nazo
duniani kungojea mbolea ya mazingira izirutubishe (Mohamed, 1988:26). (It is said
that character is transmitted through sperms and a person comes into the world to wait
for manure from the environment to nurture them.
The analogy of the sperms and manure emphasizes that a child's character can be genetic.
However, when children are born, whatever is genetic is exposed to the environment, which
provides the 'manure' that 'nourishes' the character. Mbishi is a difficult child and his
negative personality is here being blamed on his socialisation. As earlier pointed out, his
absent father never provided guidance or material support to the family. Mbishi always
wondered why they were not living like the rest of the children around them. By
metaphorically referring to the place of environment in the formation of a child's character as
manure, the author underscores the role of parents and proper environment in nurturing a
personality. The parents have a role to provide the right environment to nourish desirable
character in their children.
Kezilahabi, like Mohamed, stresses the importance of nurturing good character in Gamba fa
Nyoka. Mambosasa tells his father:
Saba .... Wazee walisema ukinyoa mtoto nywele za utotoni naye atakunyoa mvi za
uzeeni (Kezilahabi, 1979: 130). (Father. .. the elders once said, If you shave a child
his/her childhood hair, she/he will shave your grey hair).
Shaving involves removal of unwanted hair. Shaving in this case is symbolic of a parent
providing guidance to his/her child by correcting and shaping. It symbolizes eliminating
undesirable behaviour. When the child is brought up in the right way, the parent enjoys in old
age by reaping the fruits of his labour. The analogy of shaving underscores the importance of
proper upbringing. Indeed the parent benefits in old age since once the child matures, he takes
care of the elderly parent. This stems from the African belief and practice whereby children
are expected to take care of their elderly parents.
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2.6 Conclusion
This chapter has examined defamiliarization techniques, used to depict the institution of
marriage and family within a patriarchal socio-cultural context. The analysis has revealed that
in order to understand the meanings of the various techniques, the socio-cultural context has
to be analyzed. The techniques have been seen to draw heavily from patriarchal ideology
which has its roots in African culture as well as Islam and Christianity.
The authors under study have utilized defamiliarization techniques in discussing marital
confinement, gender roles in marriage, subordination in marriage, motherhood and parenting.
The defamiliarization techniques which have been used here are metaphors, similes, irony,
analogy, proverbs, sayings, synecdoche, idiomatic expressions, intertextuality and symbolism.
The authors have successfully uncovered the patriarchal ideologies, socio-cultural beliefs and
practices as well as challenged and questioned the validity of some of them. In questioning
the validity of some of these beliefs and practices through defamiliarization techniques, the
writers have succeeded in drawing the reader's attention to a fresh and new interpretation. The
techniques have effectively and vividly communicated the various messages which the
authors intended.
In the next chapter, I discuss the use of defamiliarization techniques in revealing the
problematic concepts of good and evil.
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CHAPTER THREE
Defamiliarizing the Problematic Concepts of Good and Evil
3.0 Introduction
The previous chapter discussed the defamiliarization techniques which depict the institution
of marriage within a patriarchal socio-cultural context. The analysis revealed that the
techniques draw heavily from patriarchy. The present chapter examines how the authors under
study defamiliarize the concepts of good and evil. It looks at the depiction of boys and girls in
relation to character, sexual orientation and prostitution. It attempts to determine to what
extent these techniques may be understood within the socio-cultural context.
3.1 Juxtapositioning images of Girls and Boys
Montegomery (1992: 144) defines juxtaposition simply as the placing of two communicative
elements side by side. It is a technique, which is intended to open up a plurality of meaning. It
involves combining two or more elements in such a way that the connecting links between
them are suppressed. This creates some degree of strangeness that leaves the reader curious.
The authors under study have employed the technique ofjuxtapositioning to highlight various
perspectives on the images of girls and boys.
In Kezilahabi's Rosa Mistika, Regina fulfills the social responsibility of motherhood by
giving birth to many children. Unfortunately, she has five daughters and this becomes a
source of problems in her marriage. This does not make her or Zakaria, her husband, happy.
The author describes Zakaria's disappointment graphically:
Zakaria hakuwajibu lolote. Regina na Rosa walikuwa warnenyamaza tu. 'Mshenzi
unanizalia wasichana tu! Unaniletea taabu nyurnbani bure' (Kezilahabi, 1971 :23).
(Zakaria did not respond. Regina and Rosa were quiet. 'Foolish, (woman). You only
give birth to girls. You are bringing trouble to my home').
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The strangeness of Zakaria's utterance is in his belief that female children bring 'trouble'. In
actual fact, children should be a source of pride for parents. To Zakaria, girls are a source of
'headache' and problems. To him, Rosa is foolish and inadequate, because she has not given
birth to sons. Conversely, when Regina gives birth to a son, Zakaria is full of praises for her.
Zakaria alirudi usiku nyumbani siku hiyo. Alikuwa amekwishapata habari hizo njema.
Alimbeba mtoto. Alimpa pongezi mke wake. Regina sasa mji huu umekuwa wako
(Kezilahabi, 1971 :23). (That night, Zakaria came back home. He had already received
the good news. He carried the baby and congratulated his wife. 'Regina now this
homestead is yours').
Kezilahabi writes:
Zakaria's attitude towards his wife changes after she gives birth to a baby boy.He officially
decrees Regina's legitimacy and ownership of the home. Legitimacy of Regina in the home
was pegged on bearing a son. This thought is partly inspired by patriarchal ideology as
Masinj i1a notes:
In most (African) communities, boys were preferred. This was mainly because the
patriarchal system could not bestow status on women. Giving birth to boys meantthat
the mother would be more secure in her marriage and that through her son; she could
have access to what society had to offer in terms of resources and benefits. At theclan
level, the birth of boys was seen as a continuation of the lineage (Masinjila, 1994:6-7).
Thus, it seems Zakaria's attitude and reaction is motivated by patriarchal ideology that
bestows a high premium on sons. As earlier stated, among the Swahili, sons occupy a crucial
role in the family. They are given authority of making policy decisions in homes such as
regarding marriage and other family issues. This is not confined to African societies only. The
biblical stories also elevate the boy child over the girl child. From the story of Adam and Eve,
Abel and Cane, Abraham and God's promise to him over a son, to the story of the prodigal
son in the New Testament, the boy child is seen to have a crucial position in the family.
Kezilahabi seems to question this ideological position through Regina's relationship with
Zakaria. He writes:
76
Usiku huo Zakaria aliimba aJeJuya karibu usiku kucha. Kesho yake alikwenda posta
...... Aliendelea pia kuchunga binti zake kama ng'ombe (Kezilahabi, 1971 :25) (That
night Zakaria sung haleluya throughout. The next morning, he went to the Post Office
(to withdraw some money). He continued to 'guard' his daughters like cows)
The fact that Regina gives birth to a son fills Zakaria with joy. This is why he sings haleluya
throughout the night. The haleluya song is a song of great joy. For the first time in the novel,
it is observed that Zakaria goes out of his way to look for money. The money was meant for
the comfort of Regina and the baby. But, Kezilahabi is quick to add that he did not stop to
'guard his daughters like cows'. Cows are destructive animals when left unattended and can
destroy crops. They have to be guarded all the time. The image of a 'cow' has other
ramifications in Kiswahili language. When used metaphorically (wewe ni ng'ombe) it
amounts to an insult. It means that one who is referred to as a cow is an idiot, somebody with
scanty intelligence. It also implies that the person is gullible. Viewed within this
understanding, the simile is therefore derogatory. It reveals Zakaria's negative attitude
towards his daughters. It shows his lack of trust in the daughters. He sees them as being
unable to make independent rational decisions. They are also seen as displaying a tendency
for mischief that could bring shame to the family.
The cow serves man for free through provision of milk and meat for consumption. Like cows,
women, in Swahili Culture, serve as servants to men. Their primary duty is to make the men
comfortable by cleaning the home and preparing food for the family. However, the women
are restricted to and confined in the home. Girls are not allowed freedom of association or
thought. As a result, parents influenced by this ideology, like Zakaria, police their daughters.
They make decisions for girls as if they are incapable of determining their own fate especially
in regard to marriage.
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On another level, Zakaria's reference to his daughters as cows could be viewed as stemming
from patriarchy. In a community in which dowry is paid in terms of cows, girls are seen as
assets to their fathers. This is because they are seen in terms of being exchanged with cows
when they finally get married. As a result, the girls need to be guarded especially to prevent
them from losing their virginity since virginity places a high premium on the girls at marriage.
3.1.1 The Home as a Zoo
In Rosa Mistika, Zakaria is seen complaining that the girls attract many unwanted visitors. He
says:
Kuzaa wasichana taabu sana! Unapata wageni wa kila aina. Kweli wasichana watano
walikuwa wengi na vijana sasa walizoea kuita mji wake 'zoo' (Kezilahabi, 1971:38).
(Giving birth to girls brings problems. One receives all manner of 'visitors'. Surely
five girls were too many and the youth now called his home a zoo).
The metaphoric reference to Zakari..s home as a zoo has three possible interpretations. First,
in a zoo, animals are viewed and sold. This then implies that the girls in Zakaria's home are
likened to objects of admiration and attraction and may be exchanged for money. Secondly, a
zoo is a restricted area. This alludes to the idea that girls are vulnerable and need protection.
Lastly, animals are bred in a zoo. In this sense, Zakaria's home is likened to a breeding
ground. The image of the Zoo shows the vulnerability and weakness of the females. It is also
used to highlight Zakaria's chauvinism. The author uses Zakaria's personality to question the
patriarchal ideology.
3.1.2 The Jail
Although the metaphor of the zoo depicts girls as weak and vulnerable, in some instances,
Kezilahabi depicts girls and women as being powerful and shrewd. This is captured
graphically in his description of Flora's school. He writes:
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Flora alimpa pole dada yake. Flora naye - huko shule ya wasichana ya jela (Hili
lilikuwa jina la utani la shule ya wasichana huko Mwanza iliyokuwa ikilindwa na
polisi), alikuwa amekwishatoa mimba (Kezilahabi, 1971 :46). (Flora was sorry for her
sister. However - from her school, 'the jail' (for that was the nickname given to
Flora's school in Mwanza which was guarded by police) had already aborted).
Flora's school is metaphorically referred to as a jail. This is because it is guarded by the
police. It is strange that a school has to be guarded by police. A jail is a place where criminals
are housed after being convicted. The criminals are strictly guarded to prevent them from
escaping the hard life in prison. They are also guarded to ensure they do not run back to
society before they are rehabilitated. In the above comparison, therefore, the girls are depicted
as criminals. They are involved in criminal activities such as abortion. Despite the heavy
security, the girls' sneak out of school and indulge in sexual relationships which result in
pregnancies. Some procure abortions. This highlights the crookedness and cunningness of the
girls.
From the above analysis, it is possible to argue that the author seems to be questioning
societal beliefs and attitudes which view women as angelic, harmless, obedient and innocent.
These beliefs make parents complacent in guiding their daughters. The girls are here depicted
as tough criminals who engage in crimes under the noses of policemen. Through the
metaphor of the jail, the author castigates the society's attitude towards girls.
3.1.3 The Hyena and the Angel
Kezilahabi depicts both girls and boys as destructive. Whereas girls have been depicted as
being destructive due to low intelligence, the boys are seen to be destroyers, devourers and
dangerous to unsuspecting girls. In Rosa Mistika, Kezilahabi utilizes juxtaposition to
defamiliarize the story. He presents description of five boys' schools and one girls' school
situated on opposite sides of the road. He writes:
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Kulikuwa na milima karibu kila upande. Milima hii ilikuwa imejaa mawe makubwa
makubwa meusi na mapango ambamo fisi walikuwa wakilala. Usiku utawasikia
wakicheka lakini mchana hawaonekani. Shule tano zaidi zilikuwa zimejengwa katika
milima hii. Shule zote zilikuwa za wavulana. Lakini shule moja ya wasichana ilitosha
kupafanya pawe mahali pazuri pa kusomea ..... shule hii ilikuwa ikiendeshwa na
mabikira walioonekana kufaa sana katika shule iliyokuwa imejengwa kati ya mbwa
mwitu (Kezilahabi, 1971:21). (There were hills all round. These hills were full of
many big dark stones. The hills also had caves in which hyenas lived. At night, you
would hear them laugh, but during the day, they could not be seen. Five schools were
built in these hills. All of them were boys' schools. But, there was only one girls'
school which was enough to make this place a good environment for learning ... The
school was administered by nuns. These nuns were important in a girl's school which
was built amidst wild dogs).
In the above description, the five boys' schools are situated in a scary environment inhabited
by hyenas. The fact that Kezilahabi admits that the environment is scary and serves as a home
for hyenas yet the boys' schools are situated in this vicinity, is a pointer to the attributes of
those who inhabit this area. The boys from the five schools are being likened to hyenas. The
image of the hyena can best be understood from folktales. B iedelman (1994: 186), in
examining Kuguru folktales, explores the moral ambiguity of social life through the world of
folkstories. He notes that the hyena is depicted as shortsighted and greedy to a level of being
stupid. This image is also depicted through Swahili folkstories and proverbs. By putting these
hyenas and the boys side by side in the text, the author seems to be attributing the negative
characteristics to the boys.
Biedelman reveals that the Kuguru just like the Swahili, have strong beliefs about hyenas
based on the moral attributes, which they metaphorically associate with certain physical
qualities and acts. Hyenas have powerful jaws and teeth, with which they easily devour bones
and even metal. They eat badly decomposed meat, but also hunt down live animals. They
have dirty unkempt looks due to frequenting mud wallows. Their coats are coarse and
mottled, giving them a negative image. They also have a clumsy, hutching gait. Their
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grotesque and somewhat humanoid calls have been described by some African societiesas
demonic (Biedelman, 1994).
Although hyenas occasionally feed by day, they are active during the night when their
laughter and whooping punctuates the night. Hyenas are creatures whose appetite hasno
bounds and their eating habits are voraciously beastial. They can do anything possibleto
secure food to satisfy their greed. Their greed gives them away. Kezilahabi seems to be
likening these qualities of the hyena to the boys. The image is highly exaggerated owingto
the fact that hyenas are extreme in their behaviour. The boys are seen to be greedy by virtue
of their inability to curb their sexual urges. They can do anything within their reach to satisfy
their sexual cravings. This means that the girls in the neighbouring school are insecure andin
danger of possible attacks from the hyena's (boys). The boys are depicted as ugly, unkempt,
clumsy and dangerous especially at night. Their sexual urges do not allow them to be
selective. They pick on any woman that can satisfy their lust. The boys are also described
metaphorically as 'mbwa mwitu' (wild dogs). These strong metaphors (hyena and wild dogs)
depict boys as vicious and dangerous to the girls.
In the description of the five boys' schools and one girls' school, Kezilahabi says that the
presence of the girls' school administered by Catholic nuns in this scary environment turns it
into a good learning environment. A possible interpretation here is that the males have
excesses, almost animalistic, in their behaviour while the females bring some humanic
characteristics and order. Kezilahabi could be insinuating that women help to tone down some
of the male excesses and that uncontrolled and unsatisfiable sexual urge reduces a person to a
beast.
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The hyena metaphor in relation to the boys can be interpreted positively. The hyena is a
determined animal and nothing stops it from attaining its desire. Boys are therefore depicted
positively as determined and hard working. Compared to girls, boys are seen as having the
capability to survive under hard circumstances than girls.
The excesses of the boys are countered by images of girls as angelic. The girls are described
metaphorically:
Mara moja wavulana wanaamka kwenda kuinama. Miungu wadogo wanaweka
mikono yao kifuani kuonyesha kwamba wanakataa. Huu ni wakati wao wa umalaika
(Kezilahabi, 1971 :31). (Suddenly the boys rise and bow to the girls. The young
goddesses place their hands on their chests to show that they reject (the offer to the
dance floor). This is their time of being angelic).
In the above description, girls are likened to young goddesses. The metaphor signifies that the
girls are harmless, holy, tender and beautiful. The girls, therefore, are depicted as holy and not
capable of harming anyone. They have to be approached with care and respect. The girls are
precious and have to be worshipped, loved and appreciated just like goddesses. This is why
the boys have to bow before them while requesting for dance. The comparison of girls to
angels also reinforces the image of girls being obedient and submissive. The author is quick to
add that 'this is their time of being angelic'. The implication here is that a time will come
when they will not be angelic. At a certain period in their growth, females can be seen to be
holy, obedient and submissive. The girls are angelic before they indulge in sex. Sex leads
them to lose their angelic qualities.
Other artists have also depicted girls or women as angelic. Fadhili Williams for instance, has
expressed this in his song "Malaika" (Angel). In this song, Fadhili Williams stresses the
beauty of a woman. Through the image of the angel, Kezilahabi highlights the popular belief
that girls are naturally tender, beautiful and harmless. But, as the girls continue growing up,
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they begin to manifest dangerous characteristics. Chinweizu (1990) argues that the female
gender utilizes the myth of angelic qualities in order to hold the man in subservience without
a threat or a blow. The authors under study manifest their understanding of the myth that
women are angels, by depicting them as human beings with all weaknesses peculiar to
humans. The next section discusses the defamiliarization techniques that depict women in
their various ramifications.
3.1.4 Images of Women as Satanic Beings
The depiction of girls as angelic is contrasted with images of women as demonic, satanic and
shrewd. Women are seen to exploit the myth of being angelic for self-gratification. According
to Phillips and Jones (1985:2), women have been blamed for humanity's problems. This is
based on Eve's submission to the devil and her encouragement to Adam to eat from the
forbidden tree. Some of the disparaging statements quoted by Phillips and Jones (1985:4)
include:
"Woman is the daughter of falsehood, a sentinel of hell, the enemy of peace, through
her Adam lost paradise" (St. John Damascare).
"Woman is the instrument which the devil uses to gain possession of our souls" (St.
Cyprian).
"Woman is the arm of the devil, her voice is the hissing of the serpent" (St. Anthony).
"Woman has the poison of an asp, the malice of a dragon" (St. Gregory the Great).
Phillips and Jones argue that these negative attributes about women may have contributed to
the attitudes that people have towards women. Some of the defamiliarization techniques from
the selected texts seem to echo some of the stereotypes about women. For example, Shaaban
in Asali Chungu likens his former wife to the devil. He says:
Lakini wanawake ni ibilisi wakubwa. Wanaweza kumtoa mtu roho ghafla (Mohamed,
1977:33). (Women are devils. They are capable of sudden killing).
83
Although Shaaban confesses that he loved his former wife and that she was beautiful, he still
compares her to the devil. From Islamic and Christian religions, Satan was once an angel but
due to his arrogance, God sent him out of heaven to earth. Some other angels who also
disobeyed God followed Satan and are now his agents in his agenda of causing evil on earth.
By referring to his former wife as a devil, Shaaban is likening her to Satan. The devil's main
mission on earth is to destroy and bring sorrow. This could imply that girls mutate from their
angelic image to become demonic in adulthood and that they are capable of all manner of evil.
This image of woman as dangerous and destructive has also been portrayed through African
proverbs. Schipper (1991) in her anthology of proverbs, Source of all Evil, documents a
number of these proverbs. In this publication, women are depicted as a source of all evil. She
argues that proverbs confirm societal norms and values (Schipper, 1991 :3).
A similar image is depicted when Dude describes her mother, Pili, in negative terms. He says:
Mama alikuwa shetani mpevu. Watu wengi walimwiita mchafu, mnyama (Mohamed,
1977:37). (My mother was a deeply entrenched devil. Many people called her 'dirty',
inhuman).
In the above explanation the woman is compared to a deeply entrenched devil. Both
metaphoric expressions comparing woman to the devil seem to allude to not only the
quotations given by Phillips and Jones, but also to the Biblical images of women exemplified
through Delilah, Jezebel and Rebecca. These women, though depicted as crooked and evil, are
seen to have possessed positive characteristics. They exploited their angelic characteristics to
deceive their own husbands. Chinwiezu (1990: 14) elaborates on this clearly when he writes:
There are five conditions which enable women to get what they want from men;
women's control of the womb; women's control of the kitchen, women's control of
the cradle; the psychological immaturity of man relative to woman; and man's
tendency to be deranged by his own excited penis.
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According to him, the womb, kitchen, cradle, man's immaturity and his inability to control his
emotions, constitute the five pillars of female power and enable the woman to have
dominance over the male. In the metaphor comparing woman to the devil, this idea is evident
through the adjective 'mpevu' (seasoned devil/deeply entrenched devil). This means that
women possess a positive characteristic, which gives them an edge over men. Through this
image, Mohamed draws the attention of the reader to the paradoxical nature of women.
Women are generally regarded as being physically weak, but their hidden power lies in the
ability to manipulate through rare mental skill. They are unmatched by the men. This rare use.
of intellect displayed by women is what Mohamed is highlighting through these strong
metaphors.
It is these rare characteristics which Kezilahabi also reveals by depicting Rosa as shrewd and
cunning in Rosa Mistika. Rosa is extreme in her relationship with boys and men. She is
capable of exploiting her 'womb power' as well as male weakness to attain her goals. On the
contrary, men are depicted as people who are cheated easily by women like Rosa. After
getting financial favours from a man with a promise of sex, Rosa does not meet him as
agreed. Kezilahabi writes:
Rosa alifahamu mengi, kweli alifahamu mengi - alifahamu mapenzi na unyonyaji.
Mapenzi ya mwanamke mara nyingi huenda pamoja na unyonyaji. Kijana alifika
'Banda Street' namba mbili. Hata kiwiliwili chake kilimcheka! (Kezilahabi, 1971:42).
(Rosa understood many things, indeed, she understood many things - she knew love
and exploitation. A woman's love usually goes together with exploitation. The young
man arrived on Banda Street Number Two. Even his own shadow laughed at him).
This sarcasm, seen through the image of the young man being laughed at by his own shadow,
highlights the gullibility of the man. It shows how vulnerable men are in their quest for sexual
gratification. The man displays a high level of gullibility, due to his indisciplined sexual urge.
Kezilahabi is also satirizing such men who fall victims of the Iikes of Rosa. The authorial
ENYATTA UNIVERSITY LI'BRAR~
85
voice is very clear here. This is alluded to in the statement: 'A woman's love usually goes
together with exploitation'. This shrewdness and cunningness expressed by the female gender
contradicts the earlier depiction of women as angelic. This, in my view, bestows humanistic
qualities on girls and women. They are capable of good and evil just like their male
counterparts. The author shows the subversive nature of girls and women, thereby
questioning the ideology of women as the weaker sex.
Society has its ways of socializing boys and girls to become masculine and feminine. The
boys are praised for expressing masculinity and for suppressing behaviour deemed feminine.
However, research has shown that parents cultivate social abilities in young girls and physical
independency in young boys (Wood, 1994:44). While this is true in many African societies,
other scholars hold a different view. Kezilahabi seems to agree with Greene and Kahn, (1994)
and Chinwiezu (1990) who, from research, have observed that women, in fact, are the
powerful sex. Green and Kahn argue that women have wielded more power than has been
known before and that aspects of women's lives which appear to be restrictive may actually
be enabling. (Greene and Kahn, 1994: 17). It may be argued that Kezilahabi and Mohamed
have successfully depicted women and men authentically to question the stereotypes about
both sexes in the African society.
3.2 Images of Sexuality
The authors under study discuss sexual qualities in relation to both men and women. Most of
the techniques utilized reveal the traditional beliefs and ideologies of the African society in
relation to sexuality. This section deals with defamiliarization techniques which reveal
traditional beliefs and ideologies on sex in regard to women and men. Both authors under
study depict prostitution and sex through metaphors. They praise morality as respectable and
86
virtuous. Morals deal with the question of what is right and good and what is wrong and evil
in human conduct (Mbiti, 1975: 175).
African people have a deep sense of right and wrong and this has produced customs, rules,
laws, traditions and taboos, which can be observed in every society. The authors under study
draw from this moral fibre in their portrayal of prostitution. Kezilahabi, for instance, praises
Sabina for maintaining chastity when he says:
Sabina ni msichana atunzae usafi ..... Dansi ya kushikana wawili wawili ilipoingia
nchini, usafi ukaisha mwanangu (Kezilahabi, 1974:34). (Sabina is a girl who observes
'cleanliness' (purity) .... When the dance, which involved people holding one another
was introduced into the country my dear, 'cleanliness' (purity) was done away with.
In the above metaphor, 'cleanliness' symbolizes chastity, purity and high moral standards.
The implication here is that irresponsible sex 'contaminates' a person and robs him or her of
their purity. Irresponsible sexual behaviour is discouraged here. Sabina is praised and
respected for keeping herself pure.
3.2.1 Images and Symbols of Virginity
In African traditional societies such as the Swahili, virginity is valued. Girls who maintain
their virginity are regarded as morally pure. On the contrary, boys are not supposed to
maintain virginity. Again, this has its roots in patriarchal ideology. While girls are socialized
to maintain virginity, boys are free to indulge in sexual acts after circumcision. Therefore,
sexual intercourse seems to reduce the pricing of a girl.
Among the Gikuyu, a girl was to maintain virginity, having an unperforated hymenal
membrane when she marries (Kenyatta, 1978: 159). Those who lost it before marriage were
sometimes forced to cheat in order to be accepted by society. The authors under study have
examined this patriarchal perspective of virginity in their works.
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The importance attached to virginity is depicted in Rosa Mistika. Ironically, Rosa has to lie
that she is a virgin in order to win respect, approval and acceptance from her suitor, Charles.
She says;
'Charles - mimi ni bikira' 'wewe ndiye msichana ambaye nilikuwa nikimtafuta kwa
muda mrefu. Rosa nitakupa heshima yangu yote' (Kezilahabi, 1971:78). (Charles - I
am a virgin. (Charles responded) 'You are the girl I have been looking for, for a long
time. Rosa I will truly respect you').
Through dramatic irony the importance of virginity is foregrounded. Rosa is not a virgin and
the reader is aware. But, she manages to convince Charles that she is a virgin and wins him.
Through this portrayal, Kezilahabi presents the illusiveness of upholding virginity as a
practice. This is clearer when he depicts the aftermath of Rosa's lie. Kezilahabi satirically
describes a scenario where Charles proves that Rosa is not a virgin after all. Charles lures her
to over drink and goes ahead to have sex with her to ascertain her virginity.
The satirical presentation, serves to question the belief in the importance of virginity. This is
extended further when, finally, the relationship breaks after Charles discovers that Rosa is not
a virgin. Consequently, Rosa commits suicide. After the tragedy, Charles discovers his
foolishness. The author writes:
Charles, baada ya kupata kile kijibarua kilichokuwa kimeandikwa kwa damu
alisumbuliwa na dhamira yake. Aliona ukweli ndani ya maneno yake. Aliona
kutegemea bahati ilikuwa kazi bure. Alikuwa hawezi kupata bikira. Lakini yeye
alihitaji bikira (Kezilahabi, 1971:97). (After receiving that letter which had been
written using blood, Charles, was disturbed with his pursuit of a virgin. He saw the
truth in those words. He realized that relying on luck was useless. He could not find a
virgin. But, he needed a virgin).
Through authorial intrusion, the author reveals clearly the insincerity of society in dealing
with the issue of virginity. It is ironic that the author makes Charles discover that it is
impossible for him to find a virgin but he still says that he needs one. The dilemma, which is
evident, compounded with the irony, highlight the author's disapproval of the value placed on
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virginity. Charles is looking for a virgin, yet he is not a virgin himself and he does not see the
need to maintain virginity. Through this, the author seems to be challenging society for
insisting on the sanctity of virginity. The fact that Charles is looking for it yet he is not
cautious to observe it makes it an oppressive practice encouraging male dominance.
3.2.2 The Image of 'Eating'
In Kichwamaji, girls are metaphorically referred to as 'fruits'. While discouraging Kazimoto
from marrying Sabina, Fungameza. says:
'Sabina-nikwambie mtoto wangu - ni tunda baya na nisingependa wewe ulile'
(Kezilahabi, 1974:161). 'Let me tell you my son, Sabina, is a bad fruit and Iwould
not like you to eat it'.
The metaphor of a fruit gives a woman the qualities of tenderness, softness, sweetness,
attractiveness and the man is supposed to actualize his admiration by 'eating' and enjoying it.
But in this particular metaphor, Sabina is likened to a 'bad fruit', which is not fit to be 'eaten'
by Kazimoto. It is rotten with worms and unfit for consumption. The metaphor of 'eating' is a
common image. 'Eating' in most African languages is a euphemism for sexual intercourse.
For example, there is a popular saying' A woman is a maize cob to be eaten by anyone with
teeth'. The reference to sex as eating elevates the man as the one with teeth or priviledged to
enjoy the maize or the fruit.
The same image is alluded to by Mohamed in Asali Chungu. Dude falls in love with Shemsa
who is Amina's daughter. Initially, Dude had a sexual relationship with Amina. After
discovering the fact that Shemsa is Amina's daughter, Dude gets worried. Mohamed describes
his state of mind:
Atakuwa vipi Bi. Arnina atakapomwona arnerejea, na katika kurejea huko anakwenda
kumposa mwanawe Shemsa? Hata yeye mwenyewe Dude aliona vibaya. Inauma
kufikiria kuwa hatimaye itarnbidi kula kuku na vifaranga (Mohamed, 1977: I43).
(How will Amina feel on seeing him back, and this time to betroth her daughter,
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Shemsa? Even Dude himself was uncomfortable. It hurts to imagine that finally he
will be forced to 'eat' the hen with its chicks).
Through the metaphorical expression referring to sex with mother and daughter as 'eating a
hen with its chicks', Mohamed is asking a disturbing question: Who is to blame? On his part,
Dude is innocent since he was lured into a relationship with Amina due to his poverty - he
could not resist. But, the underlying message here is that it is not acceptable for mother and
daughter to share a sexual partner. It is tantamount to one eating the hen and its chicks.
The image of 'eating' in reference to sexual intercourse is guided by the view that men eat
while the women are eaten. The male partner is supposed to be the one enjoying the act of sex
and the woman remains a passive participant. This is clear from the reasons given for
circumcision in communities that practice it. It is said that male circumcision is meant to
make the boys brave, fierce and virile. The act of circumcising boys is meant to sharpen the
weapon of 'eating'. However, the girls' sexuality is controlled by undergoing a similar rite -
Female Genital Mutilation. This is meant to curtail women's sexuality. The 'eating',
therefore, was left only for the one with a weapon of eating; the phallus. The implication in
this metaphor is that a woman is for man's pleasure. The most important thing in a
relationship between man and woman is for the woman to entertain the man by satisfying his
sexual needs.
The origin of woman's passivity in a sexual encounter has been explained by Irigaray (1997:
122) who states:
Woman takes pleasure more from touching than from looking and her entry into
dominant scopic economy signifies, again, her consignment to passivity: she is to be
the beautiful object of contemplation.
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Although we can interpret the origin of the metaphor of eating through patriarchy, it is also
true, according to Irigaray that it could be stemming from a woman's psychological
formation. Although in most instances eating is reserved for the men, Mohamed presents a
strange scenario where a woman is the one 'eating' the man. As Amina plans to meet Dude in
Asali Chungu, the author reveals this clearly:
Alitaka wakutane faragha, pale yeye atakapomiliki uwanja wa matendo, atakapomteka
mtoto yule kwa raha na ladha (Mohamed, 1977:63). (She wanted them to meet in
privacy, where she would be the one in charge of the game, where she would
mesmerize that 'child' with pleasure and taste).
Here, Dude is supposed to be passive while Amina 'works' on him. She perceives Dude as a
child, and therefore vulnerable. The ironic presentation of a woman approaching a young man
for sexual gratification reveals the precarious position of the poor. In the above scenario,
Amina vows to do the 'eating'. And she vows to mesmerize the 'child' with pleasure and
taste. Dude is referred to as a child because of his lack of experience in sexual matters. But,
Mohamed deliberately highlights the fact that Amina does the eating because she is far much
older than Dude. 'Eating' is insinuated through the Kiswahili word 'ladha' which means taste.
This portrayal depicts the dynamic aspect of gender roles. A woman's role in sexual matters is
in this instance reversed. Although this is completely different from patriarchal thinking,
Mohamed presents the reality in his society to highlight the changing nature of society.
Dude's poverty is vividly revealed through the fact that although he is much younger than
Amina, he has to accept her demands. The traditional understanding of sex is contested
through this metaphor to reveal the effect of poverty on society.
3.2.3 Licking of Honey
In stressing the importance of virginity, Mohamed symbolically refers to sexual intercourse
with a virgin as 'licking honey'. He writes:
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Ile siku ya siku, miezi kumi na moja nyuma kabla Pili hajamwendea Zuberi kifua
moto akamtobolea wazi ghushi zake na kumkumbusha wajibu wake, ndipo Zuberi
alipoiramba asali (Mohamed, 1977:7). (It was that day, eleven months before Pili
went to Zuberi. She was boiling with anger, to break her annoyance in reminding him
of his duty. That was the day Zuberi 'licked honey').
Honey is sweet and licking it is enjoyable. It nourishes the body. It is viewed as medicinal in
some communities. From this understanding, sexual intercourse with a virgin is viewed as
enjoyable to the man; only comparable to licking honey. In this metaphor, it is the man who
'licks' the honey while the woman is the honey. This portrayal echoes the earlier one in which
sex is metaphorically referred to as 'eating'.
The techniques used to explain virginity have revealed the societal perception on the subject.
Virginity is honoured and a woman who strives to maintain her virginity is respected in
society. Unfortunately, the same society does not put measures in place to protect the women
from losing it. Virginity can therefore be seen as one of the values imposed on women by
patriarchy - meant to bring pleasure to men as expressed through the metaphor of 'licking
honey'.
3.2.4 Sexuality and Violence
This section examines defamiliarization techniques that depict sexuality and violence. It
focuses on how rape, lust and incest are presented in the novels under study. Rape, lust and
incest are aspects of sexual violence. Sexual violence is associated with hegemonic
masculinity. According to Brittan (1997: 115), sexuality and violence are explicit on
television, in cinema, in novels written by men, making it almost a necessary convention. He
observes that most best-selling novels have rape scenes. Several theories have tried to explain
why men value aggression. For example, new evolutionists claim that gender is not so much
to be viewed as a social construction, but rather it is rooted in biological imperatives. Thus,
. <'
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aggression, for instance, is seen as being innate whereby dominant males pass on theirgenes
to suitable female partners (Brittan, 1997: 114).
Viewing aggression in this light therefore means that whatever is functional for baboonsor
chimpanzees is functional for human males, provided one accepts the evidence that there is
indeed a real continuity between primate and human behaviour. This view is what is usedto
explain why men exhibit animalistic tendencies. If man's aggression is innate, then it means
there is something in a man's make-up, which pushes him into acts of sexual assertiveness.
Inferring from this, men are at the mercy of strong drives over which they have very little
control.
However, sociologists take issue with this perspective in that they view masculinity as a
product of socialization. To them, aggression is acquired in a context in which men learnthat
it is rewarding and that they are expected to behave in an assertive manner (Brittan,
1997: 116). The implication is that a society's proper functioning depends upon the
inculcation of aggressive patterns of behaviour in young boys. According to Kamaara (2003),
gender conflict manifests itself in all forms of gender violence such as rape, incest and
battering.
In African traditional societies, members were expected to observe moral laws, which were
believed to have been given to them by God (Mbiti, 1975: 175). These morals evolved in order
to keep society in harmony and help members to do their duties and enjoy certain rights.
Members of society were socialized especially during seclusion after initiation into adulthood.
During this period, the initiates underwent physical training to overcome difficulties, pain, to
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cultivate courage, endurance, perseverance and bravery especially for boys (Mbiti, 1975:94).
It is during this period that boys were socialised in aggression and violence since these were
viewed as masculine. They were also taught about matters related to rules and regulations
governing sexual indulgence (Kenyatta, 1978: 155). The authors under study present sexual
aggression as both a product of socialization and genetics through the use of defamiliarization
techniques.
3.2.4.1 Rape
Mohamed has a strong message in Asali Chungu. He seems to suggest that sexual intercourse
should be practiced responsibly and that rape is unacceptable. Zuberi, while preparing himself
to rape Semeni, Mohamed writes:
Alianza kunyatia. Alinyemelea kwa ustadi mkubwa. Mungu bariki, alikuwa amefunga
matambara miguuni! Sasa malaika yamemsimama yu tayari kukamilisha unyama
wake (Mohamed, 1977: 10). (He tiptoed towards her. He did it carefully. Thank God,
he had wrapped his feet in rugs! His hair stood, he is ready to perform his beastial
act).
Mohamed defamiliarizes by withholding the use of the verb, rape, as we know it. But instead
describes the action graphically. In the above presentation of rape, it is associated with
animals. The symbolic reference seems to draw from the evolutionary theory of human
behaviour by seemingly assuming that humans behave like animals because of their genetic
formation. Although Mohamed seems to be voicing a popular belief that men have no control
over their sexual instincts, [ tend to believe that human sexuality and aggression are not
simply the expression of impulses rooted in genetic substratum, but they are saturated with
meaning. Although Zuberi may have reacted in response to his instincts, he is also an
intellectual being and should have reasoned before acting. However, the underlying message
is that rape is animalistic and lowers the worth of a man to a being guided by instinct rather
94
than reason. The text therefore presents a strong indictment of rape and argues that sex should
be practiced through mutual agreement of the partners.
3.2.4.2 Lust
Irresponsible sexual behaviour on the part of men in the texts under study is tolerated as
normal and masculine. However, women who exhibit irresponsible sexual behaviour are
frowned upon. In Kichwamaji, Nyabuso, the prostitute, is looked down upon by society. She
is taken for a night by Kazimoto, but she is disappointed by Kazimoto's sexual performance.
She says: 'Kazimoto, jina la bure lakini moto hauwaki' (Kezilahabi, 1974:64). (Kazimoto,
meaningless name, the fire is not lit).
'Fire' in this context symbolizes sexual prowess. This is derived from the name Kazimoto
which means 'fireworks'. Nyabuso is therefore disappointed because Kazimoto does not
'actualize' this 'fire' as his name suggests. Thus, to the likes ofNyabuso, a man is respected if
he has insatiable lust and can satisfy the many women he sleeps with. Kazimoto, therefore,
loses the respect in the eyes of this prostitute for not exhibiting this trait.
This presentation shows how patriarchy shapes the thinking of women. The metaphoric
description of Kazimoto's inability to perform sexually points to the belief that a man's worth
is partly measured by his sexual prowess. This explains why most men would want to have
more than one sexual partner. It seems to be the reason why Kazimoto wants to prove his
worth. He says:
Leo sitakunywa pombe. Unafahamu usiku ulipofika kitandani nilikufa (Kezilahabi,
1974:64). (Today I will not take alcohol. You know, I died when I got to bed last
night).
95
To Kazimoto, if he cannot perform sexually, then he is as good as dead. He cannotstand the
embarrassment of being despised by a woman in terms of his sexual performance. He can
only be respected as a man if he is sexually over active, as his name seems to suggest.
Nyabuso's attitude towards Kazimoto's inability to perform sexually as well as Kazimoto's
decision to prove his sexual prowess, highlight the ambivalence of sexual irresponsibility in
relation to prostitution. For men, it is heroic to expose extreme sexual feelings. However,
women who exhibit such traits like Nyabuso in Kichwamaji and Maimuna in Utengano, are
despised as prostitutes. Again, as earlier argued, this has its roots in patriarchy, which
encourages male promiscuity as the ideal proof of masculinity.
Promiscuity is also looked at as animalistic. This is alluded to when Dude succumbs to his
lust towards Latifa, his sister-in-law. Mohamed (1977: 168) writes:
Dude alikumbuka kuwa kulikuwa na mvutio fulani baina yao. Labda mwanzo mvutio
huo haukuwa na maana kwa sababu palikua na hofu .... Pengine ingehitaji nafasi na
faragha ... na sasa kwani ile nini? Nguvu za upande mmoja zimepindukia. Unyama
ulimvaa, ghafla akapigwa na msisimko (Dude remembered that there was some kind
of attraction between them ... Perhaps in the beginning, the attraction was not so strong
because there was some degree of fear ... 1t needed time and space to manifest
itself ... The time had come. The pull was beginning to be strong. Suddenly, his animal
instinct engulfed him and he was now emotionally charged).
This graphic description exposes the lust between Dude and his sister-in-law. Dude is aware
that whatever he wants to indulge in is unacceptable by society. Finally, Dude is overpowered
by animalistic instincts and indulges in an immoral act. This instance, reveals that both men
and women can succumb to' animalistic tendencies when they fail to tame their lust. As earlier
pointed out, Brittan (1997) notes that an imal istic tendencies are innate and are the root causes
of irresponsible sex. His explanation can aid in the understanding of Dude's behaviour. In any
case, society socializes its members to practice responsible sexual behaviour. However,
people find themselves doing the opposite. The bel ief that men are unable to tame their sexual
96
feelings is highlighted here. The metaphor which refers to such irresponsible sex as
animalistic reveals the author's disapproval of such actions.
The same image of irresponsible sex being considered animalistic is depicted in Asali
Chungu. Mohamed depicts Zuberi's workers gossiping after getting the news that Dude has
impregnated Zuberi's two daughters, one of whom was his wife. One of them says:
Ee-e-e, unyama nakwambia bibi, unyama. Sikwambii mengi, watu wa nyumba hii ni
mbwa kasoro mkia (Mohamed, 1977: 179). (Ee-e-e, animals, I tell you dear, animals. I
cannot say much, people of this family are dogs, dogs without the tail)
Dudes' behaviour is described as barbaric and the entire Zuberi's family is referred to as a
'family of dogs'. The metaphor of a dog in relation to sex signifies unsatisfiable lust. Dogs are
well known for their queer mating and eating habits. Apart from engaging in prolonged
coitus, dogs even eat their own puppies. It is a great insult to refer to a human being as a dog.
Drawing from this context then, irresponsible sexual behaviour, as the one practiced by Dude,
is degrading and undesirable. This strong image seems to highlight Mohamed's disapproval
of such behaviour since it lowers human dignity. He therefore, reiterates the significance of
disciplined sexual behaviour.
3.2.4.3 Incest
Incest is another form of sexual indiscipline, which has been depicted through
defamiliarization techniques. These techniques reveal deep ideological positions. In most
African traditional societies members had to be initiated into adulthood. For many of them,
physical operation on the genital organs of both sexes served as the starting point. It was
followed by a seclusion period during which the individual was given essential information
on the laws, regulations and customs of their society. Among the rules were those governing
sexual indulgence (Kenyatta, 1978: 155). For example, sexual intercourse was not allowed
97
between members of the same family or close relatives (Mbiti, 1969:147-148). All forms of
erotic relations were not allowed and were highly punished. In most cases they could even
lead to excommunication. The offenders had to sometimes undergo ritual cleansing.
Writing from the Swahili cultural context, Mohamed abhors incest. An example is drawn
from Asali Chungu. In this novel, Dude has finally found a fiance, but has sadly discovered
that her mother is his former girl friend. Dude finds himself in a dilemma. His dilemma is
captured as follows:
Kukutana na Bwana Zuberi hakukumshtua Dude hata hivyo. Lakini alipokumbuka
kuwa atakutana na Bi Amina, alipata kiwewe. Atakuwa vipi Bi Amina atakapomwona
amerejea, na katika kurejea huko anakwenda kumposa Shemsa? Hata yeye mwenyewe
Dude aliona vibaya. Inauma kufikiri kuwa hatimaye itambidi kula kuku na vifaranga
(Mohamed, 1977: 143). (Meeting Zuberi did not scare Dude at all. But when he
remembered that he will have to meet Amina, he got worried. How will Amina feel by
seeing him back, this time to betroth (her daughter) Shemsa? Even Dude himself was
uncomfortable. It hurts to imagine that finally he would be forced to eat the hen and
its chicks).
Earlier Zuberi's workers had been heard saying: 'Tuyafungie milango ... mtu na ndugu yake
wanakula chungu kimoja' (Mohamed, 1977: 168). (Let us not tell anybody. Sisters are eating
from one pot).
Dude's dilemma is captured through the statement 'It hurts to imagine that finally he would
be forced to eat the hen and its chicks'. Under normal circumstances the hen is what is eaten
but the chicks are left to mature and reproduce. The chicks provide hope for continuity.
Again, eating as already explained, is symbolic of sex and in this case it is unacceptable sex
because it involves a man having sex with mother (hen) and the chicks (daughters). This
pre entation reveals the serious repercussions of incest as understood within social cultural
milieu. It kills and destroys future generations and leaves no hope for the future of a family.
This could be one of the reasons behind abhorrence of incest in all African communities such
98
as the Gikuyu (Kenyatta, 1978). Mohamed successfully highlights this message through the
symbolic presentation and the reader is drawn to accept the societal position on incest. From
the foregoing discussion, it is clear that some traditional beliefs enabled society to stay in
harmony.
3.3 Images of Prostitution
Prostitution is socially unacceptable in certain cultures. It involves men and women indulging
in sexual intercourse with partners who are not their legal spouses in exchange for favours.
Ashbery (1994:76) in his research in Thailand and Phillippines distinguishes four types of
prostitution: male, female, child and religious prostitution. The texts under study present both
male and female prostitution.
Prostitution is evident in almost all societies of the world despite the fact that major religions
of the world such as Christianity and Islam preach against it. According to Kateregga and
Shenk (1980:70), Sharia gives careful guidelines on every aspect of human action including
sexual life. They points out that in Sharia, morality is such an integral part of Islam that moral
values are mentioned in almost all passages of the Quran (Quran 4:36). A Muslim, for
instance, is restricted from casting unrestrained looks upon strangers and must refrain from
listening to stories of lust and romance. All sexual relationships out of wedlock are forbidden
(Quran 23:5-6).
Many scholars have tried to give reasons as to why human beings engage in prostitution.
According to Mwaura (2002: 14), prostitution has its roots in traditional and religious
practices. She argues that women indulge in prostitution because traditionally they are
subordinate to men. Thus, patriarchy relegates women to a position of lesser human beings.
99
Both Jewish patriarchal culture and Islamic religion relegated women to a position of
dependency (Mwaura, 2002: 15). Women are less privileged and do not own or control any
resources. This has then left them with no other means of livelihood, but to 'sell' sex. Poverty
in all its manifestations has therefore led to prostitution. Thus, women's dependency on men
for subsistence in Islam can also be seen as a product of a patriarchal ideology.
According to Strobel (1979:56), in most conservative Muslim minds, this ideology is
accentuated by belief and customary systems, which consider women as junior and
subordinate to men. He gives an example of the Swahili cultural literature, which depicts
women as inferior while men are endowed with greater intelligence, strength and judgment.
Women therefore indulge in prostitution because they are not meant to perform difficult tasks,
but easy ones such as cooking and sweeping (Siddiqi, 1992:20).
This kind of mentality that women should not participate in certain jobs is reinforced by such
traditional and religious beliefs and practices, which assign roles in terms of gender. Instead
of women participating in certain manual jobs, they would opt for prostitution, which may be
more tolerated in terms of their perceived strength. Marxist feminism sees prostitution as
being a specific expression of the general prostitution of the labourer. This then means that
prostitution, like wage labour is a class phenomenon. The economic situation of unemployed
or underemployed women explains why they, like labourers, sell themselves. It also shows
that prostitutes are alienated from their work. They are dehumanized and their value as
persons is reduced to their market value (Tong, 1989:65).
100
The foregoing discussion highlights the plight of women and their vulnerability, which leads
them into prostitution. The question I would like to grapple with in the next section is; how is
prostitution depicted through defamiliarization devices in the texts under study?
3.3.1 The Hunter and the Hunted
The writers under study portray prostitution in varied forms. One outstanding image is that of
the hunter and the hunted. This is depicted by Mohamed in Asali Chungu. A woman is seen as
an object of admiration for men and is meant for sexual gratification. In describing Semeni,
Mohamed writes:
Kila mwanamme alimtaka na kumnyenyekea yeye, Akawa windo jipya la mji
Wanaume wakamiminika zaidi mle kibandani mwao (Mohamed, 1977:48)). (Every
man wanted her and approached her humbly. She became the 'hunted one' in town,
men started streaming into her shanty).
Semeni is likened to an animal being 'hunted' and the hunters are the men. The motivation of
a hunter is the enjoyment of the flesh of the animal once he succeeds in trapping it. Through
this, Mohamed depicts men as hunters and women as the hunted. Hunting involves laying
traps in order to capture the unsuspecting animals. Men therefore lay traps to capture women
for their own leisure. Mohamed compares men's actions to that of hunters who destroy animal
life.
In a similar metaphor a woman IS likened to the hunter while the man is the hunted In
Kichwamaji. Kazimoto says:
Nilishangaa kwa nini sikuweza kumtambua Pili. Mwanamke akiwa mawindoni
hugeuka sura (Kezilahabi, 1974:21). (I was shocked because I could not recognize
Pili. When a woman is the hunter, she changes her appearance).
The above sarcastic reference to prostitution and prostitutes depict clearly the society'
attitude towards the vice. The metaphor, unlike the previous one, subverts patriarchy, which
10]
relegates a woman to a position of bing the hunted, by referring to Pili a the hunter. This is
a good example in which Kezilahabi and Mohamed use the same metaphor to highlight two
competing ideological positions. Kezilahabi is depicting his society a it is. in the sense that
prostitutes are the ones who search for men because they want financial favours. On the other
hand, Mohamed is conservative in depicting matters of sex whereby the man is seen to b the
one who makes the move toward the woman.
In the metaphor, a prostitute is symbolically compared to a hunter looking out for a vulnerable
animal, which she can kill for her meal. Women prostitutes are here depicted as careful, keen
and patient to attract unsuspecting men and trap them. In order to succeed in their missions,
the prostitutes disguise themselves to a level of not being recognised. They are therefore
depicted as dangerous. The author seems to be sounding a warning to men to be careful since
it is not easy to notice the intentions of prostitutes. The aim of such women is to get money
from men.
3.3.2 The Chaff and the Bouncing of a Ball
According to Tong (1989:49), patriarchy does not require marital fidelity from the men. This
is because she sees transition into monogamous family as a move by men to secure their
wives' marital fidelity; thereby imposing an institution of compulsory monogamy on women.
This was meant to ensure that men's material property was inherited by their blood sons.
Looking at why prostitution is associated with women in this light, it is possible to understand
why the majority of prostitutes depicted in the texts under study are women. Put differently,
most African traditional societies practice polygamy, which gives men the license to have
many sexual partners and restricts women to a single partner (Mbiti, 1969). In Kichwamaji, in
reference to Nyabuso the prostitute, Kezilahabi writes:
lUL
Hajapata wachumba, Nani ataoa makapi. Huyo sa sa arnekuwa mpira wa kudunda na
kuacha hapo wengine pia wadunde (Kezilahabi, 1974:62). (She has not found
someone to marry her. Who will marry that 'chaff? That one now is a bail to be
bounced and left for others who are interested in doing the same).
The defamiliarization devices, in this instance, arc the references to prostitut s metaphorically
as chaff and to prostitution as bouncing of a ball. Chaff is the remains after cereals have been
polished, usually separated from the grains by winnowing. Although chaff may be perceived
as useless by virtue of it being separated from the valuable grains, it has some minor uses
such as the lighting of fire. A number of messages are alluded to through this metaphor. A
prostitute is depicted here as a woman whose 'nutrients' have been sucked out. Thus,
prostitution erodes a woman's inner worth, but it does not mean that she is completely
worthless.
Just as the chaff may have other minor uses, so does a prostitute. Kezilahabi seems to be
highlighting the ambivalence about prostitution as a practice. Although a prostitute is not
highly regarded in society, she is useful to men who need her for sexual gratification.
Speaking from an Islamic background, Phillips and Jones (1985) blame prostitution on
monogamy. To them, men hide in monogamy while prostituting since they have no legal
binding with the women they relate with. They argue that polygamy forces men into fidelity
by obliging them to take socio-economic responsibilities - for the fulfilment of their
polygamous desires and provide protection for women and children. The assertion by Phillips
and Jones may not be wholly acceptable, but it is true that prostitution is driven by selfish
desires whereby one is able to enjoy sex without shouldering the burden of providing for the
women except for small gifts.
The fact that chaff is very light in weight and can be separated from grain by winnowing
signifies the idea that prostitutes are weak and easily swayed. They are cheated easily and
they engage il0Stit Ilion sometimes due to their i ability to control their own sexual UI 'i'~
as well a' tl eii nability to turn down seduction.
A prostitut is compared to a ball, which is supposed to be bounced by one person at a time
and left for another one \ ho ould be interested in bouncing it. This extended metaphor
compares sexual intercourse to a ball game. A ball without air cannot be useful in a game
su h as football. The fact that it can bounce and be left for another person to continue with the
game means that prostitution is a game, which is enjoyed by its players. A female prostitute,
just like a ball full of air, is full of life and this is why men who associate with her find ber
worthy and enjoyable. Remotely, this seems to signal the fact that men enjoy sex with
prostitutes and this could be the reason as to why they go back to it, even if the practice is
unacceptable. Such a woman is an object of amusement for men who would like pleasure.
Through this metaphor, it is clear that Kezilahabi sees a woman prostitute as having no
control over her sexual urges and is ready to entertain any man who is in need. A prostitute is
not earmarked for marriage by anyone. Rather she is to 'serve' any man who needs her
services. The two metaphors portray the society's view of female prostitutes. The strong
metaphors give a clear picture of society's image of a female prostitute.
3.3.3 The Bait, Hook and the Shark
Many scholars have written about men being attracted by the physical appearance of women.
Chinwiezu (1990) for example states that:
... from puberty onwards, nothing disorganizes the male mind more quickly or thoroughly
than the sight of the female body - beautiful. It triggers a craving, which overwhelms the
'males' self-protective instincts (Chinwiezu, 1990:36).
Although I do not agree wholly ith this statement, some of the defamiliarization .echniques
in reference to women seem to embody this perspective.
The beauty of a woman and her ability to attract a man is referred to in Asali Cltungu. Biti
Daudi comments about Amina's beauty by saying:
Uzuri wako ni chambo kwa mwanamme yeyote na utajiri wako ni ulimbo (Mohamed,
1989:63). (Your beauty is the bait for any man and your wealth is the glue).
The above metaphor comments on a woman's beauty by alluding to fi hing. A fisherman is
armed with the bait and the hook before he goes fishing. The bait is used to attract fish, but as
th fish goes for it, it gets hooked or glued and finally it is fished out of water. The fish, in this
case, is the man who is foolishly attracted to the beauty of a woman. Just like the fish is
trapped while foolishly pursuing the bait. This metaphor highlights the foolishness or
gullibility of some men in relation to their sexual urges. They are attracted to the beauty of
women and driven by their desire for sex. This makes them easy prey for women who use
their wealth to keep them captive. The strong message behind this metaphor is that beautiful
wealthy women are dangerous to poor young men.
Mohamed captures this reality more clearly when he writes:
Yeye mwenyewe Dude alistaajabu kiasi gani alichomwogopa Bi Amina sasa, hata
kuweza kuacha nyendo zake nyingi. Kweli papa limemmeza (Mohamed, 1977:120).
(Dude himself was shocked by the extent to which he feared Amina, that he could
forego his own plans. Surely the shark has swallowed him).
In this metaphor, Amina is likened to a 'shark', which has swallowed Dude. Thus, the beauty
of the shark has vanquished Dude. He is lost. The image of the shark helps to highlight the
immense power and might which a beautiful and wealthy woman like Amina can possess.
Mohamed seems to be warning men through the popular proverb that 'All that glitters is not
gold'. Through this metaphoric expression, which compares Amina to a shark, Mohamed
Ill.)
challenges the view that women are sexual entertainers. In this example, Amine ltSCS I, 'r
beauty and wealth to satisfy her own s xual urge. It is clear too that women can seek sexual
gratification from men in exchange for financial fa 'ours.
3.3.4 The Fishing Game
Female prostitutes are depicted as cunning and evil through the metaphor of fishing.
Mohamed depicts Kazija, the prostitute, who schemes to have father and son in her house in
order to brew a conflict between them. He writes:
Kazija hakujali gharama. Alitupa chambo kwa tamaa ya kunasa samaki. Pesa zake
zimekwisharudi mara kumi (Mohamed, 1980:6). (Kazija did not care about the
expenses. She threw the 'bait' to capture the 'fish'. She had recovered her money ten-
fold).
Just like the earlier metaphor, which referred to Amina's beauty as the bait, this metaphor
borrows from fishing whereby a fisherman armed with the 'bait' is sure to capture fish. The
fisherman here is Kazija. The bait symbolizes the sumptuous food, which she has prepared for
Mussa who is the fish. Fish is captured because it succumbs to its desire to grab the 'bait'.
Thus, it is attracted to the bait without suspecting that it is a trap. Through this metaphor, it is
notable that Kazija's aim in preparing a delicious meal for Mussa was to fool him so that she
could achieve her objective. Mussa is depicted as behaving foolishly in response to his lust
and this is why he finds himself trapped when his father, Maksuudi, arrives at Kazija's house
for the night.
The metaphor foregrounds the cunning and insincere nature of prostitutes such as Kazija. It is
clear that prostitution is not only motivated by poverty. Sometimes, it is instigated by a
craving revenge against society. Kazija symbolizes women, who indulge in prostitution to
revenge against society which the! feel has oppres ed them in a certain manner. The
metaphor then could be a warning to those who participate in prostitution.
A similar metaphor depicting prostitutes In the same light is found In Asali Chungu.
Mohamed writes:
Binti Daudi alisita kwa kujiramba ufizi kwa ulimi wake uliokuwa ukijaribu
kumuumba Amina mpya: uzuri wako ni chambo kwa mwanamume yeyote, na utaiiri
wako ni ulimbo; aingiaye hunaswa (Mohamed, 1977:63)
(Binti Daudi slowed down as she licked her upper lip and tried to visualize a new
Amina: 'to any man your beauty is the bait and your wealth is the glue. Whoever
enters (into a relationship with you) is glued to you).
In the metaphor, Amina's beauty is compared to 'the bait'. She uses it to trap Dude into a
sexual relationship. Through this metaphor, Mohamed reveals that prostitution knows no sex.
Both men and women are seen to be indulging in prostitution. Amina who is far older than
Dude lures him into prostitution. It is interesting that in this instance the roles seem to have
been reversed. It is the female who lures the male. Biti Daudi ironically describes Amina as a
young child. She says:
Unaonewa kijicho kwa umri huo ulionao ndio kwanza unanawiri .... Hapana
anayethubutu kukuvua mbeleko .... Amina mtoto mdogo (Mohamed, 1977:120).
(People envy you for looking younger than your age yet this is just when you are
starting to blossom. Nobody can dare to compete with you. Amina the baby).
Dude has to accept prostitution in order to live comfortably. Ironically, Amina is the one in
need of sexual gratification from a young man. Dude gives in to get favours from her.
Mohamed depicts an ironic situation in order to show that, contrary to patriarchal dictates, a
woman can have an upper hand in sexual matters. Again, the metaphor is used to depict the
changing social values in Mohamed's society.
Female prostitutes are depicted as manipulative. They are capable of manipulating men to
fulfil their selfish desires even if it involves spending money. The depiction of both Kazija
IU/
and /unina highlight the fact that prostitution is not engineered by only men but also 'Nomen.
It is also not only motivated by poverty. In psychoanalytic terms, their behaviour could be
interpreted to be a reaction stemming from penis envy. Psychoanalysis sees a woman's desire
as being different from a man's because a woman is seen to suffer from penis envy. The peni
is being projected as the only sexual organ of recognized value (Irigaray, 1997: 121). Thus,
she attempts by every means available to appropriate that organ for herself. Women are
therefore driven by their own desire only to the expectation that they may at least come to
posses an equivalent of the male organ. Since female sexuality has always been
conceptualized on the basis of masculine parameters, it is possible to argue here that a woman
may indulge in prostitution and even enjoy it because, through it, they feel satisfied due to
their envy of the penis. This seemingly radical position is what is coming out clearly from the
above depiction of women prostitutes.
Naturally, the beauty of a woman attracts a man. In Kiza Katika Nuru, the 'beauty' of a man
is depicted through the metaphor of the rose flower. Not only are women attractive to men but
men can also be attractive in the eyes of women. It is written:
Kianga cha furaha kilipasua kila upande na ishara za ukunjufu zilibainika. Salma
alikagua waridi lake jinsi lilivyochanua mbele yake.
(Mohamed,1988: 3). (An aura of happiness spread all over and the signs of joy were
evident. Salma admired her beautiful rose flower before her).
The above metaphor refers to Mvita as 'waridi' (rose flower). The rose is a special flower
which appears in many colours such as white, yellow, red and pink. It is beautiful and
produces a nice scent. It is one of the most expensive flowers. This metaphor is mostly used
in reference to women by men. It is associated with love, beauty and attraction. The
strangeness of the metaphor in reference to a male lover seems to be revealing the fact that
women are also attracted to men due to their physical appearance.
JVO
The author employs dramatic irony here. Whereas Salrn: values and 10 es Mvita. wlulc
Mvit 's father, in fact, wants to sack him because he finds him (Mvita) useless ana l nlovable.
Through this unfamiliar metaphor, the author makes the reader to realize that the opposite is
also possible. \: 'omen, it appears, can admire men owing to their physical app arance. This,
challenges the common belief that it is only the men who admire the beauty of women.
Defamiliarization therefore subverts the common perception. Mohamed could be drawing rhi
from his society in which popular ideologies are being discarded and women are becoming
free to express their feelings. This metaphor together with the earlier one, which depicted
female prostitutes as hunters, reveals the changing situation in the authors' society.
3.3.5 The Sheep and Man-Eater
Female prostitutes are depicted as devourers and destroyers. Mohamed presents Maimuna's
predicament after giving up prostitution:
Haidhuru atakufa kikondoo. Labda kutamba huenda kukamfungulia maisha mengine.
Nani ajuaye Kuchoka ameshachoka na maisha haya ya nunda-rnla-watu
(Mohamed, 1980: 148-149). (She will die like a sheep. Probably roaming around will
open up new possibilities. Who knows? She is tired with this life of being a man-
eater).
The above description reveals Mohamed's assessment of Maimuna after giving up
prostitution. The metaphor of man-eater portrays Maimuna as having lived a life like that of
an 'ogre'. Due to this, she is going to die like a sheep. The 'man-eater' metaphor signifies
destruction. The reader senses regret. This reveals the fact that prostitutes may regret later in
life after living like 'ogres'. This is due to the fact that in the end, prostitution does not
improve their status in society. It only makes them guilty. Prostitutes degrade themselves by
accepting the societal image of their trade.
lV~
Th att itudc of a prostitute towards herse f is clea er when fi: ally Maimuna meets Kabi ... ho
is interested in marrying her. The author pres nts the conversation between the t \'0 in whicb
Maimuna reveals her own attitude towards herself. The author writes:
'Sikiiiza Mairnuna, mimi niko tayari kukuoa kwa hali yoyote'. 'A-a alikanu ha
Maimuna. Siwezi Kabi mimi mnyama' (Mohamed, J980:162). ('Listen Maimuna, J
am ready to marry you in any state' 'Aaa! she protested' No Kabi, I am an 'anima!').
Through the metaphor in which Maimuna refers to herself as animal, the author gives us th
image that prostitutes have of themselves. She considers herself lesser than a human being
and probably an animal. Animals are seen to be cruel, irrational and lack human feelings. The
foregrounded message here is that prostitution removes feminine and humanistic qualities
from a woman. Consequently, she becomes cruel, unsympathetic, lacking emotions such as
love. If this is what Mohamed conceives of a prostitute then he does not give any room for
them to be rehabilitated.
3.3.6 The Dog
Mohamed ironically reveals that some prostitutes are unaware that they are prostitutes. In
Utengano, when Maksuudi finally arrives in Kazija's house and discovers his own son in the
same house, having a relationship with the same woman, he fights him. Mohamed writes:
Toba, Kazija a\ijipa kushtuka. Kilikuwa kilio cha mamba. Ngoma aliyoianza ilikuwa
inachapukia. 'Toba mtauana. Bwana Maksuudi utaua? 'Wacha niuwe, ya nini mbwa
huyu kuishi!' (Mohamed, 1980: 15) (Gosh, Kazija pretended to be shocked. It was
tears of a crocodile. The game she started was now in its climax. Gosh, you will kill
each other. Mr. Maksuudi, will you kill? 'Let me kill, there is no need for this dog to
live!)
Notice that in the above metaphor, Maksuudi refers to his own son as a 'dog'. In Swahili
culture the image of a 'dog' has been partly associated with strong, uncontrolled and
unsatisfiable lust. These strong emotional feelings are what Maksuudi conceives of his son's
lust. This metaphor highlights what the writer imagines to be the reason as to why people
lLV
Cll~;- ge m pr stitution; tha prostitution IS as a result of a perso being unable 0 control his or
her sexual em tions. But it is ironical that a csuudi, who also deserves the title of a 'd~)&,
since his presence in Kazija's house is due to his lust, seems not to be aware of this fact.
This scene helps the reader to understand the ability of human beings to project what is
undesirable to others. This is a psychologi al process in which what is unacceptable or taboo
is appropriated to another person or force outside the individual. Even those practicing
prostitution do not accept or see themselves in that light. This could be due to society's
disapproval of the vice. It could be an indication of the fact that even those who participate in
prostitution do not like it but find themselve in it. Therefore, the vice cannot be eradicated
easily. This is a pessimistic way of looking at it though it seems to be the bare truth.
The fact that Maksuudi is ready to fight his son even to the point of endangering his life
because of a prostitute raises questions. Does it mean that sex is so important to a level of
challenging the old proverb of blood being thicker than water? It seems clear that prostitution
knows no father, son, woman or man. This message is clearly relayed through the projective
statement made by Maksuudi.
The dog image in relation to prostitution is also used in relation to Maimuna's life. Mohamed
writes:
Shoti anavyoringa, utafikiri si bao la mkahawani. Nani naye anayeshtua watu,
Akitupiwa mbwa hamtaki (Mohamed, 1980: 139) (See how she is boasting. You
would think she is not a bench in a hotel. Who does she think she is to scare anyone.
Even if she is given to a dog, the dog will not receive her).
As earlier pointed out, in African societies, the dog has no dignity. It is fed on remains of
food. A dog In the above reference stands for the scam of society. These are the poor and
downtrodden. In the metaphor, even ifMaimuna is given to the dogs they will not accept. The
J J J
r fe.ence to he dog points 10 the ambivalent situation whereby man depends or. the do;; for
protection especiall in tl e night yet he does not value it. The same ambivalence is insi» ated
in this image. Prostitutes are looked down upon in society but their services are needed in the
night or in secrecy. Those who engage in this act will go back for it even if they know it is not
a good practice.
3.3.7 The Litterbin, Human Waste and Old Fruit Basket
Prostitution leads to loss of self-esteem and dignity on the part of the woman. In Utengano ,
Mairnuna describes herself in the following words:
.... Alijibu Maimuna kwa hasira. Wewe ndiye unayenijua zaidi, na kama si wewe,
ningalikwishatokomea zamani. Sirudi bibi, na hasa sasa. Nimeshakuwa debe bovu,
sina la kukalia (Mohamed, 1980:83). (Maimuna replied in anger. You are the only one
who knows me well and were it not for you, I would have been destroyed long time
ago. I am not coming back. I have become a worn out litterbin. I am hopeless).
The metaphor of a worn out litterbin implies that it has been overused. We can decipher
several messages from this metaphor. Maimuna sees herself as valueless because she has been
'overused' by men. Although the meaning of age is remotely insinuated, what seems to be
disturbing her is the fact that she is worn out and she is blaming this on her overindulgence in
prostitution. She believes that her beauty has been eroded.
Authorial intrusion is evident in the above statement. Since Maimuna is regretting, Mohamed
is voicing a popular ideology in society. It is clear that the dignity of a woman is hinged on
her chastity and youthfulness. This was expressed through insistence on virginity in most
African societies. Seemingly, prostitution is seen as a practice, which lowers a woman's
dignity, self worth and esteem. It is therefore an undesirable practice because, in the end, one
can only regret having participated in it. As earlier mentioned, this seems to be drawing from
the traditional view that sex is one-sided. Maimuna's thinking is skewed. Due to her
socialization, she believes that women give them elves to men for the latter's gratifi ationand
no' for their own pleasure. Yet this may n t always be the case.
The above image of a female prostitute is further explored in the same novel where Mairnuna
is likened to 'human waste', and 'old fruit container in the litterbin'. Mohamed describes
Maimuna's situation:
Maimuna alijikuta amelengwa kama pakacha bovu jaani. Na babake ati alikwenda
kumtafuta kule Rumbalola. Wa nini tena Maimuna? Ameshakuwa kinyesi. Kurejea
kwao, na kuendelea kuishi katika uhuni kuna tofauti gani? Yeye ni debe bovu. Ni
dude la mwanamke lisilo nyuma wala mbele (Mohamed, 1980: 137). (Maimuna found
that she had been thrown away like an old fruit basket in a dustbin. Her father had
gone to look for her at Rumbalola Hotel. But why look for her? She has already
become human waste. Their efforts were a waste of time for it was too late. She
(Maimuna) is a useless container. She is a tramp).
Human waste is residue from the stomach after all the nutrients have been absorbed by the
body. Although it has no use to the body, it can be used to manufacture fertilizer, whi his
useful in farming. Thus, in this view, prostitutes are seen as having lost their nutrients; their
importance and dignity. But, there is something they can offer when they reform. Through
intervention, prostitutes can be reformed to become useful members of the society. Instead of
damping them away like human waste, intervention strategies should be put in place to
rehabilitate them. This metaphor therefore creates some hope in the mind of the reader. it
brings out the message that all is not lost.
The fruit container, among the Swahili, is made from coconut leaves. It is a temporary
container which is porous and cannot hold fine things such as flour, or cereals. After doing its
duty of carrying fruits it can be used to store other food products such as cassava. Its lifespan
is very short. But the one which is being referred to in the metaphor is old and it has been
thrown to the dustbin. This metaphor therefore has several revelations about how society
views a prostitute.
I 13
Apart from the fac that she is se n as us less, it p ints to the id a that she ht '> a short liil
sps n. Thus, prostitution erodes ones beaur and youthfulness. Sh has n•...tangible value tc
society.
It is possible to argue here that this metaphor puts both male and female prostitutes at the
same level. The old fruit container stands for old female prostitutes while the old useless
things stored in it are the male prostitutes. The two are involved in a worthless venture. The
particular container referred to in the metaphor has been thrown in the dustbin. This
reinforces the fact that a female prostitute is worthless in society. The fruit container was
initially used to carry fruits. It was therefore useful, but like a girl who takes to prostitution, it
be omes worthless with age. In a sense, the metaphor shows that the beauty and sweetness of
a woman is eroded through prostitution. These metaphors are intense and they enable the
writer to successfully depict the image of prostitutes.
The short life span of a female prostitute is also depicted through the reference to withering of
a flower. A woman is like a flower that withers within a short time. Ironically, Biti Sururu is
amazed at the 'depreciation' that Maimuna has gone through from the time she began
practicing prostitution. She says:
Uzuri wa mwanamke, ni kama asumini, unapofunua tu hunyauka. Kweli chema
hakidurnu! (Mohamed, 1980: 135). (The beauty of a woman is like that of a flower;
soon after it blossoms, it withers. It is true that a beautiful thing does not last).
In the above analogy, Maimuna's beauty is likened to the beauty of a sweet smelling flower
which blossoms for a short while and then withers away. Thus, a woman's beauty is short-
lived. Maimuna is a shadow of the former self. She was beautiful, full of life and now, after a
short stint in prostitution, she has withered away.
The !lans[onnalion that a prostitute goes through is further der'icled by Mohamed through [he
followii L~:
Vi a -ya ku -utiana kisu. Mwanzo alidhani yeye kakarnata mpini lakini kurnbe
alikuwa kakarnata makalini. Sasa ndiyo kwanza aone kuwa kisu kimemkata wala
haileti tofauti yoyote baina ya kuwa Maimuna kibahatuli na Maimuna Maksuudi
mtoto wa watu (Mohamed, 1980: 137) (It was a risky fight involving knives. in the
beginning, she thought she was holding the handle of the knife, but instead she
discovered she was holding the sharp end. Then she discovered that the knife had cut
her and it was no longer different to be Maimuna, the riffraff or Maimuna Maksuudi,
respectable daughter (of somebody).
The above description depicts a wounded Maimuna. It shows her regretting for engaging in
prostitution. She, initially, had thought she was in control of her life only to discover that she
had hurt herself and was bleeding. Bleeding comes with pain and anguish which characterises
her life after prostitution metaphorically.
In a significant way, prostitution has negatively affected Maimuna's image. Prostitution has
left a permanent scar on Maimuna's life. She is no longer the Maimuna Maksuudi that people
envied and respected. She has been transformed into a pauper. This truth hurts Maimuna and
she regrets having ever made that decision to go into prostitution. The author's view is clear
here, that Maimuna should not have taken this decision. He is cautioning his readers against
taking decisions such as this, which may only lead to regret. Maimuna was once a respectable
child of a rich man, but a single decision has turned her into a pauper.
Society's attitude towards prostitution is further depicted in Rosa Mistika. Zakaria ironically
denies his own daughter because she is a prostitute. The author writes:
Zakaria alifika nyumbani usiku kama kawaida yake. Alipofika, Regina ndiye alikuwa
wa kwanza kumjulisha kwamba Rosa alikuwa ndani. Zakaria aliguna tu na kusema;
'Rosa ndiye nani?' 'Malaya hajawa mgeni wangu wala mtoto wangu' (Kezilahabi,
1971 :57). (Zakaria arrived home at night as usual. Regina was the first one to tell him
that Rosa was in the house. Zakaria was upset. 'Who is Rosa? A prostitute has never
been my visitor or my chi Id', he said).
115
In the above ironical statement, Zakaria denies the fact that he can have a prostitute for a
visitor or a daughter. The foregrounded message here is that nobody wants to associate with
prostitution. Becoming a prostitute makes one unpopular and it alienates one from their
family and society. The fact that a father dissociates himself from his daughter because she is
a prostitute serves to vividly expose society's position.
3.3.8 The Public Basin
Prostitution as viewed by society is also depicted through Utengano. Kijakazi outrightly
reveals disrespect toward Maimuna when Maimuna warns her that she is a respectable woman
and she cannot take her 'dirty' talk anymore. Kijakazi sarcastically mocks Maimuna by
referring to her as the princess of the king of bees (Mohamed, 1980: 142). To Kijakazi
Maimuna has lost her glory and cannot regain it again. The implied message through the
sarcasm is that, prostitution is demeaning.
Further still, women are seen to have respect for men and for one another. This is so because
Shoka, who is the culprit, for having both Kijakazi and Maimuna as girl friends has no
accusing finger directed at him. The two women hate one another. Finally Kijakazi justifies
her relationship with Shoka by saying;
Toka lini mtu wa vilabuni kuwa na mtu mmoja? Si chano cha mji tu. Kila mtu
hukifulia (Mohamed, 1980:142). (Since when did a man who patronizes clubs, have
one woman? He is just a public basin, which anybody who wants to wash clothes can
use).
Kijakazi does not see anything wrong with Shoka's relationship with a number of women. To
her, the likes of Shoka, who visit clubs or drink can never have one woman friend. He is
metaphorically compared to a public basin, which serves anybody in the home. This means
that Shoka is free to 'serve' any woman in the club. This statement, coming from a woman,
means that women have been made to believe that men have a right to desire for variety. In
1) (;
Kichwamaji, J azimoto takes lyabuso (a prostitute) for a night but becaus . he- hac ta en tnu
mu -h alcohol, he sleeps and does not have se: with her. Th next morning, Kazirnoto wakes
up to find the woman missing and his trousers too. When he reports to his host, rhe
conversation is tacit:
'Sifa yangu imeharibika. Yule mwanamke atatangaza'.
'Unataka kurudishajina lako?'
' ..... Kazimoto, jina la bure lakini moto hauwaki' (Kezilahabi, 1974:64)
(My respect has been eroded. That woman will announce this 10 everybody.
'Do you want to be respected once again?'
.... Kazimoto (fireworks) just a name but the fire does not burn).
The meaning of Kazimoto's name is 'fireworks', which has a sexual overtone. It means a
person who has insatiable sexual urge and in this context, it is a positive trait. But who has
given man this freedom and permission to indulge in sexual irresponsibility? The abov
metaphor implied in Kazimoto's name helps to expose society's popular ideology on the issue
of male sexuality. Although most African communities do not condone prostitution, they are
silent on the issue of multiple sexual partners for men (Kenyatta, 1978, Mbiti, 1969, 1975). I
can therefore say that Mohamed is depicting a popular patriarchal ideology through this
metaphor. Thus, for a man it is heroic to have more than one sex partner but for a woman, she
loses her worth and dignity in the eyes of her society.
3.3.9 The Irony of Prostitution as Nation Building
Irony and sarcasm are used by Kezilahabi to depict prostitution and sex. In Rosa Mistika,
Kezilahabi sarcastically refers to prostitution as 'development' or 'nation building'.
Deogratius who is a mature man goes to discos to lure young girls into sexual behaviour. His
behaviour is described as:
Deogratius alipenda sana dansi hasa zile za watoto wa shule. Alizoea kwenda na
kofia. Hivyo ndivyo alivyohimiza maendeleo - dansi pia ni aina ya maendeleo
(Kezilahabi, 1971 :41). (Deogratius enjoyed going to discos especially those which
had schoolgirls in attendance. He always wore a cap. This is how he enhanced
development - dance was also a type of development).
117
The sarcasm which refers to discos in vhich school girls are in attendance as development is
intended to highlight the fact that v hatev r Deogratius is indulging in is destruction and no'.
development. He is about to destroy the lives of the young school girls. Th author's
disapproval of such actions is depicted through the irony and sarcasm. A similar sarcasm is
also noted when Rosa d cides to indulge in a sexual relationship with her co lege principal.
Kezilahabi writes:
Wakati huo Thomas alikuwa hafahamu yuko wapi. Alikuwa amekwisha kazi. Alisema
maneno mengi. Aliapa yamini kwamba Rosa hatafukuzwa shule tena. Rosa aliona
kwamba ameshinda. Sasa alikuwa akipangusa jasho Mwalirnu mkuu wa chuo: baada
ya kujenga nchi mwananchi alitoka jasho (Kezilahabi, 1971 :53-54). (At that time
Thomas did not know where he was. He had finished the job. He said many things. He
swore that Rosa would never be sent away from school again. Rosa was convinced
that she had succeeded in her plan. Now, she was wiping the sweat from the
principal's body: after building the nation the citizen had to sweat).
The Principal of the College has just had sex with his student. Defamiliarization device is
found in the ironical statement, 'after building the nation, the citizen was sweating.' The
action of the principal is sarcastically referred to as building the nation. Through this sarcasm,
Kezilahabi implies that the principal was destroying the nation by indulging in sex with his
own student. A similar sarcasm has also been expressed through Barlow's poem 'Building the
Nation' (Rubadiri, 1989:63). In this poem, Barlow presents a public servant who spends
state's resources to enjoy himself at the expense of his official duty. He sarcastically refers to
his action as building the nation. The sarcasm in Kezilahabi's text enables the reader to see
the evil of prostitution. It does not build the society, but destroys it.
3.4 Conclusion
In this chapter, I have analyzed defamiliarization techniques, which reveal the convergence of
good and evil. The concepts of good and evil have been depicted through the themes of
gender, virginity, sex and prostitution. The analysis reveals the society's position on the
images of girls and O)'S. women and men, sex nd prostitution. Generally, the techniques
utilized in this chapter are intertextuality, metaphor, irony, sarcasm and symbolism.
Generally, both authors have utilized the metaphor more than other techniques especially in
describing prostitution. The techniques enable the reader to decipher multiplicity of meanings.
The analysis of the defarniliarization techniques in reference to sex and prostitution ha -e
revealed that the authors draw from patriarchal ideology and socio-cultural beliefs and
practices. Illicit sex makes women unclean while prostitution erodes their dignity and self-
esteem. For men, sex is for gratification and having multiple partners is heroic. From the
analysis, it has been observed that the question of what constitutes good and evil occupy a
central place in social interaction. The next chapter deals with defamiliarization techniques
which depict poverty and desperation.
eRA TERFOUR
Defarniliarizatinn, Po -erty and D .spcration
4.0 Introduction
The pr vious chapter discussed how the authors under study utilize defamiliarization d 'vices
in depicting the concepts of good and evil. The analysis revealed that the techniques have
effectively communicated how good and evil are identified, discussed and classified in
society. The present chapter discusses defamiliarization techniques which the authors utilize
ill depiction of poverty and desperation. It outlines how defarniliarization techniques are used
to depict poverty and desperation in the works under study.
Mohamed has dealt with the issue of poverty and desperation in depth. He has revealed its
extent in his society through defamiliarization techniques. But before discussing the
defamiliarization techniques that depict poverty, it is necessary to define poverty. The
meaning of poverty was well explained at the World Summit for Social Development in
Copenhagen in March 1995:
Poverty has various manifestations including lack of income and productive resources
sufficient to ensure sustainable livelihoods; hunger and malnutrition, ill health, limited
or lack of access to education and other basic services, increase in morbidity and
mortality from illness; homelessness and inadequate housing; unsafe environment;
and social discrimination and exclusion. It is also characterized by lack of
participation in decision-making and in civil social and cultural life.
(United Nations Report of the World Summit for Social Development, Copenhagen,
April 1995:41).
From the above definition, poverty is viewed as deprivation in terms of lacking access to
resources or living in a deteriorating environment. It also means the denial of opportunities
and choices, which are most basic to human development. This includes denial to lead a long
healthy creative life and enjoyment of a decent standard of living, freedom, dignity and the
respect of others. Poverty can further be seen from a mental and cultural perspective as
isolation, loss of direction, hopelessness, apathy and passive suffering. On the whole, po -erty
brings vith it desperation and frustration, which then lead people into destructive activities
such as commercial sex and crime.
Mohamed presents to his readers images of poverty through Asali Chungu, Utengano, Kiza
katika Nuru and Dunia Mti Mkavu. The type of poverty presented is seen to be caused by
deprivation of basic needs rather than just low income. For example, workers are deprived by
being subjected to unfair treatment. Although it is assumed that basic education and health
care improve the quality of life, the poor are deprived of both. This is especially evident in
Kiza Katika Nuru. The poor are generally depicted as having little or no education at all not to
mention the poor living environment and lack of medical care. The living conditions of the
poor are contrasted with the comfort of the rich.
According to Mwaura (2002:8), many people live in abject poverty in developing countries,
majority of them being women. The authors under study use defamiliarization techniques to
depict this reality in their works. The succeeding sections discuss the various
defamiliarization techniques, which depict poverty.
4.1 The Chronic Nature of Poverty
Mohamed presents the state of chronic poverty in Asali Chungu. Chronic poverty is
permanent and passed on from generation to generation. Dude and his fellow poor people are
symbolically depicted as living in poor conditions. In describing this state of poverty
Mohamed writes:
1 L. 1
Kuna 'engine kan a Dude walioletwa du iiani kwa kuteremkia migongoni ;~ utul.ara.
wakawa waombaji, wasiopewa, wahitaji wasiokidhiwa haja ..... (Mohamed,
J f)77:67). (We have the likes of Dude who cam on earth 'riding on the backs of
poverty, they became beggars, paupers, the permanently needy .... )
The above analogical description affirms the nature of chronic poverty. The chronical Y Door
are doomed to live in poverty forever because, seemingly, their fate was already
predetermined before they were born. This position is alluded to through the symbolic
description of Dude's birth. We are told that he and others in his class came in to the world
'riding on the back' of poverty.
The above depiction seems to reflect the history of Zanzibar. Basically, Zanzibar had its
indigenous people, but the Arabs arrived there between 1700 and 1850 (Kimambo, 1969:224).
The Arabs formed the bulk of the landed aristocracy and ruling elite. They were considered
superior to the indigenous people. They had property, wealth and more importantly, owned
land, which is the primary resource. Those with an Arab background were destined to be rich
and respected, while the indigenous people were doomed to live in chronic poverty. This is
the background against which Mohamed is describing Dude's state of poverty. Dude belongs
to the indigenous people of Zanzibar. The poor, who were majority Africans, were doomed to
a life of poverty from birth to death. This was because they did not own land, which was the
primary source of wealth. The social situation in Zanzibar is the basis on which Mohamed
creates this analogy, which clearly shows the apathy of the poor Africans. Drawing from
social history of his community, Mohamed depicts the fate of the poor indigenous people in
Zanzibar.
The same pathetic state is expressed more forcefully as follows:
Watu kama yeye wameletwa kuishi na kunyimwa - kunyimwa haki ya kuishi,
kunyimwa uhai wanaostahili, kunyimwa chakula, pahala pazuri pa kulala, nguo
angalau za kujisetiria (Mohamed, 1977:67). (People like Dude have been brought into
the world to live in deprivation; to be deprived of the right to live, to be denied
dignified life, to be denied food, a good place to sleep and clothes to cover their
bodies).
Mohamed invoke. repetition to underscore the fa t that the poor are poor because O(;y have
been denied many things which ar paramount for a better life. The question which the author
seems not to answer through the abo e description is: who has deprived the poor of food.
proper shelter and even life its If? As earlier pointed 0 t, it seems the socio-economic
arrangement whereby land is in the hands of the few rich members of society. is what
Mohamed seems to be questioning here. The heavy presence of authorial voice is vivid
through intrusion in the narrative. This serves to expose the authors' stand on poverty; that
poverty is a result of deprivation.
4.1.1 Education and Poverty
Popular belief is that education improves a person's economic status. It is because of this
assumption that parents spend a lot of money educating their children, so that they can have a
better life. But this is not the case with Mvita in Kiza Katika Nuru. He has studied lip to
University level, but has no job because of the ideological differences between him and his
father, Juba. This gives him the chance to join the proletariats in doing odd jobs to earn a
living. Mvita's depiction is ironic in the sense that University education does not enable one
to move out of poverty. Through this irony, Mohamed makes the reader to reflect on other
reasons which cause poverty other than lack of education.
The irony of Mvita's joblessness, despite his education captures the hopelessness of the
educated poor in society. Education does not help the likes of Mvita - who are highly
educated - come out of poverty. On another level, the intrinsic value of education is here
underscored. Although he has no job, Mvita uses his education in enlightening the peasants
about their status and rights, so that they can come out of the darkness of ignorance.
Mohamed contrasts Mvita's situation with that ofKhaltiyy's children who are his stepbrothers
and sisters. Whereas Kudura's other children cannot even attain primary cducatio ,
Khaltiyy's join university. Whereas Kudura can hardly put food on the table, Khaltiyy, her
co-wife, contemplates buying a horse and an aeroplane.
The gap between the poor and the rich is quite big. In this case, even children of the same
father (Juba) belong to different economic classes. On the issue of education and economic
status, Mohamed's message is that education cannot change economic status if the socio-
economic structures are oppressive and unfair to the poor. The poor can only improve their
lives in an environment where there is fairness and justice. If Juba treated his two families
fairly, then Kudura's children could not have suffered in poverty.
4.1.2 The Indignity of Poverty
The poor people are denied good and peaceful sleep. Mohamed writes:
'Bekaaaa!' Alipiga kelele Mashaka kama yuko maili mia na Bakari, Beka niombee,
ataniua mwanamke huyu' Bakari asingalijali kuinuka kitandani pake, kwani ugomvi
wa viumbe hawa ni wa kawaida (Mohamed 1980:28). (' Bekaaaa!' Mashaka screamed
as if he was one mile away from Bakari, Beka help (me) this woman will kill me.
Bakari would not bother to lift himself from his bed, because the quarrel between
these two (creatures) was normal).
The author refers to those fighting as 'creatures'; this is to reinforce the dehumanizing effect
of poverty. Deprivation is highlighted through the image of 'creatures', since it is clear that
there are human beings who are living as true human beings. However, those being referred
to here are 'creatures'. In most African cultures such as Swahili culture, it is common for men
to beat their wives so as to discipline them. Women are viewed as troublesome and sometimes
harbour childish tendencies. But in the above scenario, the unfamiliar is happening whereby
the woman is the one beating her husband. This is an abomination in the Swahili context. But
Mohamed presents this situation in order to highlight the impact of poverty and how it
lL4
lack of basic needs.
dehumanises and change. societal values. Wives and husbands cannot Jive in peac -: due ll'
Poverty is so deep that the poor have no hope of coming out of it. Masika's father in Dunia
Masika, sisi tu maskini .... Huoni kwamba ndoa hii itatufungulia milango ya heri,
Mimi sitakubali mwanangu aolewe na maskini maadam imemwangukia nyota yajaha
(Mohamed, J 980:21). (Masika, we are poor ... You cannot see that this marriage will
open doors of luck? 1 will not accept my daughter to get married to a poor man when
'a lucky star' shines on her).
Mti Mkavu is ready to marry his daughter to a rich man, Fauz. To him, this is his only hop of
changing the situation for her and the family. He explains:
Masika's father is finding the proposal of his daughter's marriage to a rich man an act of great
luck. He cannot let it pass since this seems to be the only avenue out of poverty. The symbolic
reference to the opportunity in terms of a 'lucky star' portrays the hopelessness of the poor.
They have limited possibilities open for them and are desperate to see any opening. For
Masika's father, the opportunity is in his daughter's marriage to Fauz. This situation
highlights the state of the poor in Mohamed's society. It is ironic that they have to allow
themselves to be used unfairly in the struggle to change their situation. Again, this kind of
position draws from the traditional view that girls are a family resource. They can be
exchanged for material gains. Although Masika's father's decision is motivated by poverty
and desperation, it highlights the impact of patriarchal ideology in a poverty stricken society.
Poverty is also depicted as a state that strips a person of his dignity. Gae tells Fumu:
Yah, wewe simba, simba mwoga, we we unayeshindwa kumiliki kijiti kimoja cha
kibiriti. Unasafiri masafa yote kutoka kwako kuja kwa Gae kupaa moto (Mohamed,
1980:12). (Yah, you are a lion, a timid lion. You, who is unable to own even one
match stick. You have to walk all the way from your place to come here for fire).
1""-_'
Gae is being sar astic. If Fumu is calling himself a 'lion', how come he cannot afford a
matchstick? A lion is ferocious, brave and st·ong, but in this metaphor, the so called 'lion'
docs not possess these qualities because of poverty. The sarcasm implied through the
metaphor, the poor see themselves as having no choice. However, to actualize their bravery
reveals how they have to resist, oppress and fight for their rights. A lion is also a symbol of
masculinity. The sarcasm therefore reveals Gaes doubt over Fumu's masculinity. In African
so iety, a man is respected when he is able to actualize his masculinity through manly
activities.
Among the Maasai, to become a moran one has to kill a lion. Without performing this act, a
Maasai man cannot be respected. Drawing from this traditional understanding then, it is
possible to argue that poverty denies a man his traditionally defined masculinity. A true
African man should not be a beggar, unable to afford a small thing like a matchstick. The
poor people are depicted as working so hard on the farm for their landlords as they continue
to languish in poverty. This kind of oppression, to Mohamed, needs to be fought in order to
pave way for liberation. The underlying message is that, it is only through fighting for their
rights that the poor will redeem themselves from oppression. This perspective seems to draw
from Marxist understanding of society whereby destruction of capitalism is seen to be the
only way of creating equal distribution of resources in society.
A similar depiction of poverty is evidenced through Bipole. Fauz's biological mother is not
respected because of her deplorable state. Bipole has given out her son to be adopted because
she is too poor to provide for him. Bipole visits Bi-wa-Minarani who has adopted her son.
Mohamed describes th 'isit:
Bipole aligundua kasri ya Bi-wa-Minarani, lakini afadhali asingalikwenda.
Alifukuzwa kama mgonjwa wa tauni (Mohamed, 1980:73), (Bipole discovered 81-\\ a-
Minarani's palace but it were be ter if she did not go there. She was chased away like
a person infected with plague).
lt is ironic that a mother can be barred from seeing her own son, She is treated as if she is
infected with plague. Plague is a highly infectious disease, This gives us the picture of hov,
the poor are treated by the rich. The rich regard poverty as dangerous. They behave as if the
poor would infect them with poverty. Poverty carries with it loss of dignity, respect and a
form of inferiority. It denies one even what is rightfully hers or his. This depiction has
successfully revealed Mohamed's sensitivity to how poverty dehumanises individuals,
4.1.3 Poverty and Prostitution
Mohamed has linked prostitution to poverty. The fact that poverty can be a source of evil is
echoed through Bushiri's strong words in defence of prostitution in Asali Chungu. He says:
Mimi ndiye ninayeufahamu ubaya na uzuri wa kazi yangu; na ikiwa ni utu, utu wangu
hautaweza kubadili chochote kuhusu unyonge wangu. Hauwezi kunipa starehe, nafuu,
wala wasaa. Kwa vyovyote vile hapana asiyetaka kustarehe kutumia, kuvaa au kuishi.
Utu wangu utanipa wapi hayo? (Mohamed, 1977:92). (I understand the advantages
and disadvantages of my job. And if it is morality, it cannot change my miserable
situation, It cannot bring me happiness, well-being or comfort. For sure, there is
nobody who does not want to be happy. Will my morality give me these things").
It is ironic that Bushiri sees no benefit coming out of morality while he continues to live in
misery. He convinces Dude to indulge in prostitution with Amina who is rich, so that he can
change his economic status. As already mentioned, prostitution is practiced by the victims to
try and make ends meet. This scenario seems to echo Tong's and Jagger's feelings about
prostitution. Borrowing from traditional Marxist thought, they view a typical prostitute as
being unemployed or underemployed (Tong, 1989:65, Jagger, 1983:249). From this
perspective, one of the reasons as to why people indulge in prostitution is poverty.
127
Tong goes ahead to elaborate on the fact that as long as there is a bourgeouis demand for
prostitutes nd as long as most women are paid inadequate or no wages, or are economically
dependant, they will sell their bodies to men in order to support themselves. This position is
taken by Mohamed when he depicts females as wel! as males practicing prostitution as a
means of livelihood.
In Utengano, Kazija ironically accepts that she hates men but she has to associate with them
in prostitution to get money. Mohamed writes:
Kuna mengi ambayo Kazija anayachukia. Ndiyo anachukia ... kwanza, anachukia
mwanamme. Mwanamme anamchukia kwa sababu dhahiri, nayo ni kuwa ameekwa
mbele, ingawa Kazija hajui na nani. Daima atamchukia mwanamme kwa sababu hiyo
(Mohamed, 1989:1). (There is a lot which Kazija detests. Yes, she detests ... first, she
detests man. She detests man because of an obvious reason, which is that he is
considered superior (to woman), although Kazija does not know who elevated him.
She will forever hate a man because of this reason).
The above statements open the novel, Utengano. This is a very strange beginning. The
statements are short and staccato. The second sentence begins with 'Yes, she detests' ... This
is meant to stress the hatred that Kazija harbours towards men. Jt is explained that Kazija's
point of contention is the fact that men have been elevated over women by a person she does
not know. Again, the author hesitates to mention that it is society that has given men a
superior position in order to make the reader to think seriously about patriarchy. He is
questioning the patriarchal structures which favour man. But after declaring her hatred
towards men, the author describes Kazija's dilemma:
Lakini juu ya yote, yeye alikuwa kipusa cha mwanamme, mali ya mwanamme
(Mohamed, 1980:2) (But above all she was a man's heartkiller, man's property).
Again, the above statement has deep patriarchal ideological overtones. It is strange and ironic
that Kazija has to relate to men whom she hates. This absurdity vividly depicts the dilemma
JL15
of pr stitutes. Despite the fact that some may hale men who exploit th .m sexualf ' they still
indulge in prostitution with them because they need men's financial support for survival.
The same a nbivalent situation is learly depicted when Kazija has to have sex with a man she
has no emotional feelings for. Sex is meant to be a culmination oflovc, but this is not the case
with prostitution as Mohamed reveals in Utengano:
I1imbidi afanye kazi kwa ajili ya pesa na kuishi wala hakukuwa na mapenzi. Mapenzi
hayakuhusu. Pesa pesa, pesa .... Ndilo jambo lililomwenda kichwani mwake.
Alitambua kuwa uhuru wake usingalitimilia kama si pesa (Mohamed, 1980:87). (She
was forced to work because she needed money but there was no love. It was not about
love. Money, money, money, ... that was what she thought about. She knew that her
liberation lay in money).
The irony in the above statement is that Kazija thinks that love is not necessary in a sexual
relationship. The repetition of the word 'money' helps to reinforce the writer's perspective
over the plight of female prostitutes. They find themselves in this business because of
deprivation and lack. This brings to the fore another issue that women can only be liberated
from prostitution if they are economically empowered. Thus, fighting exploitation is
tantamount to fighting prostitution. This is because women cannot have access to meaningful
work for a decent wage until the unfair system that depends upon their exploitation is
smashed. It is possible to sense the authorial voice through this irony. The author is advancing
one of the reasons as to why women indulge in prostitution - economic hardship.
Prostitution and poverty are also depicted in Asali Chungu. Pili advises her fellow prostitute,
Semeni, to reduce her alcohol intake. She says:
Sipendi kukuona unapotea nikakunyamazia ... Mimi nalewa, na mimi ndiye
niliyekuwa fundi wako. Mimi natoka nje kwani kama hatutoki hatuli (Mohamed,
1977:4~). (I do not want to see you going astray without intervening. I also take beer,
I am your tutor, but I have to leave the house (to indulge in prostitution) because if we
do not go out and prostitute then we will not eat).
-
Lf ~
lL~
Prostitution is here depicted as an art in which one ha to be trained. Pili is clear h•.~ if they
do not practice prostitution their food is not guaranteed. This means that prostitution to th'::lr,
is means of livelihood. The same position is revealed vividly through the irony in which
Pili, a prostitute, is depicted dying in bed. She cannot afford medical attention but he:
daughter Baya is busy looking for money through prostitution. Mohamed writes:
Hata Baya, mwanawe aliyemnyaa mwenyewe, kamtupa hampitii. Huko aliko yeyc na
mji na mji na yeye, anafanya hayo, mambo yake yanayonuka (Mohamed, 1977:18 ).
(Even Baya her own child does not think about her or even visit her. She is busy with
that 'stinking' business).
Mohamed refers to prostitution as a 'stinking' business. Something 'stinking' is nauseating.
Through authorial intrusion, it appears that, even Mohamed himself detests it. It is ironic that
despite the tainted image of prostitution by society the women still have to indulge in it.
Although these women work so hard to earn money from prostitution, they are not
empowered economically. This irony reveals the ambivalent situation in which the prostitutes
find themselves. They work so hard but the returns are so low. Prostitutes are, therefore,
doomed to a life of misery. This reinforces the author's view that prostitution is a product of
poverty. Apart from irony and metaphor, Mohamed also utilizes the technique of
juxtaposition in depicting poverty.
4.2 Juxtapositioning the Rich and the Poor
Unlike Kezilahabi, Mohamed defamiliarizes by juxtaposing the rich and the poor to highlight
the miserable state of the poor. In Asali Chungu, Mohamed juxtaposes Zuberi's residence and
his workers' houses. This is how he describes Zuberi's house:
Mlango wa ~humbani kwake unafungukia ukumbini ambako mwenyewe Zuberi
hupenda kupumzikia anapokuwa na wasaa na nafasi. Alikunja pazia la mlango,
akapapasa ukuta wake na kuwasha swichi. Taa zake za thurea zilizokuwa
zikining'inia zilimwitikia pamoja, zikamwaya anga la kupendeza kwa matungi yake
ya feruzi kwa muundo wa mikonga ya tembo. Kwa mwanga wa feruzi uliostawisha
kuta za maziwa, uzuri wa ukumbi ukaanza kuvifaragua. Madirisha yake yenye virukia
vya viae yalikuwa yanatazamana huku na huku. Mapazia ya kitambaa chepesi cha
130
rangi ya sharubati kilichot newa viua vya zarnbarau aliki wa yakicheza kwa furaha
katika mpulizo wa upepo mpole mwanana .... Midele ya shaba nyekundu
inayorneremeta ilikuwa imepoajuu ya vimeza viwili kwenye pembe rnbili za ukumbi.
Mirashi na vyetezo vya fedha kwenye upatu wake vilikuwa vimetamakani juu ya
meza .... Yalikuwa yametiwa mapambo mbalimbali ya vigae na kaure .... (Mohamed,
1977:7). (The door to his bedroom open towards the balcony where Zuberi loves 1
relax when he has time. He drew the door curtain then he touched the wall and
switched on the lights. His galaxy of stars which hang above responded to his call at
once, and 'poured the light and revealed the beautiful carvings in form of elephant
tasks. The light revealed a beautiful sky' over the milky walls and the beauty of the
balcony. The glass windows stared at on another. The embroidered purple curtains
made of light material were 'playing happily' at the movement of a soft wind. A
shining dark copper teapot was on top of two small tables at the comer of the bal ony.
Silverish sprayers faced one another on t p of the table .... The place was beautified
by different types of tiles).
The above description gives the picture of a magnificent building, complete with a balcony. It
is well lit and the light is metaphorically referred to as a "galaxy of stars' while the colour of
the walls is compared to milk. The writer describes the sophisticated nature of the gadgets
used through the technique of personification. The lights respond to instructions at once. This
reinforces the comfort and beauty of the balcony. One does not strain to light up the place, but
just a touch at the switch brings them on at once. The room is described as a 'beautiful sky'.
The windows made of glass 'stare at one another.' The curtains are described as 'playing
happily' at the movement of soft wind. The curtains and the beautiful windows coupled with
the jewellery give a beautiful ambience. The palace is definitely a beautiful, peaceful and
serene environment.
The description of affluence and splendour is juxtaposed with poverty and deprivation of the
shanties where Zuberi's workers live:
Palikuwa na vijumba vingi vidogo vidogo vilivyojipanga sturi moja kule mabandani.
Mabanda yenyewe yalikuwa yamekamatana na jumba kubwa kwa kuta mbili
zilizosimama sambamba. Katikati, uwanja mkubwa, kwa ilivyokuwa hapana paa,
ulikuwa umefikiwa na masaibu ya jua na mvua (Mohamed, 1977:9). (There were
many tiny rooms which were arranged in a row. Shanties had been connected together
into one big dwelling by two walls which stood adjacent in the middle of a big field.
There was hardly a roof for it was miserable due to the scorching sun and the rains).
In the above description, the workers' dwellings do not merit 10 be called houses and th c
author refers to them a. 'shanties'. The. arrator clearly states that the shanties hardly had a
roof The contrast clearly reveals the immeasurable difference between the po r and the rich.
Zuberi lives in extreme comfort while his own workers live in abject misery. As if this is not
enough, the author reveals that Zuberi's maisonette is surrounded by shanti es in which the
poor lived. The author describes the beauty of Zuberi' s house as follows:
Kuta zake zilikwenda juu ghorofa moja. Zilikuwa daima zikiwakejeli marafiki na
wachochole (Mohamed, 1977:57). (It was a one-storeyed building. The walls of tl e
maisonette were persistently 'mocking friends and the poor')
The metonymic reference to Zuberi's house as 'mocking' the poor highlights the indifference
of the rich to the plight of the poor. It is described as imposing. Its very stature tended to
mock the less fortunate. This metonymic reference is juxtapositional and highlights the
inhuman conditions in which the poor live and the opulence associated with the rich. The
contrast arouses sympathy towards the poor and a sense of revulsion towards the rich. The
metonymic reference to the house is significant in the sense that, it not only shows Zuberi's
attitude to the poor but also the general disdain that the rich have towards the poor.
Due to extreme poverty, Dude finds himself trapped in an exploitatory relationship. He has
limited possibilities for personal growth. He finds himself in a new environment for accepting
Amina. He is mesmerized due to the beauty, and more importantly, plenty of good food.
Mohamed describes his reaction vividly:
Jicho la Dude lilivutwa na ule uzuri wa jumba na ile bustani uwanjani. Uwanja wote
ulikuwa umefunikwa busati la majani ya ukoka yaliyokuwa yamefyekwa vyema kama
kichwa kilichokatwa nywele. Maua ya kila aina yalikuwa yamepandwa sungosungo
mwa kuta za nyumba. Katikati minazi mifupi ya kitamli, ilikuwa imepandwa kwa safu
na i1ikuwa imesimama kama askari waliokuwa wakingojea kukaguliwa kwenye
gwaride. Utazame jinsi ilivyopendeza kwa makuti yake yaliyokoza kijani na kole za
madafu zilizokuwa zikining'inia chini sana hata kitoto cha miaka miwili
kingaliyafikia kuyachuma .... Alivutwa na ule utajiri, lile pambo, ile samani, kile
kitanda (Mohamed, 1977:95). (Dude was attracted to the beauty of the house and the
lawn. The whole field was covered by climbing plants which had been beautifully cut
JJ~
like a cleanly shaven heac There were flowers of all kinds which had been l'iante'
besides the walls of the house. In the middle of the compound were short coconut
trees which had b en planted in a row. They were standing upright like the police
parade ready for inspection. The beauty of the green leaves and the hanging fruits was
overwhelming. even a two year old baby would have reached out and p!ue! ed them ...
He was attracted by the wealth, that beauty, that furniture, that bed).
The author describes a captivating spectacle. The neatly mowed grass is compared to a
'cleanly shaven head.' Flowers and coconut trees planted in a straight line are likened to
policemen ready for inspection. The coconut trees are overloaded with coconut fruits that
even a two-year-old child can pluck them. This description gives a picture of a well-tendered
compound, which is beautiful and attractive. The layout of the compound and plenty fruits is
a sign of abundance.
Amina prepares a sumptuous meal for Dude. It is said to have comprised of fried rice with
other niceties that Dude had never tasted before. It just dawned to him that day that for sure
some people lived well (Mohamed, 1977:96). Through this description, Mohamed depicts the
depth of poverty in his society. He makes a serious observation about the roots of poverty in
his society. He appears to criticize the historical injustices that have created few millionaires
and millions of paupers. Dude and those in his class can only enjoy the wealth of the nation
through accepting to indulge in immoral activities, which dehumanise them.
Dude's life is transformed by just accepting Amina's immoral advances. His dressing and
eating habits change. About his dressing, it is said: 'kijana huyo alikuwa amevaa shati jeupe
safi lililolalia pasi' (Mohamed, 1977:79). (He was dressed in a white clean well-ironed shirt).
Dude is transformed into comfort, driving a good car, feeding well and sleeping comfortably,
yet not long before accepting Amina's advances, he was more of a vagrant, loitering without
any penny or hope for his next meal.
13:)
The r lationship between Dude and Amina ends but the thought of going back 10 povertj
'paralyses' Dude. He goes back to his original shanty and again the sense of emptiness i::,
evident. The description of his room is contrasted with his previou one:
... pana kichupa cha mafuta ya nazi, kibati kitupu cha mafuta ya nazi, kina i kitupu
cha podari, kipande cha kitana, ubale wa kioo, vikornbe viwili, vyote havina hate
mikono (Mohamed, J 977: 129). ( ..there is a bottle of coconut oil, an empty tin of
coconut oil, an empty powder tin, a piece of a comb, a piece of a mirror, two cups and
both without handles).
Mohamed utilises repetition to highlight the misery of Dude's humble abode. Obviously, the
house is saturated with poverty. All the containers in the house are empty. Even the only two
cups available have no handles. All this shows the extent of poverty.
Mohamed also utilizes juxtaposition in Kiza Katika Nuru. Juba's and KhaItiyy's residence is
contrasted with the houses of the poor living around them. The poor can hardly afford a meal
yet the case is different for Juba and his second family. Juba has a driver, a guard and a
storeyed house. Inside the house are many expensive household goods; such as televisions,
videos and other gadgets. Juba's second wife, Khaltiyy, is immaculately dressed and has plans
of buying an aeroplane and a horse. Juba's own driver has to walk through rain after driving
him and parking the car.
The beauty, comfort and serenity in Juba's palace is contrasted with poverty exemplified
through Kudura, Juba's first wife, and her children. Kudura has to borrow money to buy food
and she is unable to pay back. She is unable to take her children to school or even buy clothes
for them. Her youngest son, Juma, together with his friends, feed from the dustbins. It is
ironic that inspite of Juba's, wealth, her first family languishes in poverty. The children are
aware of their state of poverty. One of the children comments: 'Msimcheke, msimcheke,
kitoto kirnoja kati ya wale waliokuwa wamernzunguka Jurna kilisema hatimaye, Yeye
134
maskini kama sisi' (M harned, 1988:73). (Do not laugh at him', Do not laugh t him' one of
the children told those who were scorning Juma, 'he is poor like us').
The fact that the children are subjected to such misery and arc made to speak out regarding
their situation evokes sympathy in the reader. Although Khaltiyy and Kudura's situation show
the inability of a man loving and providing for two wives equally, it also helps to highlight
inequality in the issue of distribution of wealth. Mohamed is candid in asserting that poverty
is deprivation through the sharp contrast between Juba's wives, Kudura has been denied a
comfortable life by her husband who is rich. Through the portrayal of this unique family,
Mohamed contrasts the condition of the poor and the rich.
In Utengano, Maksuudi's palace is contrasted with the shanties of the poor living in Bobea
and Madongoporomoka. The author describes Madongoporomoka as unfit for human
habitation:
Huu ni mtaa wa makabwela, ambao unavukuta harufu ya uozo wa kila aina, wenye
mashimo na makaro yanayoboboja maji machafu ovyo, wenye vibanda vya mgongo
vyenye kushika tama kwa unyonge ulivyovisibu - ndani na nje (Mohamed, 1980:29).
(This is the slum for the poor of the poor, it stinks and smells. the burst drainage
system spews sewage all over the shanties. The shanties seem to stand 'holding unto
their cheeks' in misery that pervade their occupants. Both inside and outside).
The description depicts a filthy environment. The metonymic reference to the shanties as
'holding unto their cheeks' signifies the state of deprivation and the misery of the poor. The
name of the estate' Madongoporomoka' is significant. The word is coined out of two words:
'udongo' for mud and 'poromoka' for collapse. Thus, the word Madongoporomoka means, a
place built of mud but on the verge of collapsing. Obviously, this is a pathetic environment.
In Bobea, Biti Su uru has a host of rats in her shanty. The room she gives to Mairnuna also
has rats and para. ites such as bedbugs. When Maim ina screams after seeing the rats, Biti
Sururu responds casually:
Hawa, hawaaaaa, hawaaaa' J 1aimuna aliitikia k va kilio cha rntoto aliyekuwa akideka
kwa mamake .... Binti Sururu alipowaona panya wawili juu ya begi la Maimuna.
alipinduka kwa kicheko. Hawa ni marafiki tu (Mohamed, 1980:95). (Here they are,
here they are, and here they are, Maimuna responded as she screamed like a child in
need of attention from her mother.;.. When Biti Sururu saw the two rats on
Maimuna's bag, She laughed. 'These are just friends').
The poor share their shanties with dangerous rodents whom they are accustomed to. Notice
that Sururu metaphorically refers to 'rats' as 'friends'. This is ironic and highlights the
magnitude to which poverty has dehumanized these people. Poverty has made them to co-
exist with rodents to a level where they see one another as friends. The contrast between
Maksuudi's palace and Madongoporomoka and Bobea residents highlights the misery of the
poor.
In Dunia MLi Mkavu, the Fauz family, which represents the landlords, is contrasted with the
rest of the families who own no land but cultivate and give most of the produce to the
landowners. The tenants represented by Fumu, laku and Gae are miserably poor despite their
hard work on the farms. While Fauz lives comfortably and his dog is fed well, Fumu and the
rest in his class hardly have a meal because they have to give out a big percentage of what
they produce on the farm to the land owners. Through this contrast, Mohamed puts it clearly
that the poor are poor not because they are lazy but because of the material condition of the
society. By extension he is castigating feudalism, which subjects tenants to hard work yet they
do not enjoy the fruits of their labour.
The factory workers are also poor. They cannot afford a meal a day. They have no social
amenities such as toilets, bathrooms and hospitals. Fauz uses his power to oppress Fumu by
J3b
using a gun and a dog to for e him to lave th farm. A gun and a og are instruments (If'
coercion.
Through th t chnique of juxtaposition Mohamed has succe ded in painting an absu C
situation, whereby the poor continu to languish in squalor as the rich continue to wallow i:1
riches. Through Dunia Mti Mkavu, Mohamed deconstructs the popular belief that povert I is
for the lazy. The poor in Dunia Mti Mkavu are seen to be working extremely hard, but this
does not change their situation. Feudal arrangement is here depicted as oppressive. Th land
ow iers do not work, but they enjoy the sweat of the poor tenants. In a capitalistic setting, the
same scenario is depicted. For instance, in Utengano, Maksuudi is rich because he has
acquired wealth through theft. Maksuudi, like Juba, in Kiza Katika Nuru and Zub ri in Asali
Chungu, have used their positions of authority to acquire wealth, which they finally use to
oppress the common man.
In Utengano and Asali Chungu, prostitution is seen as a result of unequal distribution of
wealth. Both men and women are seen practising prostitution to make ends meet. It is clear
that the poor who indulge in prostitution neither enjoy the trade nor even earn enough to meet
their financial obligations.
4.3 Conclusion
This chapter has discussed the defamiliarization techniques which the authors under study
have used in depicting poverty and desperation. The techniques, which have been discussed,
are metaphor, irony, metonymy, personification, symbolism, simile and juxtaposition. The
techniques have effectively been used to expose the socio-economic situations from which the
writers are writing. Drawing from the history and the socio-economic context, the authors
137
have depicted the wide gap between the haves and the have-riots. Th analysis of the
techniques has revealed that poverty is as a result of social structures. It 'is a product of unfair
distribution of resources and not a creation of laziness. Mohamed seems to be advocating for
a radical revolution to turn the situation around which should be engineered by the poor
themselves,
Mohamed, to a large extent, has utilized the technique of juxtaposition in revealing the
dis arity between the poor and the rich. The defamiliarization techniques enhance
understanding of poverty and deprivation more clearly and forcefully apart from allowing for
varied interpretations. The techniques have great aesthetic effects on the reader owing to the
vividness with which the message is conveyed. They make the reader to empathise with the
poor. Kezilahabi, on the other hand, does not utilize juxtaposition in discussing poverty.
The next chapter discusses how the authors utilize defamiliarization to explain social reality
by borrowing from religious beliefs and knowledge.
138
CHAPTER FI 'E
Defamiliarization and Religious Ideology
5.0 Introduction
Chapter Four discussed the defamiliarization techniques which foreground poverty and
d speration. The discussion revealed that the techniques draw from historical and socio-
cultural contexts. But defamiliarization techniques may also draw from religious ideology and
beliefs. Mohamed professes the Islamic faith, while Kezilahabi has a Christian background.
The aim of this chapter is to establish the extent to which the authors under study draw their
defamiliarization techniques from their religious beliefs and worldview. According to
Kaufmann (1976: ix), religion deals with faith, morals and art. All the religions of the world
are built on certain ideologies which form the basis of their view of the world. Christian,
Islamic and traditional religious ideologies are seen to be underlying some of the
defamiliarization techniques which have been used by the authors under study.
This chapter analyzes the defamiliarization techniques with a view of unveiling the meanings
and their effects on the readership. It examines the ambiguities and social dilemma ofIslamic,
Christian and traditional African Religions within a modern society. The authors have
admitted that their religious backgrounds have had some impact on their writings. Mohamed
for instance confesses:
Through religious books and Koran schools (every Muslim regardless of his/her social
status, must learn the Koran), Zanzibar people, like many coastal people in East
Africa, learnt how to read and write in Arabic script. Hence many of them were at
least familiar with religious philosophical discourse (Mohammed, 1997:90.).
Further still, Mohamed is a Swahili. The Swahili people are predominantly Muslims.
According to Mbaabu (1985: 16), Muslims insist on taking their children to Islamic schools
called 'Maclrasa'. From the age of three or four years the children are taught Islamic faiU!
together with secular education in these schools, Mohamed admits knowledge of Islam. He
also states that Islamic education has had an impact on his writing. Mbatia (1997), while
analysing Mohamed's works observes that Mohamed utilizes Islam as an important prop of
the feudal capitalist system throughout his works. Mbatia goes ahead to give examples of
certain characters who profess Islamic faith and yet are oppressors. These characters include
Maksuudi in Utengano and Juba in Kiza Katika Nuru. He also observes that society and its
socio-historical milieu are the driving force that gave birth and nurtured Mohamed's artistic
production.
Kezilahabi on the other hand was brought lip within the Christian faith. He admits that so.0U,
cultural and historical contexts affect the writings of any creative writer. He notes: 'Therefore
Kiswahili language which is the language of the majority and its literature will continue to
grow in relation to the social and historical changes which are engineered by the people
themselves' (Kezilahabi, 1995:58). Religious beliefs and practices are part of culture, which
Kezilahabi refers to.
Senkoro, while writing about Kezilahabi, observes that Kezilahabi's life has had a great
impact on him as a writer. He says that Kezilahabi's life on the island of Uk ere we, his school
life and a short stint at the seminary have had a great impact on his writings (Senkoro,
1995:61). He goes ahead to point out that the main occupation in his village is farming and
livestock keeping and that Kezilahabi discusses these aspects in his works in depth. This life
has been depicted clearly in Rosa Mistika which is set in Ukerewe.
I "tV
Kezilahabi has also been associated with existential philosophy. Wamitila (j 917) asserts that
Kezi ahabi's critics insist that his portrayal of characters and the society is negativist and
pejorative. He writes: 'The writer confessed to me that he has been greatly influenced by the
existentialist writers: Martin Heidegger and Friedrich Nietzsche ... ' (WamitiJa, J 997: 16).
It is necessary to note that existentialism, to which Kezilahabi subscribes to, eschews the thin
and oversimplified picture of humanity as expounded by Marxist and positivist perspectives.
Barret puts this clearly when he observes that the Marxist and positivist picture of man is thin
and oversimplified. Existential philosophy is against such oversimplification and attempts to
grasp the image of tile whole man, even where this involves bringing to consciousness all that
is dark and questionable in his existence (Barret, 1962:22). Wamitila (1997), on the other
hand, observes that what most critics seem to abhor in Kezilahabi's works are the 'dark' and
the 'questionable': life, death, God, happiness, truth and religious bankruptcy.
Existentialism was a movement that seemed to express a certain historical atmosphere or
mood, one of despair and disillusionment. It took root in Germany following its defeat in the
Second World War (Wamitila, 1997:16). At this time most people could identify with
philosophical propositions, whose basic concepts were anxiety, worry, failure and despair.
The next sections highlight some of the defamiliarization techniques which seem to draw
from Islam, Christianity and traditional religions. They also interrogate the texts in terms of
meaning as delivered through the defamiliarization techniques. It is however important to first
look at the impact of religious texts on literature generally, before examining how religion
impacts on the works of the authors under study.
j41
5: .I Religious Texts and Lite ature
Many lit rary scholars have underscored th significance of religious texts in literary riling~.
TLc fact that writers of literary works will always fall back to religious texts cannot be
overemphasized. A reknown literary writer, Ngugi wa Thiongo, in his speech at the National
Council of Churches of Kenya's sih Assembly in Nairobi, voices this sentiment. H observes
that: 'The Bible in Africa, like in many parts of the world, is the founding text of man
na ionalliteratures' (East African Standard, Thursday zs" August 2004:7).
In saying this, Ngugi implies that there is intertextuality between the Bible and national
literatures. He underscores the importance of this intertextuality. Thus, literary writers to a
certain degree, utilize biblical texts in their writing. This statement, coming from a reknown
literary writer, cannot be overlooked.
Alter (1981) sets to write a guide for the intelligent reading of biblical narrative. Whereas he
does not doubt that the Hebrew Bible is sacred history, he argues that its writers utilized a
great deal of artistic freedom in articulating the traditions at their disposal (Alter, 1981:23).
To him, the Bible is historicized prose fiction. In his examination of Biblical texts, Alter
discovers that the Bible has a great deal to teach anyone interested in narrative, because its
seemingly simple, wonderfully complex art offers such a splendid illustration of the primary
possibilities of narrative (Alter, 1981: IX-X). As a critic, Alter concludes that the Bible is one
of the greatest literary works ever written. It is therefore possible to argue here that most
creative writers seem to have discovered this salient truth and this could be the idea behind
the intertextuality, which exists between literary works and religious texts. Alter sees the
Bible as having literary features, which can be analyzed by literary theoretical methods.
I'tL
Bloom (1973), on another level, argues that there is always poetic influ nee am mg writers,
He observes tha writers practice 'intra-poetic relationships' (Bloom, 1973:5). He sees strong
poets making that history by misreading one another so as to clear imaginative space for
themselves. About poetic influence he writes: 'Poetic influence need not make poets Ie s
original; as often it makes them more original, though not therefore necessarily better'
(Bloom, 1973:7). He makes reference to Nietzsche's essay 'of the Advantages and
Disadvantages of History for life.' In that work, Nietzsche argues that religious texts are the
origin of all artistic works of humanity. He writes:
Poets were properly called divine in the sense of diviners, from 'divinary' to divine or
predict. Their science was called Muse, defined by Homer as the knowledge of good
and evil that is divination ..... The Muse must thus have been properly at first the
science of divining by auspices. Urania, whose name is from 'Ouranos' heaven and
signifies "she who contemplates the heaven" She and the other Muses were held to be
daughters of Jove (for religion gave birth to all the arts of humanity, of which Apollo,
held to be principally the god of divinations, is the presiding deity. (Bloom, 1973:60).
The foregoing discussion affirms the fact that writers of literary works rely on other texts.
This is perhaps the intertextuality, which Bloom expounds on. Bloom argues that, in some
sense, literary criticism has always known this reliance of texts upon other texts (Bloom,
1976:3).
Kateregga and Shenk (1980:29), while discussing the Quran, expound on this further. They
write: 'Although the Quran does not describe all aspects of knowledge in complete detail, it is
nevertheless the source and foundation of all true wisdom and knowledge'. They go on to
argue that this 'truth' is what has made the Quran to be regarded as the manual and the
textbook for acquiring liberal education in the Muslim world since it covers all subjects. They
underpin the uniqueness of the Quran in terms of its literary style in relation to other forms of
l ...t __'
literature. They point out that it is the most excelle-nt Arabic poetry and prose ever written. If
this is the case, then Muslims may find themselves drawing from this lit rature. This could
result into what Bloom, as earlier mentioned, refers to as 'misreading of written literature'.
According to Allen (2002: J) modern theories view texts as lacking any kind of independence
in meaning. They are intertextual. He argues that the act of reading plunges us into a network
of textual relations and that to interpret a text is to trace those relations. Reading them
becomes a process of moving between texts and relating meaning from a network of texts.
Jt may therefore be argued here that Kezilahabi and Mohammed draw some of their
defamiliarization techniques from their religious backgrounds. Both writers and critics have
acknowledged this fact. It is with this in mind that I now discuss the various defamiliarization
techniques that draw from Islamic and Christian religions in the next section.
5.1 The Koran and the Bible
The Quran is an important book of divine guidance to Muslims. It is believed to be the very
word of Allah (Kateregga and Shenk, J 980:27). Muslims believe that its contents were
revealed to Prophet Mohammed through the archangel 'Jibril' - Gabriel (Quran 85:2-22). This
means that Prophet Mohammed was the medium chosen by Allah for the revelation of His
word. It is believed that every letter, word, content and meaning of the Quran is divinely
revealed. Through he Quran, the Muslim faithful receive the revelations of God through His
commandments.
Likewise, Christians believe that the Bible is the word of God that was revealed to mankind
through prophets. The Bible is therefore, perceived as a revelation of God's self-disclosure
1'+'+ .
nd the di -inely inspired re ord of man's response to God's elf-disclosure (Kateregga an, •
. henk. 1980: 1-9). Thus, the Bible is seen as God's own personal word engaged ill lively.
active encounter with man. To a Muslim, the Quran is a symbol of truth and to a Christian i.
is the Bible.
Both the Quran and the Bible have been used as symbols by Moham d and Kezilahabi
re pectively. Mohamed refers to the Quran in Asali Chungu. Zuberi does not see why Amina
is against Shemsa's marriage to Dude. He wonders:
Na zaidi, mimi na wewe tumemwahidi Shemsa mume yeyote atakeyemtaka
tutamwoza. Tena sasa, korani hizi za nini? (Mohamed J 977: J 46). (Furthermore, you
and I have promised Shemsa that we will bless her choice in marriage. So what is this
quran for?).
This metaphor referring to Quran affirms the fact that the Quran contains the laws (sharia)
which spell out the acceptable conduct of Muslim faithfuls. The Quran is a fundamental text
that spells out good and evil as understood by Muslims. In the above metaphor, Zuberi
compares the excuses which Amina is raising to block the marriage between Shemsa and
Dude to laws as outlined in the Koran. Zuberi sees no reason as to why Shemsa should not be
allowed to get married. But the reader sympathizes with him because he is not aware of the
fact that there existed a sexual relationship between his wife, Amina and Dude, his
prospective son-in-law. This metaphor highlights the ugly situation in which Amina finds
herself in.
Kezilahabi also refers to the Bible in Kichwamaji. In this book, Kazimoto goes to visit
Kamata, his friend, who is a fisherman and as he waits for his friend at the shore, other
fishermen engage him in stories. Most of the stories are about relationships between men and
women. They graphically discuss their sexual exploits with women from various tribes. One
of them boasts that he had sampled women from most communities in the country. At this
J. -, ••
junct I 'e, Kazimoto begins (0 wonder whether his exposure to the Bible and his education h:,~.
in a W3Y, robbed him of freedom to enjoy life like the fishermen:
Hapo ndipo nilipoanza kufikiri moyoni kwa nini nilisoma mpaka chuo kikuu. Nilianza
kujiuliza kwa nini nilisoma kile kitabu cha zamani - Biblia. Niliona kwarnba e!imu
ilikuwa sumu ya furaha yangu (Kezilahabi, 1974:50). (That is when I started
wondering in my heart the reason as to why I had to get education up to University. J
started asking myself; 'why did I read that Old Book - The Bible ..... I realised that
knowledge had 'poisoned' my happiness).
In the description, it is clear that Kazimoto is filled with misgivings and there seems to have
occurred a disconnect between his socialisation and his desires at the moment. He would like
to be like the fishermen yet he at the same time entertains a sense of guilt.
To Christians, the Bible is divine scripture containing the code of conduct prescribed by God.
As mentioned earlier it reveals the dos and don'ts of Christian life. The Bible also specifies
the repercussions of sin. The meaning of the irony implied in Kazimoto's words is that
Kazimoto cannot indulge in forbidden behaviour such as promiscuity because of his
knowledge of sin as stipulated in the Ten Commandments (Exodus 20). According to his
thinking, the fishermen have the freedom because they seem not to be aware of the Ten
Commandments. Kazimoto therefore regrets that his wide reading and his Christian
orientation make him hesitate to indulge in what the rest do.
Kezilahabi's message here is contentious. He seems to presuppose that Christianity and
education poisons ones sensibilities. One is filled with guilt for indulging in what is forbidden
by the Bible and hence confined to limited existence. To Kazimoto, Christianity, infact,
imprisons a person and inhibits him from enjoying life because there are certain morals that
have to be observed. What happens to Kazimoto seems to mirror the life of the author. It is
known that Kezilahabi dropped out of a seminary before graduating into priesthood (Masinde,
1992:32). It is therefore not far fct hed to see Kazimotos doubt in his religion as rcflecti '[
w hat might have led Kezilahabi to quit th seminary.
A Seminary is a place where candidates are prepared for ordination to priesthood. According
to Shaw (1977:617), these candidates are to pursue studies on scripture, the rubrics and
dogmatic morals and pastoral theology. Apart from assisting the priest during the daily mas,
they were to go for confession once a month. The goal of a seminary programme is to unite
human, spiritual, intellectual and pastoral formation into an integral programme of priestly
formation. The seminarian is challenged to a life of integral human growth and development
as well as strict virtuous life (Shaw, 1977:620). The seminarians are also evaluated from time
to time in order to prove that they are meeting the expectations of their spiritual directors.
Viewing Kazimoto's understanding from this point, it is possible to see the trials, challenges
and doubts that may pervade a seminarian who operates in a secular world in which casual
sex is in abundance, yet he is expected to remain chaste. It further shows how difficult it is to
fulfil the vows of celibacy.
The Bible is referred to as the Old Book signifying that it is a source of wisdom. Wisdom is
supposed to enable one to associate with people fruitfully, but in this case, wisdom from the
Old Book seems to prohibit enjoyment in life. Kazimoto metaphorically refers to education
and his knowledge of the Bible as 'poison'. These two aspects have 'poisoned' Kazimoto's
happiness. Thus, education and the Bible have destroyed his life. The fishermen are not
educated and do not believe in the Bible. That seems to be the reason why they can enjoy
indiscriminate sex. But Kazimoto's education censors even his association thereby denying
him the happiness he thinks, he would have achieved. In the end, his knowledge from both
University education and the Bible has hindered him from leading an adventurous life.
J ""1' ,
Kaz.irnoto se ms to be disillusioned. His education and religious beliefs a ,;:Ilot in consonance
\\ ith what he now perceives as good life. His persp ctive can b viewed as existcntia.ist j"
nature. As an exi tentialist writ r, Kezilahabi, seems to expo nd on this philosophy through
rhis character. Existentialist elements are evident in the fact that Kazimoro sees life as
undesirable due to his education. It is ironic that education, which is meant to enlighten and
make life better, is perceived as hindering good life.
5.2 The Holy Eucharist
The Holy Eucharist (communion or mass as referred to by the Catholic Church) is a
remembrance of the death and resurrection of Jesus Christ. The Old Testament Passover
festival helps us to understand the meaning of the Eucharist (Exodus 12). At the time when
God delivered the Hebrew peoples from slavery under Pharaoh, He commanded each family
to sacrifice a perfect lamb that was only one year old. The blood was placed on the doorposts
and lintel of the entrance to their homes. Then the family met together inside the home and ate
the roasted meat of the sacrificed lamb to give them strength for their journey.
In Hebrew history, this great event is called the Passover, because the angel of death passed
over every house which had the blood on the door. Every year, they would remember in
thanksgiving, how God had saved them from slavery and death. They recognized that the
perfect lamb which they had sacrificed was a sign of salvation.
Jesus was crucified at Passover time. On the night of his crucifixion, He ate the Passover meal
with his disciples, During that supper he took bread and broke it saying:
This is my body, then he took a cup of wine and in the same manner gave it to them
saying: 'Drink of it, all of you; for this is my blood of the covenant, which is poured
out for many for the forgiveness of sin. I tell you, I shall not drink again of this fruit of
the vin until tha day when I drink u new with you in my Father's kingdom' (Mathew
26:20-29).
This was the first holy Eucharist or comrnuruon service 111 the New Testament. It was
introduced by Jesus. In the Christian church, the Eucharist is celebrated rather than the
Passover because it was at the Passover feast that Jesus in roduced the Eucharist. Chri tians
belie 'e that the Old Testament Passover feast is a sign that prepares people to understand and
accept the crucifixion of Jesus as the perfect sacrifice for sin (Kateregga and Shenk,
1980: I52). Thus, Passover was a sign shadowing the future sacrifice of Jesus on the cross.
Kezilahabi, having a Catholic background, alludes to the Eucharist in Rosa Mistika. He
writes:
Zacharia alikuwa amekwenda kusali kwenye pombe. Wanasema aliponunua pombe,
alizoea kuinua bakuli juu kuwapatia watu akisema, 'kunyweni hii ndiyo damu yangu'
(Kezilahabi, 1971: 16). (Zacharia had gone to 'pray' at the bar. They say whenever he
bought the brew, he lifted the CLIp and said, 'drink, this is my blood').
In this analogy, Zacharia alludes to the words which Jesus uttered before offering the
Eucharist to His disciples just before He was crucified. Given that Zakaria, in the end, is slain
in cold blood by being stabbed by an arrow and losing blood before finally succumbing to
death, the utterance could be seen as fore shadowing his final death as was the case for Jesus.
The comparison is, however, distinctively antithetical. While Jesus was a saviour or sacrificial
lamb, Zakariah was a destroyer of his family. He hardly provided for them. Besides, he spent
all his money on beer.
The wine, which Jesus referred to as his blood, symbolised man's salvation and forgiveness
by God. The strangeness of Zacharia's utterance, in the circumstance under which it is
uttered, coupled with a contrast between the personality of Jesus and Zakaria, is a conscious
attempt bv the aut! h defamiliarize the biblical context. Catholic:" especially, believe that
he Eu .harist or Mass is the central event in their Christian practice. This is wh) they strive ~"
excel in a beautiful communion ritual (Kateregga and Shenk. 1980: 153). The author is at his
best in depicting thes binary polarities. This can be understood well since he was a former
seminarian. He is both cynical and satirical of the practice, which is held in reve ence by
Christian faithfuls.
The Eucharist is also a sign of unity (Kateregga and Shenk, 1980: 152). Jesus shared one cup
and a loaf of bread with his disciples. When the congregation share one cup and bread, the
church experiences a renewal of unity. In the analogy of the Eucharist Zakaria refers to
drinking as praying. Thus, those partaking of the brew are likened to a Christian congregation
sharing a cup. When Jesus shared the cup with his disciples, he was perpetuating the sacrifice
of the cross throughout the ages until he comes again. But in Zakaria's case, he is
perpetuating the fact that drinking is some kind of ritual only comparable to the Holy
Eucharist.
Given that the Eucharist is a sacrament of love, (Libreria Editrice Vaticana, 1994:335), it
could be said that Zakaria was declaring his love for liquor. The Eucharist is also a sign of
faith, which is celebrated amid the assembly of the faithfuls. Zakaria and 'his congregation',
on the contrary, are declaring their faith in liquor. It is an assembly of the faithfuls of liquor.
Thus, Zakaria takes drinking seriously and that drinking brings people together in unity of
purpose. By uttering these words, Zakaria is alluding to the fact that drunkards experience a
renewal of unity in their purpose.
ezilahabis satirical presentation of the Christian faith is further depicted clearly in RO.I(l
Mi. tika and Gamba /(1 Nyoka. A Catholic priest goes to counsel Rosa, b It does no; make any
concrete attempts to address her immediate problems. He prefers to dwell O!1 sin and
forgiveness and reads for her a scripture in John 8: J -\ O. The scripture is about a prostitute
who wa forgiven by Jesus. He talks to Rosa about forgiveness of sin which has very little to
do with her concrete realities. In the same way, Kezilahabi depicts hypocrisy in Christianity
through Padre Madevu and Mama Tinda in Gamba fa Nyoka. Mama Tinda submits to the will
of Padre Madevu thinking that this is her divine obligation. This scenario also r veals
Kezilahabi's scepticism about Christianity. The Catholic priest gives Mama Tinda a gift
which is a picture of the Virgin Mary with the inscription:
Tu solatium
Et refugium
Virgo Mater Maria
(Kezilahabi, 1979:7)
(You are a relief and refuge, virgin mother Mary)
(Translation by Wamitila, 1997: 19).
Notice that Kezilahabi chooses to retain the Latin language version in a Kiswahili text thereby
rendering it unfamiliar. Latin language is an important language within Catholic faith. The
fact that Kezilahabi retains the Latin version in this context is meant to underscore two things:
the authenticity of the inscription and the actions of the priest. While it is true that retaining
the original language preserves the original meaning, the actions of the priest signify that he
finds relief and refuge in his sexual activities with Mama Tinda.
The irony helps us to connect the message on the inscription with what is about to happen.
Mama Tinda could be seen ironically as the virgin Mary to the Priest. Their indulgence in
sexual intercourse is a breach of the celebatic vows. Through this irony, religious hypocrisy is
I.JJ
revealed. It helps us to understand Zakaria's and by extension, Kezilahabis sarca-rn ove: tl:e
hol . Eucharist.
Kezilahabi's attitude towards the catholic faith is clearer when ironically, later a picture of a
naked Mama Tinda falls from the Padre's Bible, This irony also helps to show immorality
within the Christian or Catholic Church and further reveals Kezilahabi's cynicism of the faith.
The two ironic scenarios help us to understand Kezilahabi's attitude towards the church and
its practice. We can therefore argue that, to Kezilahabi, the church and its practices canno
liberate man from his problems. But unfortunately, he does not provide any other solution. In
the same vein liquor also seems not to provide the answers. Kezilahabi therefore,
distinguishes himself as an existentialist writer through this portrayal.
5.3 The Jihad Metaphor
The use of 'Jihad' in Islamic faith can be understood when Islam is seen as a complete way of
life making no distinction between private and public conduct, or the secular and the spiritual
(Kateregga and Shenk, 1980:76). In this context, then, resistance to oppression cannot escape
Islamism. The Quran puts it clearly that war is part of life as long as there is injustice and
oppression in the world. The Quran says: 'And if Allah had not repelled some men by others,
the earth would have been corrupted. But Allah is a Lord of kindness to (His) creatures'.
(Quran 2:252, Quran 22:40,2:216)
Islam, in its teaching, recognises the inevitability of war and possesses the necessary
legislation to regulate war. In Arabic language, 'Jihad' is not synonymous with war. It means
exerting of one's utmos power in repelling all enemy ( ateregga and Shenk, Jnn:!7). It is a
striving in the cause of God. The struggle in the cause of God is of three kinds:-
(i) The struggle against a visible enemy.
(ii) The struggle against the temptation of the devil.
(i ii) The struggle against one' s passions.
While carrying on a Jihad, Muslims must strive with their time, knowledge, energy, passions,
talents and all their resources for the cause of God. All Muslims are commanded to follow
this true meaning of 'Jihad'. Prophet Mohammed was commanded to fight those who fought
him and restrain himself from those who did not (Quran 8:61). The Muslims are commanded
not to start aggression against other people, but to stand firm in resisting aggression and
oppression directed against other Muslims and humanity. Islam recognises fighting as lawful
for the purpose and restoration of justice, freedom and peace (Quran 2: 190-193).
Mohamed uses 'Jihad' metaphorically in Kiza Katika Nuru. In this book, Juba, who purports
to be an Islamic preacher, delivers a sermon in which Mvita attends. Mohamed describes
Mvita's purpose of attending the sermon:
Mvita aliingia humo kwa dhamiri tofauti ingawa nayo inaambatana na mafunzo ya
kiungu ... kutetea haki ni jihadi na anayekufa huingia peponi (Mohamed, 1988:182).
(Mvita attended the sermon for a different purpose, although it is to do with religious
teaching ... to demand one's right is 'jihad' and whoever dies in the process goes to
heaven).
The reference to 'Jihad' in this allusion is significant. A number of interpretations are
possible. It is clear that Mvita sees his father as an oppressor and aggressor against humanity.
Juba has oppressed his first family. His first wife, Kudura and children can hardly find food.
Kudura survives on begging in order to feed her children. Juba finally throws her out of the
house and she has to go and live with her unemployed sons. Mvita himself has also been
acl.ed fr m Juba'< office for questioning his father's oppress: 'i;' tendencies . Juba live's 1!1
luxury while other people live in wr tchedness. Mvi a sees himself as being in a position to
fight for defence and restoration of justice, freedom and peace for his family. and his kind. Tv
Mvita, Juba is an embodiment of the devil himself due to his evil deeds against I is fellow
Muslims and humanity in general. Mvita therefore fights for his people through educating
them about their rights. It is in this gathering that he declares 'jihad' against his father.
Indeed, he turns the occasion into a forum for educating his people and exposing his father's
pretensions.
At this juncture, Mvita seems to carry the authorial vision. The author, through Mvita,
expresses his disgust to oppression and calls for a revolt against the oppressors. The call for a
revolt appears as divine in nature. It is clear that he draws this from his Islamic orientation as
argued elsewhere in this chapter.
Jihad is also referred to by Kudura. She is looking for money to buy food to prepare for her
husband's visit. Nobody is willing to lend her money because she does not pay back.
Although she seems not to give up, she says: "Ama kweli, hii dunia ya jihad' (Mohamed,
1988:80). (Surely this is a world of 'Jihad'). In this context, 'jihad' is used to mean struggle.
Kudura voices the same sentiments. Life is therefore perceived as a struggle to stop
oppression. But the irony here is that Kudura herself is not fighting to liberate herself from
Juba's oppression. She has to borrow money to entertain Juba when he visits. Ironically, Juba
does not care what she eats despite the fact that he is wealthy. The irony seems to expose the
futility of knowledge without action. Instead of struggling to stop the oppression, Kudura has
accepted the status quo. She only struggles to survive. With this attitude, Kudura does not
make her life any better. Again, the authorial voice is clearer here; what is important is
154
struggle against the oppressor, to stop the aggression and .ot strug lmg to survive at: Kudura
does. Strugg ing to survive in a situation wher there is oppression bares no fruits.
5.4 The Rod of Moses
In Gamba fa Nyoka, Mzee Chilongo threatens to curse a young man by using his male orga ,
He says: 'Hii ndiyo fimbo pekee ya uchawi tuliyopewa na Mungu' (Kezilahabi, 1979:39).
(This is the only rod that we were given by God for the purpose of bewitching). In this
metaphor Mzee Chilongo refers to his male organ as a rod given to him by God, which
alludes to the rod of Moses in the Bible. Kezilahabi echoes the biblical story of Moses and the
powerful rod. Moses used his rod to perform many miracles such as dividing the waters of the
Red Sea. The Israelites crossed to the other side on their way to the Promised Land (Exodus
14:16). The rod had miraculous powers, which effected the separation of the Red sea leaving
a path in the middle.
The rod of Moses symbolizes both death and life. Moses uses this rod to enable the Israelites
to cross the Red Sea while the Egyptians who were pursuing them perished. The rod had
powers to stop water from flowing to its destination. It is both a symbol of victory and defeat.
In essence, the rod of Moses seems to have some miraculous function. In the same breath, the
magical rod that Chilongo possesses is said to have powers. As earlier pointed out, reference
to the male organ alludes to the biblical rod of Moses. It is a phallic symbol, a tool for
realisation of hegemonic masculinity. It has power to bring forth life, and as Chilongo seems
to suggest, it can also bring death. Through the male organ, life comes forth. But the same
male organ can be used to effect a curse or death to the offender in African culture. The irony
is that Chilongo claims that God has given it to him to use it for the purpose of cursing.
Interpreted within patriarchal ideology, the rod is a phallic symbol of manhood. Ir is a symbol
of pow r, authority and leadership. Therefor, seen in this light, Mzee Chilonzo see is to be
as. erring his authority and power.
5.S The Sheepskin
The Bible uses the metaphor of the sheepskin in reference to hypocrisy (Mathew 24:4). The
idea of something giving the appearance of sheep on the outside while the inside has nothing
to do with sheep is the message that is foregrounded through the metaphor. Throughout the
Bible, the sheep has been used to represent humility, submission and harmlessness as opposed
to stubbornness exhibited by goats. Consequently, the sheep is said to represent Christians.
Therefore, those who wear sheepskin are hypocrites. In Kichwamaji, Kezilahabi alludes to
this metaphor of the sheepskin. While commenting on the misunderstanding between
Tegemea and Kazimoto over the latter's relationship with Vumilia, Tegemea's daughter,
Kabenga says:
Wote tunafahamu kwamba wasichana wa siku hizi wote ni hali moja ingawa wengi
kati yao wanavaa ngozi za kondoo (Kezilahabi, 1974:107). (We all know that modern
girls are similar in their behaviour although most of them are dressed in sheepskin).
In this metaphoric expression, Kabenga wants Tegemea to know that when it comes to
relationships between boys and girls, it is not good to point an accusing finger at one side.
Thus, Vumilia may appear innocent but, she is not because she has accepted a relationship
with Kazimoto and this does not make Kazimoto more of a criminal than her. Kezilahabi is
highlighting the hypocritical nature of human beings. They may appear harmless, obedient,
submissive and humble, yet they may be hiding their negative side. It is customary for parents
of daughters to blame parents of sons for allowing their sons to destroy innocent and humble
daughters. But through this metaphoric expression, Kezilahabi makes the reader to see this
situation differently. Through the use of dramatic irony, Kezilahabi is able to highlight this
rea it}'. The reader knows tha Vumilia is not innocent but Iter mother ;s not ware. Through
dramatic irony, the writer L abl to show that indeed, girls can pretend t be what ~he) are r.c!
while with their parents. Kczilahabi's portraya of Vumilia seems to be alerting parents abcut
this reality. The foregrounded message is that people should be careful before passing
judgement based on stereotypical assumption of the nature of boys and girls.
5.6 Nun-Hood
In Utengano, Biti Kocho tells Farashuu that she has managed to get Maimuna out of their
home in their initial stages of revenging on Maksuudi. She says:
'Nikwambie nini bibi we', Biti Kocho alianza kucharaza, 'Nimetoa mtawa wa watu'
(Mohamed, 1980:60). (' What do I tell you my dear', Biti Kocho began to explain, 'I
have moved the nun out of the convent').
Here, Maimuna is being referred to as a 'nun'. Nun-hood is a practice mainly by the Catholic
Church. The church believes that Christ has invited certain persons to follow him in a way of
life where they remain celibate.
From the beginning the church has had men and women who have renounced marriage to
follow the example of Christ, in order to seek to please Him and devote all their lives serving
Him. A nun is a woman devoted to a life of celibacy. Apart from practicing chastity, Nuns are
usually secluded in a convent where they are safe and free from the temptations and influence
from other people, which may derail them from their course.
Mohamed uses the metaphor of nun-hood to depict the life Maimuna has led. She lived under
strict rules from his father, Maksuudi. She was not allowed to mix with the outside world.
Maimuna was to practice chastity just like the nuns. Maksuudi's family was secluded like in a
convent. The image we get of a convent is that of safety and security. Through this image,
J57
Mohamed portrays Maksuudi negative I . He restricts his children and confines them witb.n
the compound. However, looked at from another angle, Maksuudi may be seen as a
responsible parent who wants his family secured and safe from bad influence. He wants to
instil the virtue of chastity into his daughter Maimuna, and wants her protected from bad
influence that may put her in danger. His intentions are therefore not evil to some extent. He
may have been oppressive to his family only in the light of the extent to which he went.
Given that Maksuudi regrets for having led Maimuna into prostitution unknowingly, it is clear
that his intentions were noble. He was not aware that he had gone to the extreme. Mairnuna
may have not known that her lifestyle was bad if the likes ofKocho had not influenced her to
see her state of virginity negatively. They were jealous of her chastity. This jealousy is
evident in Kocho's sarcastic statement above. She is sarcastic while referring to Maimuna as a
'nun' because she has succeeded in her plans. In the end, it is clear that Maksuudi's fears were
real. His daughter is destroyed after stepping out of their home which had the security of a
convent.
The metaphor serves as a warning to parents that whereas it is important to protect children
from bad influence, it is also equally important to talk to them about their fears freely. By so
doing, they are able to share with their parents so that they can be given guidance. Without
this input children become easy prey for peer pressure.
5.7 Satan
The image of Satan is alluded to in Utengano. Maimuna is fighting with Kijakazi over Shoka
when Maksuudi, Mussa and Rashid arrive at the scene and call her. The scene is captured
vividly:
158
Niacheni, .... Nywele zilikuwa timtirn. Meno kauma. Kifua kilirnpanda na kuinshcka
Pumzi mbili mbili. Damn ilirnchiririka na kumziba uso. Ali uwa shetani 11a a iweza
kummeza yeyote (tv ohamed, 1980: J 43). (Leave me alone ... her hail was ruffled, her
teeth were clenched together. Her chest moved up and do vn. She breathed faster.
Blood was oozing and covered her face. She was a devil and she could wallow
anybody).
Maimuna's appearance and actions at this particular time are .ornpareo to Satan's. Satan is a
reJigiou entity. Muslims believe that Satan (iblis) had been at the source and center of evil
even before the creation of Adam. He was the first creature to disobey and lead a rebellion
against God long before the creation of man (Quran J 5:28-3 J). According to this account, it is
'IbIis's disobedience that was the source and origin of evil among mankind. 'Iblis' refused to
prostrate before man whom God had created out of clay and had breathed His own spirit
(Quran 15:33). His reason was that he was far better than man because he was created out of
fire (light). Since 'Iblis' proudly refused to submit to his creator, he became an unbeliever.
Thus, Satan is arrogant, egoistic, jealous and rebellious.
Satan's refusal to bow down to man and his abuse of the angels made God to reject and curse
him (Quran 15:34-35). Consequently, Satan asked Allah to allow him to lead mankind into
error (Quran 15: 39-40). 'Iblis' therefore has been the arch-enemy of man from the time of
creation to present.
Mohammed seems to borrow this image of Satan from the Islamic faith, to describe Maimuna.
Maimuna exhibited certain characteristics which were similar to those of 'iblis'. Maimuna
was once an angel possessing angelic qualities such as humility, respect, obedience and love,
while she lived with her family. Maimuna's transformed state is as a result of rebellion. She
refused to follow the ways of her 'creator' (father) and decided to go into the world to
experience life outside the 'convent'. The authorial voice here has a strong message: a
rebellious child ruins his or her life. This echoes the Islamic teaching whereby after 'iblis'
159
came to earth he was involved ill all manner of evil. Aft r r belling and com.rig out of his
father's co ering, Maimuna indulged in all manner of evil.
Both Islamic and Christian faiths depict Satan as cunning and ruthless. This is found in the
story of Adam and Eve (Genesis 3: 1-24 and Quran 7:20-21). The metaphor of Satan
highlights Mairnuna's change of heart and behaviour. She becomes cunning and ruthless in
her dealings with otber people. She is also violent and displays excess energy and power only
compared to that of Satan. Although the metaphor is strong, it vividly portrays her character.
Kezilahabi also uses the image of Satan in Rosa Mistika. A priest advises Rosa over her sex
life. But he does not succeed in convincing her to change. Finally he says:
'Lusifa! Lusifa amekwishafanya roho yako kiti chake'
(Kezilahabi, 1971 :49). (Lucifer! Lucifer has made your heart his fortress).
'Lucifer' is another name for 'iblis' or Satan. According to the Bible, Satan tempts man to sin
and man has also decided to yield to Satan's temptations (Genesis 3:1-24). The decision of
man to turn away from God is the root of evil. Understood within the Christian ideology,
Rosa is to blame for allowing Satan to tempt and win her over completely. This is in reference
to her sexual life. Kezilahabi is ironic in this metaphor since the problem with Rosa has
nothing to do with Satan but her upbringing. Rosa is partly a product of Zakaria's failure to
give direction as a parent.
On another level, Kezilahabi exposes the emptiness in Christianity, which does not offer
solutions to the problems of humanity. His scepticism about the Catholic faith is detected
when the priest is unable to address Rosa's problem adequately and instead uses Lucifer as a
scapegoat.
5.8 Traders in the Temple
Kezilahabi alludes to the biblical story recorded in John 2: 12-17 where Jesus chased av-ay
traders \ ho were selling their wares in the temple. In Gamba fa Nyoka, Mama Tinda is
among those who are shaken and are disappointed with th government's plan to resettle them
in Ujamaa Villages. She goes to church and prays:
Yesu mwenye nguvu uliyeponyesha vipofu, wape macho wanaotutendea uovu huu
nitakaokwambia. Wewe uliyewachapa wahindi kwa kuuza bidhaa zao ndani ya
nyumba ya Baba yako, okoa nyumba zetu (Kezilahabi, 1979:3). (Jesus the powerfu
one who healed the blind, give eyes to those who are committing this evil that I am
about to reveal to you. You, who flogged the Indians for selling their wares inside the
house of your father, save our houses).
Although the story of the traders in the temple being alluded to is found in the gospels, it is
d familiarized in this text. The traders are referred to as Indians. This could be because in
Mama Tinda's environment, most traders were Indians. In the biblical story Jesus was vexed
by the traders who were selling their wares in the temple, which was meant for worship. In his
reasoning, the traders had shown disrespect to God. This analogy depicts the disappointment
and anger of the people against the government over the plan to resettle them in Ujamaa
villages.
The traders whom Jesus threw out of the temple lacked respect and acted irresponsibly.
Likewise the people in Gamba La Nyoka view the decree by the government as lacking
respect and regard towards them and their property. The government was acting irresponsibly
in destroying their hard acquired property. Their actions are like those of a blindman. The
people did not find the government's decision appropriate. This analogy helps to highlight the
psychological, emotional and physical state of the Tanzanians at the time of resettlement to
Ujamaa villages. They were desperate and helpless. They only hoped that divine intervention
could reverse the decree by healing the blindness of their leaders.
1 \.J J
5.9 Jos ph nd ar
Mama Tinda refers to tl e story of. oseph and Mary in her prayer when she says:
Maria Bikira, uliyekuwa bikira hata baada ya kuzaa, ninakuomba unisikie, lsikie sauti
ya mke mwenzako. Kimbunga kinakuja' sijui tutakimbilia wapi. Wewe pamoja nil
mmeo Yosefu mlikimbia kwa haraka, mkasahau baiskeli mkapanda punda kwa
kumwogopa Herode. Lakini sisi tutakwenda wapi wanamgambo wamejaa kila mahali
(Kezilahabi, 1979:3). (Virgin Mary, who remained a virgin even after giving birth,
please hear me. Hear your fellow woman's cry. A hurricane is coming; I do not know
where we shall run to. You together with your husband Joseph ran very fast, forgot
the bicycle and used a donkey because you feared Herod. But, in our case where shall
we run to? The militias are allover).
The above allusion, alludes to the Bible story in which Mary and Joseph fled from Bethleh m
to Egypt after the birth of Jesus because Herod had ordered that all sons below two years be
killed (Mathew 2: l3-16). This Biblical story is defamiliarized by stating that they forgot the
bicycle and used a donkey. First, it is clear that in Tinda's environment, bicycles are the main
means of transport and not donkeys as it was in the days of Joseph. Secondly, this highlights
Joseph's urgency, desperation and haste to flee. The people in this text find themselves in a
similar state like that of Joseph. They were being forced to flee from their homes to avoid
being resettled in Ujamaa villages by force. Through this analogy, the author is castigating the
manner in which the people were forced out of their houses. Those in power were seen to be
having evil intentions, just like Herod, during the time of Jesus.
The government's action is compared to a hurricane. A hurricane is a huge rotating storm,
which sweeps across tropical seas and onto shorelines. Hurriccanes are usually devastating.
They often kill thousands of people and destroy property worthy billions of dollars. Nothing
absolutely stands in their way. Hence, hurricanes are usually beyond any human control. The
people are therefore seen to be desperate and powerless against the power of those in
authority. They could only seek supernatural intervention through prayer.
162
5.10 The Furnace
Christianity and Islam talk of hell as a place of torment and eternal fire. It is th preserve for
the evil people after their death. It is likened to a furnace. The two religions assert that those
who do not heed to the teaching of the scriptures will suffer eternally. This furnace is allud d
to in Kiza Katika Nuru. Kudura and Biti Jabu express this to the fishmonger;
Tumekuja utupige 'icho kisu kama kufa tufe Na lipi sa la kuni ia upole huku
dunia yenyewe inakuchonga ukali? Dunia inayowaka moto (Mohamed, 1988: 100).
(We have come for you to stab us so that we die if we have to .... And what can make
us humble in his world whereby the world itself 'sharpens' you. The world is a
furnace).
Life on earth is depicted as unpleasant, cruel and unbearable. To survive in this world, one
has to be tough. Life on earth is metaphorically compared to a 'furnace'. The difficulties in
life 'shape' an individual. The metaphor depicts the tough life on earth and reinforces the
importance of endurance.
Fire is useful to man. However, it has a variety of symbolic ramification. On one level, it can
destroy as well as cause pain. Looking at life as hell enhances the image of life as a
punishment. It therefore means that life on earth is a period of tribulations. However,
according to the Christian faith, fire symbolizes purity. When one goes through a difficult
situation, they become stronger and purified. That is, Christians talk about 'baptism by fire'.
Christians believe that such experience helps one to develop ability to deal with challenges of
life. The two levels at which life is perceived reinforce the very nature of life in which pain,
suffering and struggle interact with comfort, joy and happiness.
5.11 The Transitional Nature of Death
The authors under study depict death as one stage in the journey of life. In Rosa Mistika,
Kezilahabi shows how the state in which a person dies determines his place in the hereafter.
J63
Those who di as sinners go to hell. Th righteous join Jesus in heaven. Rose! prepares herself
t g( to heaven before she cornrr its sui ide by repenting. Her last moments are captu-cd
graphically :
Rosa alifikiri kwanza kabla ya kunywa. Alitubu dhambi zake .... Mara III ja
alikunywa maji yale .... Aliona damu ..... 'Asanlc. Kifo njoo upesi' alisema, .....
'sasa ninakufa' (Kezilahabi, 1971:9 1). (Rosa thought before drinking the oncoction.
he repented her sins. At once she drank it. .. she saw blood ... 'Thank you. 0 ath
come quickly'. She said ... 'Now J am dying').
In the above description of the event preceding Rosa's death, it is clear that she knew that
life after death was determined by life on earth. She repented before taking her life. But it is
ironic that immediately after repenting, she committed suicide. By so doing, she contradicts
Christian beliefs and practice, which stipulate that one is not supposed to take hislher life.
Kezilahabi makes this satirical even further through Rosa's monologue. She 'thanks' death
for coming to rescue her. Kezilahabi makes it look as if death is welcome and that somebody
can move into it happily, comfortably, and knowingly.
The satirical and deconstructive presentation of death here seems to suggest that for Rosa, life
was unbearable. She embraces death hoping to rest from her insurmountable misery. She had
never known comfort throughout her life. On another level, the fact that Rosa repents and
immediately commits sin could be viewed as a satirical statement by the author. Kezilahabi
satirizes repentance as practiced by Christians. Christians keep repenting and sinning
immediately after. This highlights the meaningless of repentance. The fact that Rosa
welcomes death shows that she knows it is not the end of life. This seems to draw from the
African Traditional Religion whereby death is seen as a transition. Rosa sees herself crossing
over to the life of the living dead. As already mentioned, probably, she feels her life will be
better in the hereafter. This attitude towards death is also found in the Christian ideology.
Phillipians 1:21 says that if a person dies with Christ he shall also rise with him. In death, God
cal': man to himself. Kczilah: bi depicts death as the end of man's pilgri 11UgC on artl.,
Christians believe that Jesu rose from death and those who are righteous will a! 0 rise [TOm
death (Romans 8:1, Thessalonians 4:14, I Corinthians 6:14).
Kezilahabi also describes life after death in another ins ance. This comes out graphi ally at
Zakaria's burial:
Padri hakumaliza mtu mmoja alipopiga kelele .... 'Nimemletea Zakaria chupa mbili
za moshi, moja any we atuage sisi walevi! Ya pili atakwenda nayo huko kwenye
ufalme wa Kristo Amina (Kezilahabi, 1971 :94). (The priest had not finished when one
person shouted, 'I have brought two bottles of the brew to Zakaria, one for him to
drink with his fellow drunkards as he bids them bye and the other to take to the
kingdom of Christ, Amen).
The drunkard seems to know that the dead man's soul continues to live after death. But
whatever is being expressed by the drunkard is contrary to Christian practice and faith. A
corpse cannot drink or eat. Drunkenness is not permissible in the Christian faith. Worse still,
the corpse is meant to take the brew along to the kingdom of God. This satirical presentation
draws from African religious beliefs. Among the Chagga, it is believed that the dead person
travels for nine days to the next world. The dead person goes through a desert and that is why
the body is anointed with oil. Milk is put in its mouth for nourishment through the journey
(Mbiti, 1969: 159). In this particular satirical scene, Kezilahabi seems to be alluding to this
fact. The dead is expected to drink the beer on his way to the next world. The presentation
simplifies death.
Respect of the dead, which is upheld by African traditions, is also violated here. The dead are
supposed to be respected and not satirized. Burial services are usually punctuated with
solemness and silence, probably reflecting the fear people have towards death. But Kezilahabi
seems to be laughing at death. After all, death does not destroy a person, but it is a transition
to the next world. Drawing fro 1 his African and Christian religions, Kezilahabi portrays
death not as extinction, but a transition to a be ter life. Life here on earth is a pilgrimage. The
rea! home is in the hereafter. This echoes Christian belief that life in heaven is far better than
life on earth. In heaven, life is permanent as opposed to life on earth, which is temporary.
Mohamed is also preoccupied with the idea of death in his works. He depicts that the dead
person goes on a journey to the next world. The dead is escorted to the next world by an angel
of death. In Asali Chungu, Pili falls sick and finally dies. Her last moments are described as
follows:
Mwezi unusu Pili yuko kitandani, anangojea lini ziraili atakuja itoa hiyo roho
aliyotumwa na Mola wake (Mohamed, 1977: 184). (Pili was in bed for one and a half
months waiting when ziraili (the angel of death) would be sent by her God to take her
spirit).
The same expression is used in Utengano, to refer to Maksuudi, when he becomes violent to
the point of battering Tamina his wife. Mohamed (1980:55) compares him to 'ziraili';
Alikuwa kama ziraili kasimama na bakora yake (Mohamed, 1977: 184).
(He was like the angel of death standing with his cane)
Mohamed depicts Maksuudi as performing the duty of the angel of death. Because of the pain
Tamima is going through, she is ready to cross over to the next life which she believes will be
better than her present life. The fact that 'Ziraili' has a cane (rod) is a symbol of authority and
protection. Tamima, therefore, sees death as the only saviour out of this state. But this could
also mean that Maksuudi is seen as the devil who is causing suffering to Tamima. This
symbolic presentation depicts death as a passage which one has to experience in order to get
to the next world.
The same idea is expressed in Kiza katikc uru by Kudura, n this book, Ml-i 'li ic, portrayed
as a stubborn child who torments his mother. He; has drawn the image of his fathe; iJ a verv
unspeakable manner. Kudura is not harp) and om plains:
Nadhani mtoto huyu ndio ziraili wangu rnimi (Mohamed, 1988:28). (I think this child
is my angel of death).
Kudura means that Mbishi will cause her death. In African belief, death is always caused.
Kudura refers to Mbishi as her 'angel of death'. Some of the causes among the Maragoli are
wi chcraft, magic, curses and offending the living dead. If death is caused in African religious
practice, then in this context Kudura compares his son to an evil person who is driving her to
death. In Islamic faith, 'iblis' (Satan) is the source and centre of evil. This means that, to
Mohamed, acts such as Maksuudi's and Mbishi's are demonic. They are sanctioned by 'iblis".
This symbolic reference is a condemnation of Maksuudi and Mbishi.
Mohamed also views death as some kind. of migration. In Asali Chungu, Semeni commits
suicide after a misunderstanding with Pili. Mohamed describes the act:
Asubuhi ilipofika, Semeni alihama kweli. Hakuhama nyurnbani I11wa Pili tu, bali
aliihama dunia. Aliuacha ulimwengu uliojifunga kumtesa (Mohamed, 1989:48). (The
following morning Semeni 'migrated'. She did not just 'migrate' from Pili's house,
but also from the world. She migrated from the world, which had consigned her to
suffering).
The symbolic depiction of death as migration insinuates that life on earth is not permanent.
S.12 Death as Equalizer
In Gamba fa Nyoka the villagers are not happy with the manner in which the government is
destroying their property in order to move them to the Ujamaa Villages. To the perpetrators
they say:
Kesho au kesho kutwa tutak uwa tunasema sisirnizi watakaoni!a rnimi ndio
w takaowala wao" (Kezilahabi, J 979:31). (In future, we shall be saying, the maggots
tha will feed on their (dead) body are the same ones. which will feed on mine).
Th metaphorical expression implies that once corpses are buri d. they rot and ar eaten bv
maggots. The maggots do not discriminate against bodies of the oppressors and the oppressed.
Thus, everyone will at one point die and after burial the bodies will rot away. This is in line
with the Christian belief that the human body comes from soil and at burial it goes back to the
same soil. Death is not a respecter of pe sons. This expression is a warning to those who
oppress others that one day, when they die, they will not be superior to the oppressed.
5.13 The Hereafter
The New Testament speaks of judgement in the final encounter with Christ in his second
coming. But it also affirms that each will be rewarded immediately after death in accordance
with his works and faith. The parable of Lazarus and the words of Christ on the cross to the
repentant thief speak of a final destiny of the soul (Luke 16:22, Mathew ]6:26, Hebrews
9:27). Those who die in God's grace and friendship are said to live forever with Christ. Both
Islam and Christianity make reference to a place of the souls of saints. To Christians and
Muslims, paradise is the ultimate end and fulfilment of the deepest human longings.
The Islamic and Christian belief is presented in Utengano. After Biti Kocho succeeds in
getting Maimuna out of the 'Kasri la watawa', Farashuu the schemer says:
Mimi sitaki waonane watu hawa mpaka siku ya I - hashiri, chini ya mkunazi
tutakapohukumiwa. Mimi na wao (Mohamed, 1980:6 J). (l do not want them to see
one another until the day of l-hashiri under the Palm-tree when all of us will be
judged).
This expression refers to the day of judgement. On this day, everybody shall be judged by the
Creator. In Christian faith, this will happen at the close of age when everybody, even the dead
wi'l be judged (Revelation 20: 11-15). This means that people should be accountable for thf'ir
deeds here on earth. The day of judgement is expressed through 'Fatiha' which is th opening
chapter of the Koran. It states:
In the name of God, Most Gracious, Most Merciful Praise be to God, the Cherisher
and Sustainer of the world. Most Gracious, Most Merciful, Master of the Day of
Judgement. Thee do we worship.
(as quoted by Kateregga and Shenk, J 980: xviii),
Mohamed may have borrowed this perception of life after death from his Islamic leaching
since most African communities do not believe in any form of judgement in the hereafter.
In Rosa Mistika, Kezilahabi also makes reference to the day of judgment. Emmanuel recalls a
dream. The dream revolves around moments after Rosa's death. In the dream Rosa is to
answer charges before God concerning her decision to take her own life. Her father Zakaria is
also present and God is seated in the judgement seat. Rosa accuses her father of making her to
commit suicide. But Rosa's father denies this charge. Both of them are then asked to produce
witnesses.
This dream reveals Kezilahabi's view of the hereafter. His view seems to draw from his
Christian background. Christians believe that judgement awaits human beings after death. The
dream reinforces the importance of uprightness in life. The fact that God is not happy with the
decision by Rosa to commit suicide reflects Christian teaching.
5.14 Emotional Death
Mohamed argues that death is in two forms: physical death and emotional death. In Dunia Mti
Mkavu, Fumu is disturbed because his crops have been burnt by Fauz in order to force him to
vacate his land. Mohamed defamiliarizes through symbolism when he says:
IV;!
Njc, bundi alilia na washiriki walipata nafasi ya kutabiri kwamba ata+ufa mill
(Mohamed, 1980:97). (Outside, an owl 'cried' and the participants founJ ~'l
OPPi) iunit) to profess that someon would die).
In African cultures. an owl is beli ved to be a harbinger of bad news. Its cry is a sign of bad
things to come, and especially, death. In this case, Mohamed seems to b signifying Furnu's
emotional death. Fauz's action has killed Fumu emotionally. This is because he destroys
Furnu's crops which were a source of his livelihood. This kind of death is also depicted in
Kiza katika Nuru, In this book, Mbishi wants to commit suicide while drinking. In his
drunken stupor he says:
'Wamenifunga', Mbishi alianza kwa sauti ya unyonge. 'Kwa nini?' Aliuliza Mvita
pasi na kufikiri. Lakini Mbishi hakujibu swali hilo, badala yake aliendelea, wanafunga
maiti .... (Mohamed, 1988:210). (They have tied me. Mbishi started to explain lazily.
'Why?' asked Mvita without giving it a thought. But Mbishi never answered him,
instead he continued, 'They are tying a corpse).
In this passage, the author employs semantic absurdity. Mbishi refers to himself as a 'corpse'.
Corpses do not speak and are not capable of doing anything. By making Mbishi refer to
himself as a corpse, Mohamed seems to be alluding to the fact that he is hopeless. Although
he is alive, he has died emotionally. He cannot think properly or fulfil what is expected of a
normal human being due to his .drunkenness and drugs abuse.
This hopelessness is also depicted in Dunia Mti Mkavu. In this novel, Fumu, one of the
characters, believes he and his fellow farmers are corpses. He asks:
'Nani asiyekuwa maiti hapa?' 'Ikiwa sote maiti msiba wa nini' (Mohamed, 1980:99).
(Who among us is not a corpse? If all of us are corpses, why mourn?
Corpses do not speak, but Fumu, in the above rhetorical questions problematizes the idea of
death. It appears that he considers himself and other farmers dead. It may be argued that
through this character, Mohamed is highlighting the misery of these people. They are not
living as fellow human beings. They are as good as dead. Through this metaphor, Mohamed
implies that poverty and misery drain life from a p rson. [motional and mental health is
paramount for living. Without them a person may be physically alive but emotionally dead.
This understanding of death is alluded to in Christian faith. In Christian faith, a person who
has not accepted Christ is in some sense dead though he/she may be physically alive. Through
this presentation, it is clear that a healthy human being has to be alive both physically and
emotionally.
5.15 Conclusion
This chapter has examined various techniques that draw from Islamic, Christian and African
traditional ideologies. Some of the techniques which have been discussed are: metaphor,
irony, allusion, symbolism, analogy and sarcasm. It is clear that the two authors under study
utilize religious ideology in their depiction and interpretation of phenomena and the world.
The discussion has revealed that to interpret some of the defamiliarization techniques, one has
to understand the African Traditional, Christian and Islamic religions. This is because the
writers under study have been influenced by these religions in their choices of some of the
techniques. Interpreting the techniques is therefore, a process of moving between texts and
relating meanings. The two authors have attempted to answer fundamental questions about
life, death and hereafter. In doing this, Christian, Islamic and African Traditional religious
ideologies have been seen to underlie their perception of the world.
A major contribution of this chapter is that it reveals that, apart from drawing
defamiliarization techniques from patriarchal ideology, the authors also draw from their
religious beliefs and philosophical foundations. Kezilahabi has evidently been influenced by
his Christian background and an existentialist philosophy. Mohamed has been influenced by
Islamic faith. Both a nhor: arc critical of their religions. This is re -eale J through their U'J~ of
irony and sarcasm.
Generally, the defamiliarization tcchniq es discussed are ideologically motivated. Kezil habi
is more sarcastic and dismissive of Chris ianity than Mohamed is about Islam. Mohamed
utilizes metaphors drawing from Islam while Kezilahabi uses Bibilical allusions. Moha ned's
Islamic knowledge on life, death and hereafter informs his choices of the defarniliarization
techniques on these subjects. This is an aspect he shares with Kezilahabi whose Christian
knowledge informs his perception of the same issues. The next chapter analyzes dream and
magical transformations as defamiliarization techniques.
J I';"
CHAPTER SIX
r am • nd Magical Tran forma ions a. Dcfamiliarization Techniques
6.0 lntroduc ion
The previous chapter discussed defamiliarization techniques which draw from religious
ideology. The investigation revealed that the authors under study are greatly influenced by
their religious backgrounds. This chapter's main objective is to analyse dreams and magical
transformations as defamiliarization techniques in the selected texts. It recognizes that the
authors of the texts under study have utilized dreams and magical transformations as means of
e. plaining reality.
It is argued that the authors' under study have adopted magical realism which affords them
the opportunity to foreground certain African realities through the process of defamiliarizing.
It is proposed in this chapter that a combination of esoteric dreams and magical
transformations, are utilized as defamiliarization techniques that foreground meaning. The
first section of this chapter examines the dream motif as utilized by the two authors. In this
section, various dreams are subjected to rigorous interrogation with a view of revealing their
meanings in relation to the contexts within which they appear. The second part focuses on
magical transformations, These refer to the mysterious, enigmatic, and cryptic happenings
that hinge on the mythical. The meanings foregrounded within the magical transformation are
discussed.
6.1 The Dream Motif
There are a variety of definitions of the concept of a 'dream' that have been advanced. Oxford
English Dictionary defines a dream as a 'vision, series of pictures or events, presented to a
sleeping person'. Thus, any mental activity experienced during sleep is considered as a dream.
J I J
Webster's New World Dictionary defines a dream as a 'sequence of sensations, images ,;nd
thoughts passing through a sleeping person's mind.' Calvin Hall, an American dream expert,
defmes a dream as:
A succession of images, predominantly visual in quality, which are experienced
during sleep. A dream, commonly, has one or more scenes, several characters in
addition to the dreamer and a sequence of actions and interactions usually involving
the dreamer. It resembles a motion picture of dramatic production in which the
dreamer is both a participant and an observer ... since the events of a dream do not
actually take place, the dreamer experiences it as though he were seeing something
real (Faraday, 1972:38).
This definition of a dream is more specific in the sense that only longer, more visual, vivid
and active sleep experiences would merit the label 'dreams'. Some dreams described in
selected texts under study are shorter, less vivid, less visual, less emotional, and less active.
Others are more plausible, more concerned with current problems, conversational and more
vivid than others. This study discusses dreams that are perceived to have been utilized as
defamiliarization techniques.
According to Jung (1974:3), a dream is an autonomous and meaningful product of psychic
activity: Jung's view, and which this researcher subscribes to, is that the organic sensations
felt during sleep are not the cause of the dream, but playa secondary role and provide
elements upon which the psyche works. Consequently, the dream has to undergo systematic
analysis to dig out the hidden meaning, It may be argued that a dream, in whichever form it
appears, has meaning. Dreams have a psychic structure although they do not arise as other
conscious contents from any clearly discernible, logical and emotional continuity of
experience. The contents of dreams contrast strikingly with our conscious thinking. However,
in almost every dream examined, certain details can be found which have their origin in the
impressions, thoughts and moods of the preceding day and days of the dreamer.
174
A dream sh ult! therefore be viewed as resulting from the fusion of sul liminal el ';~1'nlS and D
combination of all the perceptions, thoughts and feelings of the dreamer, Bot l larcus a d
Faraday underscore the importance of dreams. Faraday for instance writes:
Dreams have a lot of importance and should not be ignored. On the contrary, they
could well have survi val value to the human species at its present stage of social
evolution by providing man with information about himself, which normally remains
hidden. Dreams can bring to our notice the much basic irrationality and
inconsistencies in the personality which constantly threaten to spoil our lives. Dreams
bring us face to face with all kinds of hidden talent and potentialitie we never knew
we possessed. In forming a bridge between body and mind, dreams may be used as a
springboard from which man can leap to new realms of experience lying outside his
normal state of consciousness and enlarge his vision not only of himself, but also of
the universe in which he lives (Faraday, 1972:37) ..
Dreams have also been described as the royal road to the interpretation of the unconscious
(Knight and Knight, 1965:223). Viewing dreams in this perspective enables this research to
see them as important symbolic forms, especially when they are utilized by a literary writer.
Some of the dreams under study reveal the unconscious state of the dreamer, when they are
interpreted within their textual contexts.
Dreams transcend wish-fulfilling discourses as Sigmund Freud (1965) views them. In a
significant way, they portray actual situations in a symbolic form. In his phenomenal book,
the Interpretation of Dreams, Freud postulated two central theses: that dreams have a
meaning accessible to interpretation and that they have a function. Dreams are expressions of
wishes and defences. According to Freud, the motive behind a dream is a repressed conscious
wish, which comes into contact with a thought or train. of thoughts during the course of the
day. Freud maintained that wishes are represented as fulfilled in the latent rather than the
manifest dream and it is the latent content of the dream which is continuous with mental life
and with which this analysis is concerned.
J I J
This means that dreams must be subj ct d to analysis in order to unveil their latent meaning.
Just as human life is not limited to one fundamental instinct, but builds itself upon a
multiplicity of instincts, needs, desires, physical and psychic conditions, so the dream canno
be explained by examining only one element in it, but the entire discourse of the dream. It is
therefore possible for a dream to have many interpretations. This study is interes ed in Freud
because he treated dreams as discourses worthy of studying.
The intersection between Critical Discourse Analysis and Freud's psychoanalysis is
established in the fact that Freud sees symbolism as an important aspect in interpretation of
dreams and the role of memory in the production of dreams. Freud admits that dream material
consists of fragments and residues of the preceding days and of earlier times. Interpreting a
dream means finding out its hidden sense, and to Freud, the meaning of a dream may not be
readily accessible to its dreamer. But the researcher must be able to find the origin of the
dream, the circle of thoughts and interests from which it sprang. Thus, in my analysis, I
proceed by tracing the path or chain of associations in the dream and relate this to the actual
situation of the dreamer. Like Freud, I see the interpretation of dreams as a way of opening a
window through which we can get a glimpse of the interior (the mental) apparatus. Dreams
are seen as coded expressions of the thoughts of the dreamer. Dream motif in this chapter
refers to the patterning of significant dreams by the authors under study to reveal something
about reality in a defamiliarized way. In this sense, the dream becomes a form of
defamiliarization technique where the author presents his message in a coded fashion.
I take cognisance of incidental details in a dream and draw freely from my knowledge of
general cultural imperatives which are vital in analysis of discourses. Based on Critical
Discourse Analysis, my analysis is only one of the many interpretations of the dreams in the
J IU
selected texts that take into c nsideration the contexts of the dreams and the dreamers
themselves. I acknowledge the fact that it is possible to reach dissimilar interpretations of a
drea 1 depending on the point of view one adop s. In this case, my analysis ap] roaches the
dreams as discourses in the post modern sense where meaning is seen to be highly fluid. In
the next sections, I interrogate various dreams found in the texts studied.
6.1.1 Mzee Shaaban's Dream about Mr. Bopa
Mzee Shaaban recounts his dream to Dude as follows:
Ingawa Pili nimemwacha mwaka wa kumi sasa, ndoto kama hizo hukaa zikiniadhibu.
Leo, pale nilipokuwa nikisinzia, nilimwota Bwana Bopa, yule Mwarabu tajiri, ati
akinifukuza na bunduki na kunitupia marisau; kanifumania na Pili ambaye sasa ati
alikuwa mkewe. Ile mishindo ya bunduki ilikuwa masikioni mwangu pale ulipolipiga
teke lile sufuria; ndipo niliposhtuka namna ile (Mohamed, 1989:35). (Although I have
been separated from Pili for ten years now, I always get such tormenting dreams.
Today, while I was dozing, I dreamt about Mr. Bopa, that rich Arab. He was chasing
me with a gun and shooting at me. He had just caught me having sex with Pili, who is
now his wife (in the dream). The sounds of gunshots were in my ears when you
kicked that pan. This is why I was frightened that way).
In this novel, Mzee Shaaban has been depicted as a lonely poor man who sells soup for a
living. In the above extract, he explains to Dude some of the reasons as to why he leads such a
lonely life. He tells Dude that he was once married to a lady called Pili. He tells him that
modern women do not love but pretend to love. He says that when they are approached by
any man for sex, they do not hesitate and sometimes they volunteer to offersex for money.
He goes on to reveal to Dude that at one time he caught his wife having sex with Bopa, a very
rich Arab. He did not do anything to the two but allowed them to finish the act. After a month,
he found her again with another man. This time he reported to her parents who apologized
profusely and he forgave her. She vowed not to repeat again.
But after a while, he again found her in a sexual act with another man. This time round, he
fought the man. The man escaped narrowly while he was looking for a weapon to kill him.
After this in ident, he divorced Pili for the s cond time and decided to Ii e alone. He VO', cd
never to accept her back again as his wife. But after some time, his anger cooled am! he
accepted her back thinking that she had now learnt her lesson and could not repeat the
mistake. To Shaabans amazement, he found her in the act again with his OWIl friend. He ran
aft r him with a sword as he fled away leaving behind his clothes. So he divorced his wife,
and this time round, vowed never to marry again in order to avoid being hurt by someon
whom he loved so much.
Shaaban reveals to Dude that the experience with his former wife has affected him. That is
why he constantly gets nightmares. He often dreams that he is killing somebody with a sword.
It is ten years since Shaaban divorced his wife, but he tells Dude of his latest dream. Dude's
dream reflects the circumstances of a person suffering from psychological trauma.
It may be argued that in this dream, the repressed feelings in Shaaban's subconscious are
being revealed. The fact that he confesses that he keeps having these types of dreams, shows
that his experiences have affected him. This is especially because in certain instances, he
repressed the feeling of fighting back. The rich are seen to have immense power against the
poor men even when their rights are contravened. The fact that in the dream, Pili is
somebody's wife, but Shaaban goes to have sex with her, reveals his suppressed desire to
revenge on the man who had sex with his wife. He may have never managed to actualize this
remote desire but he does it in a dream. In this scene the gun is a symbol of power and the
powerful in society. Bopa uses the gun against him after taking away his wife. This
demonstrates Shaaban's helplessness and fear coupled with insecurity as he nurses the desire
to revenge. Bopa's power emanates from his financial prowess, which by extension enables
him to possess a gun. This dream highlights the plight ofth poor in Mohamcds so it!,,.- IlnJ
the injustice unleashed upon them by the rich.
6.1.2 Dude's Dream about a Constellation of Stars
Dude dreams after he has had an ugly experience in the slums. On his way from the Island
with Amina, Dude passes through a slum. The slum is infamous for drunkenness and
lawlessness. While passing through this slum, some men stop him. It is as if they are in need
of help. Amina urges Dude not to bother about them. However, Dude stops to help. He sees
two policemen holding a woman. The woman appears very drunk. The men say that they had
saved the woman from gangsters. The drunken woman recognizes Dude. She turns out to be
Dude's childhood friend, Baya. On recognising Dude, Baya shouts "It is me Baya, your
lover.' Dude finds it difficult to ignore her because her words ignite the childhood memories
and he reaches out to hug her. This is a gesture Amina objects to.
Amina shows her jealousy when Baya condemns Dude for getting into a relationship with the
elderly Amina. Nevertheless, Dude accepts to carry the policemen and the drunken Baya.
Baya is bleeding profusely. Dude drives them to hospital against Amina's wish. This action
annoys Amina so much. This is why she takes the car keys from Dude when they arrive
home. Dude is worried that his relationship with Amina could come to an end. This would
mean that he goes back to a life of poverty. However, he proceeds to his house and goes to
sleep. It is in his sleep that he dreams.
The dreams revolved around a constellation of stars:
Mnamo milango ya alfajiri, Dude aliota. Ndoto yake ilikuwa fupi. Aliota yu pamoja
na Bi. Amina wametandika mkeka katikati ya bahari wamelala, anaangalia, nyota
mbinguni. Usiku ulikuwa wa mbalamwezi; Dude akaziona zile nyota zote zikiota
mikia na kuanza kupita na kupituka kama fashfashi. Halafu nyota moja kubwa,
l/Y
n ekundu kama mote, ilizuka il.asirnarna katikakati ya nyengine; ikaserna na Dud
kwa ile ile lugha aliyowahi kusema nazo kul ufukweni Weba:
'Mimi ni nyota OVlI; nimekuja badala ya nvota yako njema. Nim kuja kukwambia
kuwa dunia hii si yako; usiiamini.'
Kwisha hivyo, nyota ile ilitoweka, na zile nyengine zikasita fashfashi zake na kurejea
hali ya kawaida. Alifurnbua macho tu, Dude aliikuta taa yake nyekundu inawaka
ukutani (Mohamed, 1989: 132-133). (It was at dawn when Dude dreamt. His dream
was short. He dreamt that he was in the company of Amina. They were lying on a mat
in the middle of the sea and they were facing the skies. They saw stars in the sky.
There was moonlight. All of a sudden, Dude sawall the stars develop tails and begin
to criss-cross the skies. Then one of the stars, which was the bigge: t and brightest
stood conspicuously at the centre. It addressed Dude in a language he had heard being
spoken at Weba beach.
'I am an evil star, I have come in place of your lucky star. I have come to tell you that
this world is not yours. Do not believe in it'. After this utterance, the star left and the
others stopped their movement and things returned to normalcy. When he opened his
eyes, he saw his red lamp lit, hanging on the wall).
The dream echoes what happened during the New Year's celebration. The description of
Dude lying on a mat with Amina in the ocean is reminiscent of the two while at the beach on
Weba Island. They had gone for the New Year's festivities. A similar scenario is described
earlier in the text while the two are enjoying themselves (Mohamed, 1977: 116 - I 17).
While at Weba Island, Amina and Dude were happy. They are depicted enjoying the breeze
and admiring the beautiful stars. However, in the dream, the stars have tails and move about
in a strange manner. This signifies changed fortunes. The star, which delivers the message to
Dude, is big and red in colour. The Red colour signifies danger. In this case, the red star is a
harbinger of bad news. This foreshadows the turn of events. The love, which Dude enjoyed
with Amina, is no more. His star had shown bright when he accepted a relationship with
Amina. Indeed his fortunes were transformed through the relationship. He started living
luxuriously. However, the dream seems to be revealing to him that this has come to an end.
The star tells him that 'this world is not yours'. This is an indication to Dude that he was no
longer going to enjoy the comfort that he had been accustomed to. In a sense the dream
expresses the life of misery that awaits Dude. This dream also reveals Dude's fears after
I V
annoyrr.g Amina on tlli: fateful night. Ther arc all indications that nis rels ionship with
Amina may end.
6.1.3 Dud's Dream about Frog-like Creatures
Long after Dude had separated with Amina and married Shemsa, Amina's daughter, he has a
dream. The dream comes after he has had sex with Latifa, his sister-in-law.
Lepe lilipomchukua siku ile, aliota ndoto nyingi za mikasa; lakini moja ilizidi viroja,
Alikua yeye na Shemsa ufukweni mwa ziwa moja kubwa, Katika kuchezacheza, huku
wakirushiana maji na mchanga, mara yaliwazukia manyama manne. Manyama hayo
yalielekea kama mavyura makubwa ambayo yalikuwa yarnepandana. Dude na Shernsa
walipoyachungua uzuri, waligundua kuwa hayakuwa vyura karnili, isipokuwa sehemu
ya chini, Juu yalikuwa na vichwa vya binadarnu. Walipoyaangalia kwa karibu zaidi,
wakaona lile la chini lilikuwa na sura ya Bi. Arnina; la pili Shemsa; la tatu, Latifajuu
kabisa ni Dude mwenyewe. Kutazama vyema, aliona hili Dude lilikuwa na kitu kama
mkia uliojipetapeta na kuyazonga yale manyama matatu yaliyobakia. Hapo ndipo
Dude alipoamshwa na mkewe na kujulishwa kuwa hali yake ilikuwa taabani
(Mohamed, 1977: 170). (When he fell asleep that day, he had many dreams. In fact
they were nightmares. But, one of them was extraordinarily strange. In it he saw
himself with Shemsa at the beach of a big lake. They were playing; splashing water
and throwing sand at one another. Suddenly, they saw four creatures. The creatures
had the general appearance of big frogs which were heaped together. They studied the
creatures keenly and discovered that they were not real frogs. Their upper parts had
human heads while their abdomens were those of frogs. They examined them further
and noted that the one at the bottom of the heap looked like Amina, The one next to it
resembled Shemsa while the next one resembled Latifa, The one on top of the heap
looked like Dude himself. On closer observation, the one that had Dude's appearance
had something that looked like a tail that had coiled around the others and seemed to
be pricking the rest. This is when Dude was awoken by his wife who told him that she
was in danger).
The above dream comes at a time when Dude is feeling guilty over his actions. The author
explains that after a sexual encounter with his sister-in-law, he felt so bad for betraying his
wife. Due to this guilt, he gets several scaring dreams. The author singles out one of them,
which he says was the most frightening.
The dream has summarized Dude's sexual life. He has had sex with Amina and her two
daughters - Latifa and Shemsa. This is something unacceptable in most African societies.
Given that the author notes that Dude's latest sexual encounter with Latifa, had made him
ENY JTA UNIVERSITY llBRAR)
161
regret, indies res udes psychological stress du ~ to his guil: conscience. The strange creatures
rep "Csent r al human beings but who have been turned into animals by engaging in this kind
Of sexual relationship. The tail is symbolic of Dude's penis, which in the dream is pricking or
penetrating the three other creatures. This signifies coitus involving Dt de and the three
women.
The fact that he watches the creatures with his wife signifies that his amorous escapades ar in
the public domain. His wife has knowledge of his immoral activities. Ernest Jones (1965) has
observed that the frog is a phallic symbol connoting disgust. The frog is the unconscious and
constant symbol of the male organ when viewed with disgust. Viewed within this
understanding, the author demonstrates societal disapproval over Dude's actions.
6.1.4 Kudura's Dreams about Her Sons
In Kiza Katika Nuru, Kudura had two dreams. The first dream revolves around her son
Mbishi:
Pale kitandani aliwaza na kuivuta ile ndoto. Lo! Ilikuwa ndoto mbaya, nayo ilikuja
katika kumbukizi yake vipande vipande ... mwanawe Mbishi alikamatwa wizi, akawa
anapigwa na kundi la watu vibaya sana. 'Mwizi, mwizi .. .' alifukuzwa na kupigwa na
kila aliyemkaribia. Damu nyingi ilimmwagika kichwani. Kudura alipiga kelele, 'Si
mwizi huyo jamani, mwacheni mwanangu ... hakuna mwenye huruma dunia hii?
Jamaani!' Kudura alivutana na kundi la wanaume waliokuwa wakimshambulia
mwanawe. Lakini mkono mmoja wa mwanamke ungefanya nini? Waliendelea
kumhujumu mpaka akazirai na mwisho walimmiminia petroli na kumuwasha moto
(Mohamed, 1988:40). (While in bed, she thought about the dream. Lo! It was a bad
dream. It floated back into her memory in bits .... Her son Mbishi had been arrested for
stealing. A mob was administering mob-justice. 'Thief, thief .... ' they shouted and ran
after him. He was beaten by anybody who could get at him. Blood oozed from his
head. Kudura shouted, 'He is not a thief. Leave my child alone ... there is no
sympathizer in this world. Oh my God!' Kudura wrestled with some of men who were
beating her son. But what could the shouting of a woman help? They continued
beating him senseless until he passed out. Finally, they sprinkled petrol on him and set
him on fire).
Kuduras second dream is described as follows:
10~
T l'a Kudura ali ta ndoto .. vinginc ... Mumewe Bwana Juba, bur.duki mK0I10. i,
alikuwa akimfukuza Mvita na Kudura alirnkirnbi ia mum we kumzuia asimpi '(;'
bunduki mwana wao. Lakini marajarnbo la ajabu lilitokea, pale Mvita aliposita ghafla
na kumkabili babak huku akimpigia kelele, 'Haya nipige b induki, niue ukip nda,
lakini ujue. kitakachokufa ni kiwiliw ili changu, kamwe sio roho yangu. Roho yangu
itabaki mileJe kukubainishia wewe ni nani ... ' Na hapo ndipo Kudura alipoarnka
(Mohamed, 1988:40). (Again Kudura had another dream ... H r husband, Mr. Juba,
was carrying a gun in his hand. H~ was running after his son, Mvita. Kudura was
running towards Juba to stop him from shooting Mvita. But suddenly, something
strange happened. Mvita stopped suddenly and looked at his father straight in the eye
and he shouted at him, 'Okay you can shoot me, kill me if you like, but remember you
will have only killed my body and not my spirit. My spirit will remain alive forever to
testify who you are ... ' That is when Kudura woke up).
Kudura's first dream revolves around her son Mbishi. Mbishi is a difficult child to deal with.
He is depicted as a rebellious child within a poverty stricken family. Juba, Mbishi's father,
who is the head of this family has deserted it. He prefers to pamper his second wife,
Khaltiyy, instead of caring for his first family. The children are brought up by their
unemployed mother. Mbishi demands goodies from his mother, but she cannot afford them.
Mbishi does not understand why they lack basic needs while other families have plenty. As a
result, he is hardened and hates his father. The other children around look down upon Mbishi
because of his clumsy dressing. He develops a very rebellious personality and deep hatred
towards his father. Corporal punishment seems not to change him, thus making his father
more and more desperate. It is after caning her son that Kudura dreams.
There is no doubt that Kudura is psychologically disturbed due to her son's character. She
worries about the dangerous life that her son lived: 'Kudura alihofu jinsi ya maisha ya
mwanawe yalivyoungana na hatari. ... ' (Mohamed 1988:60). (Kudura was so worried about
how her son's life was connected to danger). The dream, however, reveals Kudura's own
fears about her son. This feeling could be stemming from her own experience of the practice
of mob justice in her society.
On anoth r I vel the drea n re 'eals Kudura's dilernrna. Although she does no condone th•.:'t
and 0 her forms of antisocial behaviour, he know that her son is a possible candidate. In t+e
dream, she denie that her son is a thief an is engaged in a spirited attempt to top th ~ m b
from lynching him. This dream is an exposition of Kudura' s ubconscious, understood withi I
Freudian interpretation that dreams are as a result of repressed wishes or fears which come
into contact with a thought during the course of the day.
Her second dream also reveals her fears about her eldest son, Mvita, who is hated by his
father. Mvita is a critic of his father and an advocate of the poor. He is critical of his father's
hypocritical religious practice, and wealth, acquired through improper means. Although
initially he is employed by his father, he is involved in sensitizing other employees about
oppression and his father's greed.
At the time when Kudura dreams, Juba is contemplating sacking Mvita. This is because he is
fed up with him. In a sense then the dream seems to be foretelling what is about to happen to
Mvita. But given that Kudura is aware of the hatred which Juba harbours towards their son,
the dream is a revelation of her instincts.
Throughout the text, Mvita has been depicted as a very strong willed character. It is clear that
his own mother is aware of this fact and this is why, in the dream, a defiant Mvita dares his
father to shoot him. This signifies that Kudura understands, in her subconscious, that Mvita's
personality could land him in trouble with his father. When Mvita is sacked, he sinks into
poverty without any source of income. The dream thus reveals Juba's cruelty to his family. It
highlights the plight of the poor and the deprived.
Later in th 3 novel, Juba organize for Mviia be killed b. a hit man. Mvi (I',' body L
discoverer in the night by his wife. The a rthor describe: the scene vividly:
Lo, pale penye kigunia palikuwa na baka na to ge la damu, . 'alma hakujijua. alipig,
mbio akakata kiza huku akiifuata michiririzi ya damu. Na mw isho mbali kidogo na
kibanda cl ao, mwituni, chini ya mti mkinda, Mvita alikuwa kanyooka mai i!
(Mohamed. i988: 247). (Oh, there was a drop of blood at the spot where ther was a
sack. Salma was confused. She ran through the dark following drops of blood. Finally,
she found Mvita's body lying under a tree, in the bush. not fa away from their hovel.
H was dead).
This instance makes Juba very happy. In fact he holds a big party at his palace to celebrate
Mvita's death. Looked at closely, the dream foreshadows what eventually happens to Mvita.
In a nutshell, the two dreams express both Kudura's inner fears about her sons and the level of
moral decadence in society.
6.1.5 Kitwana's Dream about Mvita's Struggles
In Kiza Katika Nuru the author describes Kitwana's dream that depicts his psychological state
of mind. The dream is obviously mystical and to unravel its meaning requires a deeper
understanding of the circumstances within which he operates. Below is the dream as
presented in the text.
Wakati huu ndipo ilipomjia ile ndoto aliyoiota jana ... Upepo .... ulivuma. Ulivuma
ukangururna katika bamsauti wenye kuogofya mithili ya mirindimo ya radio Upepo
ulimvaa Mvita ukamkumba, ukataka kumpeperusha, lakini alitia nanga huku akizuia
kanzu yake i1iyokuwa ikipeperushwa. Isimfedhehi, Na mbali kwenye bonde Mvita
alitupajicho na kwenye uwanda aliona nyasi zikisukwasukwa ... Alipokuwa akimuona
Mvita katikati ya nguvu za upepo, Kitwana aliwaza juu ya nguvu. Kuna nguvu za aina
ngapi? Upepo, maji, moto na ... na mwanadamu. Kuna wanaotinga kwa upepo na
kuna wasiotinga kwa upepo kama Mvita (Mohamed, 1988: I62). (This is the time
when he remembered the dream he had the day before. It was windy ... wind .... the
wind blew. It blew, and thundered in a manner that was scary. It was like the sound of
thunder and lightening. The wind rotated around Mvita. It was about to lift him up but
he stood firm and held his robe which was being blown away. This was to avoid the
embarrassment of being seen naked. But he looked yonder and saw grass being
swayed by the same wind. Kitwana saw Mvita in the middle of the whirlwind. He
thought about force. How many forces do we have? Wind, water, fire and ... and
human being. We have those who are moved by wind and those who are not).
IO.}
Kitwana's dream seems to reflect t c circumstances revolving around Juba and 11\ ita, hi:
son. I comes after Mvita has be n sacked from lis job b the f ther, whom he used to worl:
for. Juba has also thrown Mvita out of his home. It appears that he does not ",'ant to have
anything to do with him, M ita is reduced to a destitute despite the fact that he has University
education. Besides, his father is a very rich man. Juba has also divorced Kudura, Mvita's
mother, who joins her sons in destitution. Mvita is forced to do odd jobs as a porter at the port
for a small wage. Despite all the suffering, Mvita remains brave. He effectively utilizes his
knowledge to educate the villagers. Occasionally, he writes newspaper articles for the print
media. In the articles, he discusses social ills. In one of the stories he even castigates his
father's greed for money (Mohamed, 1988: 174).
Mvita's situation is indeed pathetic. The hopelessness of his situation is captured in a
pessimistic description:
Mvita ghafla aJigeuka nyuma kizal Akatazama ten a mbele kizal Kisha kushoto, kiza!
Na tena kulia, kiza! Na baadaye juu, kiza! Kiza hakikuacha nafasi (Mohammed,
1988). (Suddenly Mvita looked behind. It was all darkness! He looked in front. It was
all darkness! He looked sideways. It was all darkness! Then, he looked upwards. It
was all darkness! It was all darkness.
The dream coupled by this description of Mvita's situation show the difficulty condition in
which he is in. Kitwana, Juba's driver, knows the affluent life of his employer and the
destitution of his first family. The dream seems to be informed bythe dreamer's prior-
knowledge of the family. He finds Mvita to be a very strong man who has withstood the
problems in the whirlwind life.
In the dream, the whirlwind was about to lift up Mvita's robe. This would have embarrassed
him. The verocity of the whirlwind mirrors the extent of Mvita's troubles. Grass, in the
dream, represents the weak; those who cannot withstand the storms of life. That is why it is
IOU
S vay d b) he storm as compared to I\ vita who has stood his ground. He is strong willec end
cannot be shaken by wha is happening around him. Generall . the dr hill repie ems. albeit
symbolically, Kitwanas view of Mvita' personality.
6.1.6 Maimuna's Dream in Bobea about Animal-Like Creature
Maimuna dreams of animal-like creatures while in Bobea. Like dreams examined 0 far. this
one is equally mystical and involves super-human creatures:
Aliota nyama kubwa, nyama asilopata kuliona. Nduma kuwili labda. Kubwa kama
nyangumi. Halina miguu wala mikono. Na kila ncha moja lina jichwa kubwa. lcha
moja lina jichwa la panya, kubwa kamajabali. Jichwa hili limekasirika na kufumbua
jinywa lake, lililokuwa na mijino kama mikuki. Na lile jichwa lake la mende, kubwa
kama sufuria la pilau. Lina mikonga mirefu kama minyonyoro ya nanga. Jichwa hili
lilicheka na kumwitamwita Maimuna. Maimuna alikuwa anatetemeka. Naye
hakubanduka. Hatimaye, bila ya hiari alijiona ananyanyuka kutaka asitake.
Akalisogelea lile jichwa la mende. Alipofika hapo, nyama lilifunua zaidi jinywa, na
Maimuna alitumbukia na jinywa likafumba. Nyama hilo halikutafuna, kwa hivyo
Maimuna akapita na kuteremka tumboni. Na huko Maimuna alielemea kwenye jichwa
la pili. Akaona atatoka nje. Lakini jinywa lilimkamata kwa ile mijino yake. Maimuna
aliwana, na mijino ilimchopea na kumuuma vibaya vibaya. Mwishowe hakujijua.
(Mohamed, 1980:96). (She dreamt about a very big animal, an animal she had never
seen before. It was as big as a shark. It did not have limbs. It had many big heads. One
of the heads was that of a rat. It was as big as a rock. It opened its mouth angrily and
exposed big vicious teeth. The teeth were as sharp as arrows. The other head had the
semblance of a cockroach and it was as long as a big pan. It had tusks as long as
docking chains. This head smiled as it beckoned at Maimuna. At that time Maimuna
was so afraid that she did not move. Finally, she saw herself moving slowly towards
the big cockroach head which was beckoning her. When she got closer, the creature
opened its big mouth then Maimuna was sapped into the mouth and it closed. The
creature did not chew her and therefore Maimuna swam through the throat into the
stomach. While in the stomach, Maimuna swam into the second head. She thought
that she could come back to the outside. But she was held and chewed between those
big teeth. She struggled to free herself, but the big teeth mashed her into small pieces.
Finally, she passed out).
Maimuna had this dream while under the tutelage ofBiti Sururu. She was being inducted into
prostitution. Maimuna had just escaped from Pumziko where she had been practicing
prostitution under Mama Jeni. While at Pumziko, Mama Jeni accuses her of stealing her
money. In actual fact, Maimuna has not stolen the money. This annoys her and she decides to
LV,
leave Mama Jeni's house. Her friend, Dora, advises her to go to Bobea -h re she v,as t:\ nice:
Biti Sururu.
In Bobea, Maimuna expects a better life. but she is shocked by the level of poverty anJ
indignity. Biti Sururu introduces her to the patrons of her bar christened KIL Ml KWIKI BAA
(Kill Me Quick Bar). It is all celebration as she is welcomed to Bobea. Later, Biti Sururu
takes Maimuna to her house. They pass through stinking open drainages. There are no street
lights. She is taken to a room meant to be hers. The room is dirty and dusty. A lamp is lit
which the writer describes as being older than the owner (Mohamed, 1980:93). Maimuna is
shocked at the sight of the room in which she is expected to spend the rest of her life in
Bobea. The room has bedbugs and rats. she is apprehensive about the state of the room. But
Biti Sururu sees no problem with it and dismisses Maimuna's fears. She is then left alone in
the room to sleep. Maimuna finds it difficult to sleep. But finally, when she gets to sleep she
dreams.
The whole dream is symbolic of Maim una's life. It spans her life from the time she walks out
of her father's house in search of freedom to her present situation. In the dream, the creature is
frightening and mysterious. It has features of many creatures known to her; cockroach, rat and
a shark. At first Maimuna is hesitant to move towards this creature. Her reaction reflects her
hesitation to move out of her home into the world she longed for. The cockroach head, which
is laughing and beckoning Maimuna signifies Biti Kocho who kept talking to Maimuna about
the good life outside their home. The cockroach as a symbol is significant. A cockroach is
subversive and clandestine. Its operations go unnoticed since they are done under the cover of
darkness. Like the cockroach, Biti Kocho, Maksuudi's house help was subversive in her
operations. She knew all the secrets of the home and was of great influence to Maimuna. The
JUU
bccl.oninc of the cockroach head. ignifi . Koch 's influence and subs q I lit lurine of
Mairnuna. She promises her a better life outside the confine of the home. J'~O wonder ~:(I'::!.('
had to sneak out Mairnuna in the night because she knew that on this particular nigl1:,
Maksuudi n ver came back home.
Although Maimuna is hesitant at the beginning, she is lured by the smiling and beck ning Biti
Kocho. he finally finds herself falling into the trap. This is th beginning of her self-
destruction. Her being sucked into the stomach of the mysterious creature is symbolic of her
entrance into prostitution. The closing of the mouth is symbolic of the limited possibilities in
her life. She is destined for a life of misery till death. Ther is no turning back in Maimuna's
life. The stomach represents Pumziko where no much harm was done to Maimuna. In the
dream, she swims to the second mouth in which she is chewed by strong teeth into pieces.
This second mouth represents Bobea. This is the place in which she will undergo a
transformation into a hardcore prostitute. It therefore appears that the dream predicts what
eventually happens to Maimuna. Indeed, later in the novel, Maimuna is destroyed completely
while in Bobea. Maimuna's transformation is captured graphically:
Hata hivyo hakuacha kubaini kuwa uso wake kidogo ulikuwa umemparama - sio ule
aliotoka nao kwa mama Jeni, sio ule aliofika nao kwa Biti Sururu miezi sita iliyopita.
Ilikuwa kama ile pombe aliyoifakamia kila wakati iliyeyusha kifuta kilichomo
mwilini mwake. (Mohamed, 1980:114). She understood that her face was a bit rough
(unattractive). It was not the way it was when she left Mama Jeni's hovel in Pumziko.
It was not in that state when she arrived at Biti Sururu's place about six months before
... It appeared as if the beer which she took daily, dried all the fat in her body).
It is in this station that Maimuna drunk beer daily and entertained people at Rumbalola hotel
through her singing. Apart from the dream highlighting Maimuna's predicament, it reveals the
impact of prostitution on an individual.
6.1.7 Maimuna's Dream about a Python
As a hardcore prostitute, Maimuna also dreams about a python pur uing her:
Chatu kubwa lilikuwa likimfukuza 1aimuna. Alikimbia mbio. lakini kila alipotazama
nyuma chatu lilimwandama. Alifukuzwa kwenye uwanda usio kikomo wenye majani
na maji maji yanayoteleza. Nyoka alipata kasi zaidi na Maimuna alirejeshwa nyuma.
Kila rnara alianguka na kujiokota mbiombio. Hata hivyo, alikupuka uzuri. Pumzi
zilimfoka. Akahema huku moyo wake ukipiga upesiupesi. Mara kwa ghafla ulimzukia
ukuta mrefu kama mnazi. lIimbidi asite. Akatapatapa. Hajui akimbilie wapi. Na
nyuma chatu Iinakuja kama upepo. Alipiga kelele. Sasa aligeuka akalikabili chatu.
Hajiwezi. Pumzi zimemwisha. Mwi!i umemnyong'ony a kwa hofu na machofu.
Alipiga tena kelele. Lakini chatu halikusita. Kwa bahati chatu lilipofika karibu,
Maimuna alijishtukia kaota mbawa. Hapo hapo aliruka. Na file chatu bila ya rnbawa
nalo liliruka, lakini Maimuna alipokwisha uruka ukuta tu, mbawa zifimpukutika na
taratibu aliteremka chini. Alipoangalia uzuri mbele yake pale chilli, aliliona chatu
limemsimamia. Kichwa kimekaa tayari kumvamia. Sasa yu karibu naJo zaidi.
Akaligundua Iilikuwa na kichwa cha mwanadamu. Kichwa chenye sura ya babaake.
Chatu mtu Jikasita, likatoa uJimi na kuchekacheka.
'Mbio za sakafuni huishia ukingoni,' sauti lake kama radio 'Mbio zako zimefika
wapi?'
Maimuna hakuweza kujibu neno. Mdomo wake haukufumbuka. Alibaki anatetemeka.
Machozi yaJimtiririka. Alilipigia magoti hilo joka. Akaomba.
'Unanipigia magoti nini?' liliuliza tena kwa kejeli.
'Unisamehe usinile,' hatimaye Maimuna alijibu kwa kitetemeshi.
'Mimi babaako, nikule?'
'Nisamehe,' Maimuna aliinamia chini.
Muda ulipita.
Halafu, 'Nisamehe mimi mwanangu, mimi ndiye mkosa,' Maksuudi chatu-mtu
alibembeleza.
Maimuna alipoj iangalia tena alij ikuta hayuko tena machakani, bali yupo juu ya
jukwaa la Rumbalola, kavaa nguo zake za nataki. Umma umekaa kwenye viti na
babaake kasimama kwenye ule ujia.
'Nimekuja tena, usinikimbie Maimuna. Nimekuja kukuchukua urudi nyumbani.'
Huzuni ilimtunga babaake.
Maimuna alivuta hatua kutaka kumfuata babaake, lakini ghafla mbao za jukwaa
zilikatika. Akatumbukia chini kwenye handaki la moto.
Ilikuwa wakati huu ndipo alipoamka (Mohamed, 1980: 132-133).
(A big python was chasing after Maimuna. She ran, but every time she looked back
she saw the python in hot pursuit. She ran through a long stretch of green vegetation
with a slippery surface. The python increased its speed and Maimuna kept being
pulled backwards. She fell many times but she always stood up and continued fleeing.
She became breathless and her heartbeat increased. She started breathing heavily.
Suddenly, she came across a high wall. The wall was the size of a coconut tree. She
stopped. She was confused. She did not know where to run to. Yet the python was
following her in hot pursuit. She screamed then she turned and looked at the python.
She was desperate, she was breathless. Her body was weak due to fear and weariness.
She screamed again. Fortunately when the python got closer to Maimuna, she
suddenly grew wings. She flew over the high wall. But as soon as she was over the
wall, her wings came off and slowly she came down. The python also flew over the
wall and landed on the ground. She saw the python standing before her. Its head was
up ready to attack her. She noticed that it had a human head. It had her fath r's face!
he 'python-human' stood, stuck out its tongue and started laughing
'I have finally found you', he thundered 'Where has your running taken you?'
Maimuna did not answer. Her mouth was wide open and she shivered. Tears rolled
down her cheeks. She knelt before the python and pleaded.
'Why are you kneeling before me?' the python asked sarcastically.
'Forgive me, do not eat me' Mairnuna responded with fear.
'I, your father, 1 cannot eat you.'
Maimuna did not respond.
'When did Maksuudi become a cannibal?'
'Forgive me'. Maimuna said as he bowed down. There was silence.
'Forgive me my child. 1 am the culprit, Maksuudi, the 'human-python' pleaded.
All of a sudden, the python had disappeared and when Maimuna looked around, she
was no longer in the bushes, but performing on stage at the Rumbalola. She was
dressed in her costume. The audience was attentive and her father was standing in the
middle of the audience.
'I have come to take you back home'. Her father spoke with sadness. Mairnuna
stepped forward as if to follow her father, but suddenly the stage collapsed and she
fell in a big hole of fire. That was the time that she woke up).
This isa terrifying dream. To understand the dream it is necessary to look at what was
happening to Maimuna and her father at that time. Before Maimuna dreams about the python
several events take place. Maksuudi is depicted as lonely and desperate after all his children
run away from him. He also divorces his wife, Tamina. He sends Rashid to find out about the
whereabouts of his son, Mussa, daughter Maimuna and former wife, Tamina. Rashid comes to
visit him with a complete report about them. He is told that Maimuna has become an
entertainer at Rumbalola Hotel. He then requests his brother to take him to the hotel so that he
can plead with her to come back home.
His brother Rashid agrees and they travel to the hotel. They arrive early and find a suitable
place to watch Maimuna's performance. In an authorial intrusion, it is noted that Maksuudi's
aim in coming to the hotel is to 'save' Maimuna from the pathetic life of prostitution
(Mohamed, 1980: 121). Although he looks sick and weak, the crowd does not spare him when
he stands in the middle of Maim una's performance to try and stop her from performing. He is
beaten senseless by the angry mob and he is admitted in hospital, Mussa, now a doctor, treats
him and even donates blood for him. It does not end here. After recovering from the beating,
171
he still insists on meeting his daughter, Maimuna. As they plan to go to Bobea. Maimuna has
this frightening dream.
The dream mirrors the events of the previous days and foreshadows the future. A python is a
dan erous snake, which attacks by coiling and suffocating the victim before swallowing them.
In the dream, Maimuna discovers that the python has Maksuudi's head. It ther fore represent
Maksuudi. The dream also reveals Maimuna's own fears about his father: an extremely
oppressive and suffocating person. It is no wonder that Maimuna's life in Maksuudi's house
was difficult such that she could hardly do anything freely. This is why the dream depicts her
running away from the source of the suffocation; Maksuudi, the python.
The difficulties she experiences in the dream mirror the problems she underwent after fleeing
from home. Despite all the problems, she is determined not to go back to her father. Her
desperation is depicted through her screaming and breathlessness as she confronts the python
(her father). The dream depicts her growing wings and flying over a wall leaving the human-
python behind. This signifies the miraculous escape from the hands of her father on the day
when she ran away leaving the crowd disappointed and beating his father. But in the dream,
immediately she lands on the other side of the wall, the wings vanish and the python appears
again ready to pounce at her. This part of the dream is foreshadowing what eventually
happens to Maimuna. After the Rumbalola episode she thought she had escaped from her
father, but he reappears again. This reappearance is what the dream seems to foreshadow. It
shows that Maksuudi has not given up in his pursuit to bring Mairnuna back home. In the
dream, the python laughs, roars and says, 'Mbio za sakafuni huishia ukingoni' (Every race
has an end).
lY2
Maimuna fears pu ishment from her father incase she goes back home with him. Her fear is
-ividly revealed when she shivers and kneels before the python. Mairnuna is vare of the fact
that her fathe is not happy with her. This could be the reason as to why she keeps nmni. g
away frorr him. She fears her father's fury. That is why she pleads with the 'human-python'
not to eat her.
It is a surprise that the 'human-python', who in this case represents the father, asks for
forgiveness from her and admits that he has wronged her and not vice versa. It is notable that
Maksuudi's appearance and utterance when he finally makes a second attempt to get
Maimuna back home are reminiscent of the dream. He says, 'Maimuna mwanangu, sahau
ya!iyopita ... mimi babako nakuomba, mimi babako nakushika miguu. Nimekosa nimetubu,
sifanyi tena' (Mohamed, 1980: 144). (Maimuna my child, forget the past. I, your father, I am
asking for forgiveness. I have wronged you and I have repented. I will not repeat it again). It
is possible to see a connection between the reality and the dream. In the dream, the creature is
apologetic just the way Maksuudi appears apologetic the day he comes for Maimuna at
Bobea. The dream is therefore a true revelation of a reformed Maksuudi.
There is a sense in which Maimuna's childhood experiences with her father make it difficult
for her to relate well with him. This is echoed in the dream where she does not give attention
to the father's apology. In fact she sees herself performing on stage at the Rumbalola Hotel.
This could signify her hardened heart. No amount of apology or convincing can change her
resolve to continue with her life.
The collapse of the stage as Maimuna plunges into a hole of fire is significant. It basically
(
means that she would rather go to hell than follow her father back home. The dream
foreshadows what is about to happen to Maimuna. In reality her fath r actually comes to look
for her again at Bobea but she is still determined to continue with her life. On one level she
feels that she has already messed up her life but cannot bring herself to go back to her family
because of her fear of the father. The dream is interwoven with events of the past and the
dreamer's subconscious fears of the future.
6.1.8 Rosa Mistika's Dreams
In a significant way, dreams in both Kezilahabi's and Mohamed's novel reveal the influence
of childhood experiences on character formation. In Rosa Mistika, Rosa's childhood has been
depicted as that of an obedient, respectful girl who takes her parent's advice as paramount.
While joining form one, her mother advises her against destructive behaviour, which young
girls find themselves in. These include: teenage and casual sex. She is brought up by his
father who is a disciplinarian.
The earlier days of her secondary school are markedly uneventful since Rosa adheres to the
advice given to her by her mother. But this only earns her embarrassment and humiliation
because the other girls in school do not want to associate with her. This is because she is
consciously aware of destructive behaviour. Occasionally, she goes to town, but while other
girls socialize with boys, she remains aloof. One day, she overhears two boys talking about
her refusal to socialize with boys and they attribute this to her fear of the father who is a
disciplinarian. They even think that Rosa is abnormal. This is because she is a beautiful girl
r-
and yet she does not have a boyfriend. Rosa is disturbed by these sentiments. She decides to
go to a disco like the other girls where she dances with Deogratius. He holds her closely and
her emotions are aroused. When she goes back to school, she dreams twice in one night:
Baada ya muda usingizi ulimchukua. Alimwona baba yake akitembea barabarani na
mbwa. Mbwa huyo alikuwa amefungwa kamba shingoni. Mbwa aliona mbuzi. Alikata
ka rba na kukimbia. Alimrarua mbuzi vipandevipande. Rosa aliamka. Alilala. na
usingizi ulimchukua tena. Aliona kijana rnwembamba mwenye ndevu 11) ingi
akimtazama kwa macho yenye huruma. Rosa alipomwona alimkirnbilia na
kumkumbatia akiserna kwa sauti, 'Lazima unioe! Ukinikataa we we maisha yangu
yamekwisha; sina tumaini tena!' Rosa alitokwa na machozi. Mvulana alimbusu na
kumwambia.' itakujibu baadaye kwa barua; lakini unafikiri baada ya ku ... ' Rosa
aliamka tena. Sasa usingizi ulimruka kabisa (Kezilahabi, 1971 :32). (After a whil , she
fell a sleep. She saw her father walking along the road with a dog. The dog had been
chained at the neck and her father was holding the chain. The dog saw a goat. It cut
the chain and ran towards the goat. It attacked the goat and tore it into pieces. Then
Rosa woke up. She slept again and dreamt once more. She saw a bearded slender
young man staring at her in sorrow. She ran towards him shouting 'You must marry
me! If you refuse me I will die. I have no hope again!' Rosa cried. The young man
kissed her and said 'I will respond to you later through a letter: but you think after you
.. .' Rosa woke up again).
The first dream depicts Rosa's situation and what she hasjust participated in. The dog in this
dream seems to stand for Rosa who is still in her father's apron strings. She is controlled by
her father who will do everything possible to restrain Rosa from associating with boys. The
chain is a symbol of restriction. The fact that the dog forcefully frees itself from the owner is
symbolic of Rosa's break from her father's control. The goat is therefore an object of
plea.sure. It represents the life outside the chains in her home. The act of tearing into the dog
signifies that Rosa has plunged into this new life in search of the object of pleasure. Rosa has
finally broken the ranks of restriction and desires to indulge in any form of leisure.
Rosa cuts the chains when she decides to go for a disco and even dance with a man. The dog
in this dream devours the goat with pleasure; an act that signifies Rosa's eventual enjoyment
of the life she has adopted. The act of rebellion seems to give her a sense of pride.
The second dream fits within the Freudian concept of wish fulfilment. The young bearded
man in the dream signifies Rosa's dream-lover. He also represents all those men who have
had interest in her. She seems ready now to pick on one of them. That is precisely why she
wakes up and goes to look at the love letters she had received from them. The dream is
rem.n cent of Rosa's first boyfriend who wrot h I a letter that caused her trouble
(Kezilahabi, 1971: 7-8). Later in the star." this childhood boyfriend, Charles, comes to asl f' 'I'
her hand in marriage. The description of Charles fits the description of the young man whom
Rosa dreamt ab ut. Kezilahabi writes:
Alipofungua mlango kijana mwembamba mwenye ndevu nyingi aliingia. Ilikuwa
kama Rosa alikuwa akiota .... Macho yake yalionekana kuwa yenye hururna ...
hamfaharnu yule kijana, lakini machoni mwake aliona mchumba; alimwona bwana
wake katika ndoto (Kezilahabi, 197] :75). (When she opened the door, a slender
young bearded man came in. It looked like a dream to Rosa. His e -es were
sorrowful...she didn't know him but deep within her she saw a fiance. She had
already seen her husband in her dream).
It could be said that the second dream foretells Rosa's future. The facial appearance of the
man in her dream suits the description of the man who later comes to ask for Rosa's hand in
marriage. This is another example where a dream is presented as a wish fulfilment. It is
notable that in her dream, the young man appears sorrowful and in response to Rosa's request,
he says: 'I will respond to you through a letter later; but you think after you ... '. This response
should be understood in the context of Rosa's childhood experience with Charles. Charles had
written to Rosa a letter asking for friendship and the letter was discovered by her father who
beat and humiliated her. This is why, in the dream, the young boy is hesitant to grant Rosa's
request. The dream reveals Rosa's hidden regrets for many years. The author utilizes the two
dreams to show the importance of good parenting.
6.1.9 Emmanuel's Dream about Heaven and the Hereafter
Kezilahabi, unlike Mohamed, presents dreams about heaven and the hereafter in Rosa
Mistika. These dreams have been used to give an understanding of the unknown or life after
death. After the death of three family members; father (Zakaria) mother (Regina) and sister
(Rosa), Emmanuel has a dream. He describes his dream to his sisters. The dream is described
rn a dialogue. First, be explains th t the dream is about heaven and God is sea cd on his
throne. God is wearing big spectacles. One angel passes by carrying a piece of paper on
which is written 'Rosa Mistika's case'. The dream is presented below:
(Mungu amekaa juu ya kiti chake cha enzi. Amevaa miwani mikubwa. Malaika mmoja anapita
amebeba karatasi ngumu iliyoandikwa juu yoke "Kesi ya Rosa Mistika")
MUNGU: Rosa, kwa nini umejiua?
ROSA: Ee Mungu wangu. Haya yote yametokea kwa sababu ya baba yangu
(Baada ya dakika moja, ZAKARlA anaingia. Ana aloma nyeusi kifuani.
Anamsujudia MUNGll)
Rosa, ninakuuliza tena, kwa nini umejiua?
Ee Mungu wangu. Haya yote yametokea kwa sababu ya baba yangu.
Zakaria una usemi gani kujititea?
MUNGU:
ROSA:
MUNGU:
ZAKARIA:
MUNGU:
ROSA:
MUNGU:
ZAKARIA:
MUNGU:
Ee Mungu wangu. Haya yote yemetokea kwa sababu ya ubaya na udhaifu
wake mwenyewe!
Rosa: una ushahidi?
Ndiyo, Bwana. Ulimwengu mzima.
(Anamgeukia ZAKARIA): Na Zakaria?
Ulimwengu mzima, Bwana Mungu wangu.
(MUNGU anainuka. Anatoa miwani yake. Anafikiri. Anamwonyesha ROSA
kwa mkono).
Vere, Tu Rosa Mistica es! [Kweli, wewe ni ua waridi lenye fumbo!)
(Anaonyesha chini kwa mkono). Homines interogabo! (Nitawauliza watul)
(Anatoka, na radi kubwa inasikika)
(Kezilahabi, ] 97] :98).
Translation
(God is seated on his seat of judgement. He is wearing big spectacles. An angel appears
carrying a paper with the writings 'Rosa Mistika's case')
God:
Rosa:
God:
Rosa:
God:
Zakaria:
God:
Rosa:
God:
Zakaria:
God:
Rosa, why have you committed suicide?
Oh my God. All this has happened because of my father.
(After one minute Zakaria enters. He has a black spot on his chest)
Rosa, I am asking you once more, why did you commit suicide?
Oh my God. All this happened because of my father.
Zakaria, can you defend yourself against this accusation?
Yes my God. All this is due to her evil nature and her own weaknesses.
Rosa, Do you have witnesses?
Yes Lord. The whole world
(Addressing Zakaria), What about you?
The whole world, my God, (God stands up, removes his spectacles, thinks,
then points at Rosa).
Vere Tu Rosa Mistaka es! (True. You are surely a beautiful rose flower)
(Then he motions his hand towards the earth). Homines Interrogabo! (I will
ask the people on earth) (He leaves and there is thunder).
This is an interesting dream. It heavily borrows from the Christian understanding of life after
death. The dream interweaves Emmanuel's own experience of Christian scriptures and his
interpretation of the situation in hi home. rom the dream, it seems clear that Emmanuel is
aware of the events preceding Rosa's death. He is aware of his father's weaknesses as a parent
that may have imp, cted negativ I)' on Rosa. Rosa decides to take her life on the pretext that
Charles had refused to marry her. Indeed, Charles refuses to marry her because of her rotten
past. Rosa's character is a product of poor upbringing by her father. The dream depicts both
Zakaria and Rosa on trial before God. God prefers to adduce more evidence before passing
judgement. The dream shows the ambivalence in Emmanuel as he attempts to understand
what has happened to his family members.
6.1.10 Kalia's Dream about Heaven
In Rosa Mistika, where the above dream is presented, another character dreams of heaven.
Kalia dreams a few days before his sister Rukia and mother die. The two deaths devastate the
whole family because they come suddenly and unexpectedly. Rukia dies while giving birth to
a child which she conceived out of wedlock. Rukia's mother dies out of shock of losing her
daughter. Below is the dream that is presented as a dialogue between Kalia and Kazimoto:
'Hata! Nirneota nikiwa rnbinguni'
'Serna kweli!'
'Kabisa!'
Ulikuwa peke yako huko rnbinguni?'
'Tulikuwa wengi sana!'
'Tuseme mlikuwa katika hali gani?'
'Tulikuwa wote tunafurahi na mimi niliweza kuwatambua wenzangu niliokuwa nikifahamiana
nao duniani'.
'Mlikuwa na miguu na kila kitu?'
'Ndiyo, lakini tulikuwa hatutembei; tulikuwa tunakwenda tu'.
'Ulimwona Mungu?'
'Hata! lsipokuwa kila wakati tulikuwa tukifahamu kwamba kulikuwa na nguvu fulani juu
yetu, ambaye nafikiri ndiyo Mungu Mpenzi'.
'Mlikuwa katika rangi gani?'
'S ikuona rangi'.
'Yaani hukuweza kutofautisha kati ya Mzungu na mtu mweusi?'
'Mimi sikuona rangi'.
'Lakini, Kalia, kabla ya kwenda mbinguni lazima ufe'.
'Ndiyo'
'Unakumbukajinsi ulivyokufa, najinsi ulivyofanya safari yako ya kwenda mbinguni?'
, .diyo • 'iliwa na Baba 113 Mama wamezunguka kitanda changu, halafu baada ya muda
ilijiona hali yangu imegeuka. Nilikuwa nikitangatanga mara nilipow: ona wenzangu
wa akuja kunipokea. ilikuwa mbinguni tayari'.
'Ulivyoona wewe mbingu iko mbali na dunia?'
'Hatal Mara fulani fulani Mungu Mpenzi alikuwa anaturuhu u kuja ulimwenguni. Tuliw ana
watu, lakini wao walikuwa hawawezi kutuona. Halafu tulirudi. Tulipokuwa tunafika rnahali
fulani rnara hali yetu iligeuka tukajiona mbinguni lena. Hali hii ya kugeuka tulikuwa tumezoea
kuiita 'kupokelewa na Mungu Mpenzi'.
'Bado sijaelewa, yaani mlikuwa mkitembea kwa miguu?'
'Hapana, tulikuwa tunakwenda tu, halafu hali yetu ilizoea kugeuka na tukajiona mbinguni
tena.'
'Mlikuwa mnakwenda tu namna gani?'
'Kwa nini we we huelewi?'
'Kwa nini kila mara unasema Mungu Mpenzi?'
'Kwa sababu tulipokuwa mbinguni tuliona kwamba Mungu anatupenda vile kwamba tuliona
vigumu kumkosea kwa sababu ya aibu kubwa'
(Kezijahabi,1974:81-83).
Translation
'No. I dreamt that I was in heaven'.
'Say the truth'
'It is true'
'Were you alone in heaven?'
'We were many of us!'
'In what state were you'?
'We were all rejoicing and I was able to recognize those I already knew while I was on earth'
'Did you have legs and other parts of the body?
'Yes we had but we were not walking around, we were just moving about.'
'Did you see God'?
'Not really! But all the time we knew that there was some power over us, which I think was
Beloved God.'
'In which colours were you appearing?'
'I didn't see any colour'
'Does it mean you could not differentiate between a black man and a white man?'
'I didn't see any colour.'
'But Kalia, tell me, is it a must that before you get to heaven you must die?'
'Yes'
'Do you remember how you died and how you travelled to heaven?'
'Yes. I saw my father and mother besides my bed, then after a short while, I changed my
state. I was moving about when I saw others coming to welcome me. I was already in
heaven.'
'From your experience, tell me, is heaven far away from earth?'
'No. In some instances beloved God would allow us to come to earth. We would see human
beings, but they could not see us. Then we would go back to heaven. On the way we would
change our states and we could see ourselves in heaven once again. We got used to this
situation of changing from one state to another and we called it 'being accepted by God'.
'I have not understood this. You mean you would walk on foot?'
'No, we were just moving, then our states kept changing. We could see ourselves in heaven
again.
'How were you moving then?'
'Why is it that you do not understand?'
'Why is it that you keep referring to Beloved God?'
'Because while we were in heaven we saw that God truly loved us and we found it hard to
wrong him because we would feel so embarrased.'
This dream is a good example in which magical transformations have been interw ven in a
dream. The dream is an attempt at an explanation of life after death. It seems to insinuate that
death is a form of transformation. Whi Ie in this state, one finds it easy to go through other
multiple transformations. Kalia 'dies' and gives his own account to his brother about the
events after his death. In the dream, the dead peopl are depicted as happy and interacting
with God and even those on earth. The dream, therefore, depicts death as a state in which one
is merely transformed. Through this dream, Kalia and Kazimoto are prepared for the
imminent death of their family members. Without this dream, it would be difficult for them
to cope with the loss. In the dream, the dead are depicted as happy and they are continuously
loved by God. They also interact with the living who unfortunately cannot see them. This is
borrowed from African traditional beli f about death where death is viewed as a form of
transformation from one state to another. The revelation that there is always interaction
between the dead and the living is meant to encourage the living that the dead do not leave
them completely but continue to intermingle with them.
Both Mohamed and Kezilahabi have utilized dreams to effectively communicate to the
readers. The dreams have been used to reveal the character's inner fears. They have also
been used as wish fulfilment experiences. Some of the dreams have been used as flashbacks
to reveal the past. Some other dreams foretell and foreshadow future events. Dreams have
been used to explain the phenomenon of death and life in the hereafter. Generally the dream
motif has been instrumental in the understanding of the themes in the texts under study.
6.2 Magica Transformation
Ha ing looked at how dreams are used as defamiliarization technique. In the follov int:
section, I examine how magical tr nsformati ns are utilized in these works. It is important,
however, to first engage the problematic concepts of magic and magical transformation.
A cording to Bronowski (1977:20) magic is defined as having power over nature. Magic
simply depends on hitting the right key. He says that there is a way of having esoteric power
which d es not depend on generally accessible knowledge. He points out that one of the
aspects of magic is its tendency for the rituals to turn nature upside down. In order for magic
to work, nature has to be subjugated. Therefore, the subjugation of nature is the theme of all
magical practice.
Charney (1975) underscores the long history of magic. He says that far back before the
building of the pyramids, magic was a reputed art in Egypt. Egypt was the cradle of magic.
The magicians of Egypt contended against Moses at the Court of Pharaoh as recorded in
Exodus 10, 11, and 12. It was an art cultivated by the Egyptians, Chaldeans, Jewish, Roman
and Grecian priesthoods. Most societies of the world practiced and still practice magic as a
process by which spirits may be invoked and commanded. This is only available to a few
members of society who have been born with peculiar physical temperament. Most of those
who practice magic are viewed with awe and fear because they are believed to engage in
supernatural acts while under the influence of certain spirits. (The Oxford Book of the
Supernatural, 1994).
Magic can hence be viewed as a process used to influence the course of events by bringing
into operation secret or occult controlling principles of nature. Although most of the writers
2UI
who write about magic talk. about it as a thing of the past, Strassoerg (200 ) in fact sees magi:
as part and pa. I of everyday life. He writes:
Magic, r ligion, science, technology and ethics are components of cultures that co-
exist at every stage of the evolution of societies and cultures and are interconnected
and intertwined with each other within the web of relationships with other
components of social life and culture (Strassberg, 2005:307)
Strassberg sees the components of social life as undergoing changes under the influence of
each other and social and cultural factors that co-evolve with them throughout the history of
humanity. To him, magic and religion are systems that operate within the realm of human
faith - that is, a belief in a reality which cannot be scientifically tested. To those who believe
in magic and religion, there is no need for testing.
Strassberg further argues that magic, religion, science, technology and ethics are components
of cultures. They satisfy specific individual, social and cultural needs with different intensity
and with varying awareness of their operation. The complexity and fluidity of human
experiences allow for a fusion of magic, religion, science, technology and ethics into a single
impulse for action.
Malinowski, just like Strassberg, believes that magic, religion and science had co-existed
since the beginning of human society and that each has its own task. He maintained that there
are no people however primitive without religion and magic (Malinowski, 1974: I).
Malinowski advocates for a holistic approach to the study of society where society should be
analyzed as a whole, with the objective of understanding how all the existing cultural
elements were interrelated. He believes that both magic and religion grew out of emotional
stress and functioned as escapes from dlITicuh emotional SItuations that offered no solutions
by other scientific means.
From the for going discussion it is possibl to se a correlation between magic and art istic
expressions. Artistic expressions, including literary works, mirror social conditions. The I
express the world view of the society within which they are situated. Folkloristic forms.
heavily rely on magic to build conflict. Folktales, f r instance, appeal to us because of their
fantastic qualities. In building fantasy, the perforners rely on magic and magical happenings.
There is, therefore, a relation between the practice of magic and magical transformations. In
this study, magical transformations will refer to supernatural changes of events and characters
from one state of existence to another.
I want to argue that modern writers including those under study also borrow from social
perception of magic to attempt an interpretation of phenomena. This is why they utilize
magical transformations as a way of acknowledging other ways of seeing the world other than
those prescribed by science. It is also a realization of the inability of familiar ways of writing
to tackle issues peculiar to the African society. When magic is introduced in literature, it
becomes a technique of defamiliarization in the sense that it deliberately attempts to present a
situation in a strange manner thereby offering a new way of visualizing reality. I interrogate
the texts under study to see how literature represents multi-dimensional realities such as the
African faith in the living dead.
6.2.1 Magical Transformations in Babu Alipofufuka
Khamis S.A.M (2005) acknowledges the fact that there is a new crop of Swahili writers who
seem to adopt magical realism and post-modernist tendencies that 'adequately capture the
cacophony and decay of the East African societies' (Khamis, 2005:92). Among the texts he
mentions that have embraced this kind of writing is Babu Alipofufuka which is one of the
texts under study.
" heti d thematic orie taiion. This j"di t Khamis the e novels show a shift In aest eucs anAccor ng 0 ,
a drastic socia-economic and cultural change in a so iety ma;in fact an indication that
b rt mode that ma I have b come, flucnce artists and impel them to innovate, so as to su ve a < ••
mll
. . (Kh . 20G ,Q') \n ess e \\ \':,\.' ,inadequate in capturing the conte nporary situation am\ ' '- . - ,
from the usual mode, aimed at making societ toform of defamiliarization or deviation 1,
xamine itself more critically.
Babu Alipofufuka is a story of a character ca\\ed K \"\!
mother and father worked for a certain rich man. As an adult, he was elected as a Member of
Parliament. He is de kted \
languish in extreme ~o\lert)', He \s \\\d' l\duaY \C o~~ress\\le, boast\u\ and ins nsitive to the
plight of his people. K is symbolic of those who hold leactet h'\~\) ~ ~ it'(
continent.
Nothing seems to remind him of his moral obligation to his fellow human beings or even
those who elected him. The author utilizes magical transformations to depict the character of
K. In this way, the author interweaves the African way of interpreting life whereby the dead
often interact with the living in order to give direction in certain matters, It is within this
perspective that Mohamed tells his story in Babu Alipofufuka. In th.~ l\Q\l~\~
~a,,"1 zu'ka comes back to life to deliver a message to K and other African leaders.
~'Sl~t.,\<l\ili"\$~~'~~I'~:e(\' a e resurrected and come back to life after
dying a long time ago. Mzuka wants to speak to his grandson K, lllitian~ ther ~ ~ ~em
u s not be\\e e that the dead can come back to life and talk to the \i\'tn%,.it ~
204
pro lem: i for MZL ka to get K's attention. He tries to call hint by name, b, gestures awl
even to hold is heac and make noises to attrac his arten i 11, but all in vain.
After failing to catch K's attention, he decides to use another method. K has a big dog called
Doggy, which is well fed. Mzuka is aware that there are many hungry people going without
food while this dog is eating well. So, he decides to be stealing the dog's food and take it 0
the hungry. This is done In t riousl . V is disturbed by the trangc happenings. His dog
remains hungry yet he buys enough food for it. He dismisses his workers under the belief that
they are feeding on his dog's food. The fact that Mzuka comes back to steal the dogs food to
fe d the poor is a strong indictment of the unequal distribution of resources where a few rich
people have plenty, even for their pets, while the majority suffer the indignity of hunger.
Mzuka tries to remind K in this scenario that in African culture dogs are fed only after
everybody else has eaten. In our society today, things have changed whereby a rich man's dog
is more important than a fellow human being. This is what has annoyed K's grandfather.
The fact that K's grandfather has to come back to life in order to address K is symbolic of the
rich people's blindness towards the poor. K's grandfather does not give up on trying to catch
his attention. On his way to Neo-Casino, where he is to meet his friends from other countries,
Mzuka appears and this time 'enters' K's driver, Mzula. He then announces to K that he is
now the one driving the car, but K refuses to accept because he says he knows that Mzuka
died and cannot be alive. Finally, he reveals to him that he is his grandfather who has come
back to life with an important message to him. He insists that he would keep on pestering K
until he finally Iistens (Mohamed, 2001:22).
Later in the novel, Mzuka gives his reason for coming back to life. He has come with an
express goal to offer some advice to K who seems to be lost and unable to think about other
LV.>
people. He mentions some of the vices, such as land grr bbing in which K is involved. K's
grandfather disapproves of such acts. ((Mohamed, 2001: 72-75). Incidentally, it is Mzuka w11l1
dives K's car all the way to No-Casino. Here is a character who has undergon magical
transformation from the dead and has come back to life in order to speak to society. It
therefore means that both the living and the dead are aware of the injustice committed against
humanity. Mzuka is sounding a warning that he will not leave until K sees the sense in the
message he has brought to him.
Mzuka is endowed with supernatural powers. He can hear everything spoken even in his
absence. At Neo-Casino, K and his friends discuss about building a club where the members
will be meeting naked. Again Mzuka warns K against associating with this kind of plan but
the latter does not listen.
Mzuka represents the voices of reason. He is the embodiment of progressive forces
championing for justice, fairness and equal distribution of resourses. At K's office, Mzuka is
strangely aware of all that is in the files and tells K about the various complains lodged agaist
him by the poor. These include complains about unfair grabbing of land, bribery, inequality
in education and insincerity of the leaders. K and other leaders are blind to these complaints.
This has forced Mzuka to ressurect and attempt to make the leaders responsive. Through
Mzuka, the author reveals how difficult it is to make African leaders concerned about the
plight of the poor.
In a scene that interweaves dream and reality, Mzuka spends some time with K. He asks K to
join him on a journey to his birthplace. Incidentaly, K seems to have forgotten his birthplace.
Mzuka asks K to kill himself before they can start the journey. The act of killing oneslf is a
L.VI)
form of transformation. I essence, K has to be transformed from his physical boc'y and from
his current thinking. He adheres to the instructions and kills himself. The two are then
transformed into termites and they enter the roots of grass. The transformation of K from
human to spirit signifies his change of heart. He can now accept to take instructions from his
grandfather. Entering the roots of grass could symbolize K's resolve to get to the root of the
problem of his society. The two go for the long journey. On the journey, K learns the
difference between town life and the life of the villagers who voted for him as their Member
of Parliament. On the journey, Mzuka reveals to K about the paradoxes between the living
and the dead:
Si mbali wala si karibu. Dunia zenu zinapakana, lakini zinaachana. Ni papo kwa papo
lakini mbali kiasi cha kwamba wakisema mnawasikia, lakini hamuwasikilizi. Na wao
wanakusikieni mkisema lakini hawakueleweni (Mohamed, 2005:88). (It is neither far
nor near from here. The two worlds neighbour one another although they are
separated. It is just here but abit far. When they speak we hear all they say but they
(the living) do not hear us. But these ones here (the living dead) hear you but they do
not understand you (the living)
It is paradoxical that the two worlds are so close to one another, but yet so far away. The dead
are aware of everything that goes on in the world of the living. This state of affairs vindicate
our earlier assertion that the living and the dead are believed to intermingle in African cosmic
understanding of the universe.
Mzuka tells K that town life and village life are different. One is wealthy, the other poverty
stricken, one luxurious while the other is miserable. Through the journey motif, the author
underscores the betrayal of the people by the elite in modern Africa. From this journey, K
discovers that the environment in the village and the people have changed from the time he
visited last. The bushes which he used to see while growing up are no more, and the place has
turned into a desert. A 30-year-old man looks like a 60 year old. These changes signify the
deterioration of the natural resources of the African continent due to poor leadership. K is
':'.VI
shocked at the tun of events and starts reflecting. The fact that he start'> reflc ding n :11~
plight of the poor is an indication that there is hope for change if the other leaders are made 10
see the roots of the problem. It is notable that K only starts thinking about the poor in his
transformed state. It is in this state tha he redisco ers himself and realizes that he is useless
(Mohamed, 2002:91). As he moves around in his home, he continues to search himself. FOr
the first time, he is remorseful for his past deeds such as when he took away Sururu's wife
and married her.
All along, he is in the company of Mzuka who keeps reminding him of the oppression of the
poor by the powerful and rich members of society. In this transformed state, he remembers his
hypocrisy. He pretended to be fighting for justice and yet he was unjust in his deeds. We see
him remorseful and sorry for those who fought for justice, like his brother Juba, but are
languishing in misery. The author seems to suggest here that for the new crop of leaders to
change from their oppressive tendencies, something supernatural has to happen to them.
While on the journey, K witnesses a declined economy, collapsed basic infrastracture,
infringement of human rights and deterioration of physical and social life. He is made to see
his own shortcomings both as a person and as a leader. He visits his grandmother's house
from which he is reminded of his childhood. In his childhood, he always wished that he could
live in affluence like the Khalifa family that his parents worked for. This serves to remind him
where he came from. His wishes came to pass when he landed into leadership. Instead of him
acting better than the Khalifa's who oppressed his parents, he became one of the oppressors.
Through K's realization, the author reveals that it is only through transformation of the
oppressive members of society that they can see the reality of their injustice against fellow
humans. K is able to ome face to face with th pov rt . in the countryside and the miscrx of
the poor.
While still in his transformed state, K visits family members. Some food is prepared for him.
He is shocked to find they are poisonous potatoes. K is disturbed to imagine that people can
actually feed on such things. It dawns on him that things have worsened since his childood
days.
He realises that there are no drugs and hospitals in the village. One of his relatives is stitched
with normal stitching needle without anaesthesia, after attempting suicide. All these shock K
because he cannot understand how these people survive under such conditions. This
realisation only comes to him in his transformed state. In his normal life he was not aware of
this reality. In his transformed state, Mzuka takes him into the future. The situation is so
scaring and frightening. There are houses made of paper, tins, carton boxes and all manner of
strange things.
Still in his transformed state, K is made to witness corruption and how deep rooted it is in the
society. This is unveiled to him by making him use public transport. In his normal life as a
leader K cannot experience the problems associated with public transport. Leaders have
government vehicle and drivers. The public transport vehicle which K is made to use is in a
very bad condition. The irony is that the public transport vehicles have to be inspected before
and during the journey. Some of them have serious mechanical problems and cannot start
from the check up stations. Nevertheless, they are allowed to proceed with the journey. The
driver has to bribe all the way to avoid arrest on the journey. The roads are dilapidated. All
th .5<.' signify the rottenness and collapse of stru tures of ' vernance in Africa. The ami If)!
.ems to insinuate that th Afri an continent is headed nowhere with such leader as F.
While still on the journe .., Mzuka announces to K that his time with him is over. He then
hands over K to ajudge to answer charges of all the crimes he has committed. The judge asks
K whether he accept that he is guilty or not. K denies the charges. The judge throws him into
an ocean. K's refusal to accept responsibility reflects the stubbornness of African leaders in
accepting their failures. The verdict passed on K points to the fact that one day these corrupt
leaders will be answerable for their evil deeds.
K stays beneath the water for sometime. When he comes to the surface, he finds himself in
the year 2058 (Mohamed, 2001:148). This transformation enables K to experience life in
2058. The environment is uninhabitable for K. There are no means of transportation. Besides,
the place is deserted and inhabited by only old people. The young people have all run away to
Europe and America. This creates a new form of slavery for Africans in Europe and America.
By depicting life in Africa in 2058 as he does, the author reveals his pessimism of his
society's future. The author therefore attempts to reveal to the leaders in his society the
repercussions of their mismanagement of the country's resources.
After K's longjoumey, he is magically transformed back to his original self. On coming back
to his house, he finds that he has lost his job. He has lost everything, house, workers, cars, and
office. Because of this state of affair, he has nowhere to stay. His former house worker, Biye,
takes him back to his village. Two days later, his body is found hanging on a tree that had
been planted on his grandfather's grave.
.LJV
K '5 mysterious death after knowing the reality of the poor and coming back t life, is all, Ilti.
climax. He dies with all the knowledge learnt on the journe '. This knowledge vould have
been useful in changing the system of gevernancc.
Mysteriously, after his death, K appears to his family members: his children, Kidawa and
Bamkubwa, who are now destitutes living on the street. Like his grandfather, he tries to talk
to his children about serious issues of life but they dismiss him. He even visits hi old
colJegues to talk to the leaders just like his grandfather did, but they do not listen to him.
The author seems to be suggesting that there is need for those in leadership to undergo a kind
of transformation in their thinking and their way of doing things. The transformation needs to
be drastic if the evils in society have to be done away with. Ironically, the leaders are not
willing to listen and change. Generally, the leaders have no will power to deal with the
problems that bedevil their societies.
Throughout the texts, the author reveals that K gets strange and mysterious stomach upsets,
diarrhoea, emits foul smell and stinks underneath his arms. All this could be viewed as
symbolizing the rottenness of his life and that of the other leaders of the society. The author
has depicted the situation in his society where crude capitalism has been adopted. This has
resulted in political and economic pressure. The repercussions are catastrophic as revealed
through K's view of the year 2058.
Through this exposition, Mohamed manages to reveal how the African elites have lost
identity and instead embraced European culture. There is a lack of cultural self-understanding
especially among the class of Western educated and acculturated Africans.
6.3 Conclusion
In this chapter. I have analyzed dr ams and magical transf rrnations a dcfarniliarization
techniques. The analysis has revealed that dreams have been utilized by the authors of the
works under study to foretell and foreshadow what happens later in the novels. They have
also been used as avenues for wish fulfilment. In this sense, their meaning is unconscious in
the Freudian sense. The dreams, like folkloristic material, provide an outlet for fears that
cannot be expressed in a more direct way. In this respect, dreams like folklore deal with
anxieties within the self. Dreams have therefore been used in a fantastic way to reveal the
hidden desires, anxieties and fears of the dreamer.
It was also noted that Kezilahabi does not utilize magical transformations in the novels
studied. Through magical transformations, Mohamed the author of Babu Alipofufuka, utilizes
African mythology to reveal the African cosmic perspective. He specifically gives the African
understanding of the relationship between the dead and the living. The philosophy behind this
is that, death is not the final separation between the living and the dead. The living, the dead
and those yet to be born continue to interact. It has been shown that through magical
transformations, the author has succeeded in depicting the social, economic, and cultural
decay of his society. This has been revealed through the sharp contrast between K's lifestyle
and that of the rest of the people. Thus, the authors have succeeded in utilizing dreams and
magical transformations in delivering their messages more forcefully and symbolically. The
next chapter provides the summary, conclusions and recommendations of this study.
C APT R EVE;
Su mary, Conclusion and Rccom endation
7.0 Introduction
This study investigated the utility of defamiliarization techniques in the novels of Euphrase
Kezilahabi and Said Ahmed Mohamed. It specifically examined Kezilahabi's Rosa Mistika
(1971), Kichwamaji (1974), Gamba fa Nyoka (1978), and Mohamed's Utengano (1980),
Dunia Mti Mkavu (1980), Asali Chungu (1978), Kiza katika Nuru (J 988) and Babu
Alipofufuka (200 I). The techniques which were examined were metaphor, irony, synecdoche,
metonymy, analogy, symbolism, allusion, juxtaposition, dream and magical transformations.
The study sought to achieve the following objectives.
(i) To identify the defamiliarization techniques employed by the authors under study
(ii) To demonstrate how defamiliarization techniques are utilized in the works of Said
Ahmed Mohamed and Euphrase Kezilahabi in foregrounding meaning.
(iii) To explore how defamiliarization techniques are exploited to reveal the reality of
the social, political, religious and cultural contexts.
(iv) To uncover the ideological assumptions that are hidden in the defamiliarization
techniques utilized by the authors under study.
(v) To examine how esoteric devices are utilized as defamiliarization techniques by
Kezilahabi and Mohamed.
In addressing these objectives, the study was guided by the Critical Discourse Analysis
Theory (CDA). The tenets defining this theory enabled the researcher to interpret and situate
defamiliarization devices within their socio-cultural contexts. The applications of the
principles of this theory to defamiliarization devices utilized by the authors under study,
'::'IJ
r ealed interestinu findings on the relationship between the author" choices of
d familiarization techniqu s and their social, c iltural, histori al and religious cant xis. The
ne: t secti n presents a summary of the major findings of this study as established from
substanti e chapters.
7.1 Summary of Study Findings
Chapter One briefly reviewed some of the important theoretical and methodological issues on
the defamiliarization techniques and socio-cultural contexts, which have been raised in recent
studies and which inform this study. All the other intermediate chapters identifi d
defamiliarization techniques utilized by the authors under study and analyzed them to reveal
their ideological underpinnings and the reality of social conditions. The techniques which
were utilized by the authors were; metaphor, irony, metonymy, synecdoche, irony,
symbolism, analogy, simile, allusion, juxtaposition, dream and magical transformation.
Metaphor was found to have been used by both authors more frequently than the other
techniques. Mohamed utilized magical transformations while Kezilahabi did not use this
technique at all in all of his studied works. Both writers utilized the dream as a form of
defamiliarization technique to foregrounded meaning .
••
The study demonstrated that defamiliarization techniques are utilized by the authors under
study to foreground meaning. This was addressed in all the chapters. Chapter Two undertakes
to uncover the patriarchal ideological assumptions in the defamiliarization techniques
depicting marriage. The marriage institution has been depicted as an oppressive permanent
confinement. The patriarchal structures are revealed as being oppressive to women. Some of
the metaphors reveal that women are men's property and are perceived as objects of men's
'<""'1
pleasure. Through arious metaphors. the authors underscor the idea that women ha -e r.c
power in marriage. They are controlled, mar ipulat d and oppressed b 'm n.
he issu of gender roles within a patriar .hal ociety is also discussed. Though patriarchy
bestows power and privileges to men, this ideology is oppressive to both men and vomen.
Mohamed depicts women as object of pity due to their over-reliance on men, while men are
depicted as suffering the indignity of not being able to marry because of societal expect tions.
Due to changing socio-economic conditions, they cannot afford to provide for their pouses
and children. Mohamed has utilized irony to depict how Islamic religion entrenches
patriarchy in marriage. Islamic marriages in Mohamed's works present a patriarchal
exposition of marriage. It is clear that Mohamed contests these kinds of marriages by
satirizing them.
The issue of parenting within a patriarchal society is presented and discussed in the works
under study. Through various defamiliarization techniques, the authors show the effects of
patriarchal ideology on parenting. The ideology creates distance between parents and children
that is detrimental to the forrnatiqp of character. Through various techniques, the authors
challenge the ideology by showing its effects on the welfare of children.
Chapter Three discusses the defamiliarization techniques which the two authors use to depict
the problematic concepts of good and evil. This chapter analyses the defamiliarization
techniques with the objective of showing how they reveal the social and cultural contexts
within which they are generated. Some of the techniques also reveal how society views good
and evil in relation to motherhood, gender, sex and prostitution.
Motherhood has been depi ted as an i iporu nt role that women have to play once t icy get
married. Both Mohamed and Kezilahabi show that wives are expected to gi\ e birth to many
child! n. However, male children are preferred to female children. Through metaphor,
Kezilahabi reveals this pr ference and further shows how instability in marriage is comn on
until male children are born. He al 0 shows that bringing up girls was viewed as problema.ic
because girls were seen to be mentally inferior. The authors under study contest this
perception and call for a more progressive approach to gender relations.
Both authors, through metaphors, depict some female characters as evil beings and Satanic.
They are shrewd and cunning. However, Mohamed portrays women as possessing a rare and
unmatched intellectual quality. They could use this rare mental skill for their own selfish
gains. On another level, some male characters have been depicted as foolish and easily duped
by women.
The two authors also discuss the patriarchal perspective of sexuality. Both Kezilahabi and
Mohamed use the metaphor of 'eating' to refer to sex in which the woman is the one being
'eaten' by the man. The metaphor of 'ea~ng' with all other metaphors in relation to sex depict
women as entertainers of men in sexual relationships. However, some degree of ambivalence
is notable in discussing of the placement of virginity. No doubt, virginity is highly regarded,
but this is only expected of women and not of men. Again, both authors show the African
perspective on the issue of rape, incest and prostitution. Rape is depicted as animalistic and
unacceptable. Women who show excessive lust are viewed as evil, while for men, sexual
prowess is heroic and admirable.
Unli e Kezilahabi who presents only females as prostitutes, Mohamed has 1 otl, genders
practi: ing prostitution. Mo t of the techniqu s used to depict prostitution reveal that v 'omen
me the culprit for enticing men into prostitution. The techniques used in reference to
prostitutes borrow hea ily from th African context and reveal the African attitude and
p rspective regarding prostitutes and prostitution. Mohamed uses strong metaphors such as
litterbin, human waste, old fruit basket and the dog to show that prostitutes are entertainer,
dumping bins and useless.
A female prostitute is judged harshly by her society. Both Mohamed and Kezilahabi depict
her as shrewd. Modern prostitutes have been depicted by Mohamed as sophisticated. They use
their beauty and wealth to entice men and ensure that the men are 'glued' on them. Writing
from his social context and through the metaphor of the shark and man-eater Mohamed
reveals that such prostitutes are dangerous. In the face of such prostitutes, men are depicted as
helpless and vulnerable.
Men with multiple sex partners are depicted by both authors as heroes and are praised for
their sexual prowess. Again, this.seems to draw from the African context in which polygamy
was a respectable marital arrangement.
Chapter Four focuses on how the authors under study utilize defamiliarization techniques in
depicting poverty and desperation in their historical, political and socio-cultural contexts. The
objective of this chapter is to show how poverty and desperation is addressed through
defamiliarization techniques. Mohamed addresses the issue of poverty and desperation by
depicting chronic poverty as a historic factor of his society. He also shows that if the social
struc urcs do not enha lee eq al distribution of resources. education dues not n -cessarily
ensure tha one is lib rated from poverty.
Through metaphor, irony and symbolism, Mohamed r veals the indignity of pov rty. In a
sali nt manner, Mohamed shows the connection between poverty and prostitution. He blames
social structures as the root calise of prostitution. Prostitutes are depicted as impoverished, a
fact that leads them into the vice. Through the technique of juxtaposition, Mohamed r veals
that social injustice is one of the root causes of poverty in his society. Generally, the
defamiliarization techniques depicting poverty and desperation show that the poor are
deprived of good life by the rich through unfair and oppressive socio-economic structures.
The rich are also depicted as well connected politically. The analysis shows that the poor
cannot better their lives unless there is total overhaul of the socio-economic structures which
privilege the rich over the poor.
Chapter Five is a direct inquiry into the relationship between the choices of defamiliarization
techniques and the religious beliefs and practices of the authors under study. The study notes
that there is a direct link between-the choices of defamiliarization techniques and the authors'
religious backgrounds. In this chapter, the authors use the technique of allusion more than
other defamiliarization techniques. Mohamed alludes to Islamic teachings while, on his part,
Kezilahabi refers to Christian teachings. Both authors use their African traditional
understanding to depict certain aspects of life. They attempt to depict the problematic concept
of death and the hereafter through defamiliarization techniques. Death is discussed as a
transitional process that leads to the possibility of a better life after death. Mohamed, on the
other hand, depicts a form of judgement after death. These two depictions reveal the Christian
and Islamic perceptions of life.
~Io
Through allusions, Kezilahabi refers to Biblic I a ounts and teachings. To illuminate reality.
Kezilahabi alludes to traders that Jesus threw out of the temple as recorded in th Ne«
Te tament, the Eucharist, Joseph and Mary's experience, She pskin and the rod 0 Moses. Oil
his part, Mohamed alludes to 'Jihad', Nunhood and Satan. Both writers refer 0 the Bible' nd
the Koran as symbols. They are symbolic of the truth, the commandments of God and
wisdom. The analysis shows that in ord r to understand and interpret sorn of
defamiliarization techniques, one need to have knowledge of Christian, Islamic and Afri an
Traditional Religious beliefs.
Chapter Six examines the dream and magical transformations as defamiliarization techniques
used to foreground meaning. The objective of this chapter is to examine how Mohamed and
Kezilahabi utilize dream and magical transformations to communicate. Both authors utilize
the dream to foreshadow what is about to happen to the dreamers. The dreams have also been
used as a means through which the authors reveal the wishes of their characters. The analysis
of several dreams reveal that dreams provide an outlet of what cannot be articulated in a more
direct way. Some of the dreams reveal anxieties within the characters concerned. Generally,
the study noted that the authors have used dreams in a fantastic manner to reveal the hidden
desires, anxieties and fears of the dreamers.
Unlike Kezilahabi, Mohamed utilizes magical transformations in one of his novels, Babu
Alipofufuka. The study notes that Mohamed utilizes African mythology to reveal the African
cosmic perspective. In a fantastic manner, Mohamed utilizes the African understanding of life
and death to successfully depict the social, economic and cultural decay of his society. This is
particularly depicted through the lifestyle of K in contrast with those who live around him.
'<"1 '
The stud' noted tha the techniqu of magical transforma ion has succes f lly high.ightcd
a ath ' and decadence of the African continent.
7.2 Conclusions of the Study
In view of the summary of the major findings, this study makes a contribution to the
understanding of the works of Euphrase Kezilahabi and Said Ahmed Mohamed. Kezilah bi
and Mohamed make deliberate and strategic use of de familiarization techniques to foreground
meaning. All the defamiliarization techniques, which have been analyzed such as metaphor,
allusion, irony and juxtaposition have revealed important messages. However, metaphor
stands out as the most popular and widely used technique. The authors have utilized the
techniques either to show the way the situation is, or to cont st it and, therefore, make the
reader to see the reality in a different yet fresh perspective. The study therefore presents a new
way of visualizing the works of the authors under study and opens new possibilities of-
reading Kezilahabi and Mohamed.
It also concludes that the choices of defamiliarization techniques are ideologically motivated.
Most of the techniques discussed have revealed different ideological positions. Some of the
ideologies evident are patriarchal, as well as religious, drawing from Islam, Christianity and
African traditional religions. Kezilahabi has also revealed his existentialist philosophy in
some of his defamiliarization techniques. Mohamed, on the other hand, has revealed some
aspects of social realism in his depiction of the relationship between the rich and the poor.
Another significant conclusion is that analysis of the utility of defamiliarization techniques
reveals the social, cultural, political, religious and historical constructs of the African society.
Both Mohamed and Kezilahabi have drawn their techniques from their social, cultural,
political, religious and historical contexts. I has also been revealed that a fruitf I .nalysis of
defamiliarization techniques needs to take cognisance of the social contexts of the worl..
under study.
The study concludes that analysis of any literary work should be seen as a social process .• n
this case, literature is regarded as a mode of discourse, where the author engages in a kind of
discourse with his reader. Therefore, to effectively interpret the discourse, all discursive
aspects have to be put into consideration. It is only when this happens that the rich cultural,
social and historical knowledge is revealed.
An interesting conclusion from this study is that the esoteric devices engage readers' attention
and open new ways of visualizing reality. Through these techniques the message is
consequently forcefully delivered. ,
Hence, the present study answers all the research questions which guided it. It also achieves
the objectives on which it was based. However, there are some aspects related to the study
that could not be addressed because they were out of the scope of the study. Such issues
which need further research are stated in the following section.
7.3 Recommendations for Further Research
There is need for further investigations of related issues in order to enhance our understanding
of the use of defamiliarization techniques in literature. The current study addressed only the
novels of the authors under study. However, the authors have written other works such as
plays, poetry and short stories which utilize defamiliarization techniques. More research
needs to be done In order to establish the utility of defarniliarization tcchni ue JII other
genre.
This study has also established that while the authors under study depict the effects and
ramifications of patriarchy in their societ , in some de ices they challenge the soci tal
perspective. More research needs to be done about other Kiswahili literary writers to establish
how they view the beliefs and perceptions of their societies through defamiliarization..-- r------..
techniques. A possible enquiry would be, to find out whether the other writers reflect the-
changing African situation, through their choice of defamiliarization techniques. For instance,
the changing gender roles in society are worth a serious study in that regard.
The current study utilized the Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) Theory in analysing the
texts. This is a postmodern theoresical paradigm, which has possibilities of opening up new
ways of reading literary texts. Further research can be directed to other writers of Kiswahili
literature within (CDA) theory in order to expand the theoretical base of analysis of Kiswahili
literature.
The study has also established that interpretation of literature is a social process. More
investigation can be done about other aspects of literature such as themes and
characterization. Further still, defamiliarization, as earlier mentioned, is a wide term. This
study only considered a few of the defamiliarization techniques. Further research could be
done on other defamiliarization techniques such as neologism, parody, oxymoron, parallelism
and antithesis. In addition, there is need to direct further study on aspects of plot,
characterization, thematic concerns and some aspects of language at phonic and syntactic
levels.
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